Scalability

Scalability refers to the ability of a system, process, or organization to handle increasing amounts of work or growth without
losing efficiency.

Technology Example:
A cloud computing service is scalable if it can handle more users by adding more servers without slowing down.

Scalable Computing Over the Internet – Simplified

Computing technology has evolved significantly over the past 60 years, shifting from centralized systems to parallel and
distributed computing. Instead of relying on a single computer, modern systems use multiple interconnected computers over
the Internet to handle large-scale tasks efficiently.

Why is Scalability Important?

With billions of users online daily, data centers and supercomputers must process vast amounts of data simultaneously.
Traditional performance measures like the Linpack Benchmark are no longer sufficient, leading to a shift toward High-
Throughput Computing (HTC), which ensures high efficiency across distributed networks.

Real-Time Example: YouTube & Cloud Gaming

Platforms like YouTube and cloud gaming services (e.g., NVIDIA GeForce Now, Xbox Cloud Gaming) require massive scalable
computing power to process video streams, AI recommendations, and multiplayer gaming in real-time. Data centers worldwide
handle millions of simultaneous requests, ensuring smooth performance by dynamically allocating computing resources based
on demand.

Key Components & Their Roles:

1. HTC vs. HPC Systems

• HTC (High-Throughput Computing) Systems

o Uses disparate nodes (heterogeneous systems).
o Focuses on processing large amounts of small tasks efficiently (e.g., file sharing, data-intensive
applications).
 o Example: SETI@home, where multiple computers analyze radio signals from space.

. High-Throughput Computing (HTC)

HTC focuses on maximizing the number of tasks completed over time rather than raw speed. Unlike HPC, which
runs complex calculations on fewer high-speed processors, HTC systems prioritize handling many smaller tasks
simultaneously.

Key Features of HTC:

• Designed for applications requiring massive parallelism, such as internet searches, cloud computing, and
big data analytics.
• Focuses on batch processing speed, energy efficiency, cost reduction, security, and reliability.
• Used in data centers and enterprise-level computing rather than scientific supercomputing.

Real-World Example of HTC:

• Google Search Engine & Web Services:

When millions of users search on Google, HTC systems process countless queries in parallel across
distributed servers, ensuring fast responses.

HPC (High-Performance Computing) Systems

o Uses homogeneous nodes (specialized, high-speed processors).

o Focuses on high-speed computation for complex simulations.
o Example: Supercomputers like IBM’s Summit, used for scientific simulations.

1. High-Performance Computing (HPC)

HPC focuses on raw speed and computational power, primarily used for scientific, engineering, and industrial
applications that require solving complex problems. The speed of HPC systems has significantly increased over the
years:

• 1990s: Measured in GigaFLOPS (Gflops) (billions of floating-point operations per second).

• 2010s: Advanced to PetaFLOPS (Pflops) (quadrillions of FLOPS).

Key Features of HPC:

• Used in supercomputers that perform large-scale simulations, data analysis, and AI computations.
• Benchmarked using the Linpack benchmark, which measures floating-point calculation speed.
• Mainly used by a small percentage of users (less than 10% of the computing market), typically in scientific
research and specialized industries.

Real-World Example of HPC:

• Weather Prediction & Climate Modeling:

Supercomputers like IBM’s Summit or Cray’s XC50 simulate climate patterns for better forecasting.

3. HPC vs. HTC: The Evolution of Computing

Feature HPC (High-Performance Computing) HTC (High-Throughput Computing)

Focus Speed & Power (FLOPS) Task Completion Rate (Throughput)
Usage Supercomputers for scientific research Cloud computing, web services, big data
Users Small percentage (scientists, engineers) General public (millions of users)
Example NASA simulations, AI research Google, Amazon AWS, YouTube
2. P2P Networks & Clusters/MPPs

• P2P (Peer-to-Peer) Networks

o A decentralized computing model where computers communicate directly.
o Used for file sharing (e.g., BitTorrent).
• Clusters or Massively Parallel Processors (MPPs)
o Groups of connected computers working together in a centralized control manner.
o Used in data centers, AI processing, and large-scale simulations.

3. Computational & Data Grids

• Grids link disparate clusters and systems to share processing power and storage.
• Example: The Worldwide LHC Computing Grid used for physics research at CERN.

Three New Computing Paradigms

4. Web 2.0 Services & SOA

• Web 2.0 Services: Enables interactive web applications (e.g., social media, online collaboration).
• Service-Oriented Architecture (SOA): Helps applications communicate via web services.
• Example: Google Docs, where users edit documents in real time.

5. Internet Clouds & Virtualization

• Cloud computing pools virtualized resources for on-demand computing.

• Example: Amazon AWS, Microsoft Azure.

6. Internet of Things (IoT)

• Connects sensors, RFID devices, and smart systems to process real-time data.
• Example: Smart home automation (Google Nest, Amazon Echo).

Summary of Evolution

1. From Parallel to Distributed Computing → Computing power spread across multiple machines.
2. From Grids to Clouds → Virtualized, scalable computing over the internet.
3. From Cloud to IoT & Web Services → Integration of smart devices, automation, and real-time applications.

This evolution enhances scalability, efficiency, and accessibility for modern computing application

Different Computing Paradigms

Computing has evolved in various forms to meet different needs. The main paradigms include centralized computing,
parallel computing, distributed computing, and cloud computing. Each has its own way of managing and
processing data. Let's break them down in simple terms with real-world examples.

1. Centralized Computing (All-in-One System)

• Definition: All computing resources (processors, memory, storage) are located in a single system.
• How It Works: A single powerful computer (mainframe or supercomputer) handles all tasks.
 • Example:
o A bank’s central server that processes all customer transactions in one place.
o A library database where all books and records are stored on a single server.

2. Parallel Computing (Working Together on One Task)

• Definition: Multiple processors work together on a single task, either using shared memory (tightly
coupled) or separate memory (loosely coupled).
• How It Works: The same problem is divided into smaller parts, and multiple processors solve it at the same
time.
• Example:
o A video editing software like Adobe Premiere Pro that uses multiple CPU cores to render a video
faster.
o Weather forecasting, where different processors simulate different regions of the atmosphere
simultaneously.

3. Distributed Computing (Many Computers Working Together Remotely)

• Definition: Multiple computers (nodes) in different locations work together by sharing tasks over a
network.
• How It Works: Each computer has its own memory and communicates using message passing.
• Example:
o Google Search Engine: When you search something on Google, the task is distributed among
thousands of servers worldwide to fetch results instantly.
o Bitcoin Mining: Cryptocurrency mining is a distributed process where different computers solve
complex puzzles together.

4. Cloud Computing (On-Demand Internet-Based Computing)

• Definition: Uses the Internet to provide on-demand computing resources, such as storage, processing
power, and software.
• How It Works: Users don’t need powerful personal computers—they can use cloud-based services instead.
• Example:
o Google Drive or Dropbox, where you store files online instead of your personal computer.
o Netflix, where videos are streamed from cloud servers instead of being stored on your device.

Conclusion

Each computing paradigm has its own purpose.

• Parallel computing is best for scientific simulations.

• Distributed computing is used in web services like Google and Facebook.
• Cloud computing is everywhere, from Netflix streaming to Google Drive storage
Degrees of Parallelism

Parallelism in computing means doing multiple things at the same time instead of one after another. Over the years,
different levels of parallelism have been developed to increase computing speed and efficiency. Let's break them
down in simple terms with real-world examples.

1. Bit-Level Parallelism (BLP)

• What is it?
o Instead of processing one bit at a time, computers started processing multiple bits together.
• How It Works:
o Early computers used 4-bit processors, then evolved to 8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit, and now 64-bit
processors.
• Example:
o Imagine doing math on paper one digit at a time (slow).
o Now, imagine solving multiple digits together (faster).
o This is how modern processors work!

2. Instruction-Level Parallelism (ILP)

• What is it?
o Instead of executing one instruction at a time, computers execute multiple instructions
simultaneously.
• How It Works:
o Uses techniques like pipelining, superscalar computing, and multithreading.
• Example:
o Making a sandwich:
▪ Without ILP: You spread butter, then wait, then put cheese, then wait.
▪ With ILP: While spreading butter, you also get cheese ready!
o This saves time, just like how CPUs execute multiple instructions in parallel.

3. Data-Level Parallelism (DLP)

• What is it?
o Instead of processing one piece of data at a time, computers process multiple data points together.
• How It Works:
o Uses SIMD (Single Instruction, Multiple Data) and vector processors.
• Example:
o Without DLP: A cashier scans each item one by one.
o With DLP: A self-checkout machine scans multiple items at once using a large scanner.
o This boosts efficiency, just like how DLP speeds up computing.

4. Task-Level Parallelism (TLP)

• What is it?
o Instead of executing one task at a time, different tasks run at the same time.
• How It Works:
o Multicore processors (like Intel i7, AMD Ryzen) allow different programs to run in separate CPU
cores.
• Example:
 o Without TLP: You download a file first, then start watching a video.
o With TLP: You download the file and watch the video at the same time!

5. Job-Level Parallelism (JLP)

• What is it?
o Instead of focusing on small tasks, entire jobs or programs run in parallel.
• How It Works:
o Used in distributed computing where multiple computers work on different jobs at the same time.
• Example:
o Without JLP: A factory assembles one car at a time.
o With JLP: Different assembly lines build multiple cars at the same time!

Technologies for Network-Based Systems

Computers have evolved rapidly in the past few decades, becoming smaller, faster, and more powerful. This is
thanks to advancements in CPU, GPU, and network technologies. Let’s break this down in simple terms with real-
world examples to make it easy to understand.

1. Multicore CPUs and Multithreading Technologies

Computers used to have one processor (CPU) with one core, meaning they could only do one task at a time. Today,
modern CPUs have multiple cores and can run multiple tasks at once!

Example:

• Old CPU (Single-core): Imagine a single worker in a restaurant taking orders, cooking food, and serving
customers one by one.
• Modern CPU (Multicore): Now, imagine a restaurant with multiple chefs, waiters, and cashiers all working
at the same time. This makes everything much faster and more efficient!

How It Works:

• Each "core" in a multicore processor acts like a separate worker handling a different task.
• Multithreading allows each core to handle multiple threads (small tasks) at the same time.
• Example of multithreading: A chef cooking two dishes at the same time on different stoves.

Popular Multicore Processors:

• Intel i7, Xeon

• AMD Ryzen, Opteron
• IBM Power 6

2. The Growth of Processor Speed

How Fast Are CPUs Today?

• In 1978, the VAX 780 processor had 1 MIPS (Million Instructions Per Second).
 • By 2002, the Intel Pentium 4 had 1,800 MIPS.
• In 2008, the Sun Niagara 2 had 22,000 MIPS.
• By 2011, the Intel Core i7 990x reached 159,000 MIPS!

Why Can't CPUs Keep Getting Faster?

• CPUs used to improve by increasing their clock speed (GHz), but this caused too much heat.
• Solution: Instead of increasing speed, companies started adding more cores to process data in parallel.

Example:

• Old CPUs (Faster Clock Speed): Like a car going faster and faster, but it starts overheating and breaking
down.
• Modern CPUs (More Cores): Like adding more lanes to a highway so more cars can move at the same time!

3. Multicore CPUs vs. Many-Core GPUs

What’s the Difference?

Feature Multicore CPU Many-Core GPU

Cores 2-16 Cores 100s-1000s of Cores
Optimized For General tasks (word processing, browsing) Heavy data tasks (AI, gaming, video editing)
Parallel Processing Moderate Extreme

Example:

• A CPU is like a manager in an office who handles complex decisions.

• A GPU is like a team of workers, each doing a small, repetitive task very quickly.

Why Use GPUs?

• GPUs can process massive amounts of data in parallel (e.g., AI, Bitcoin mining, video rendering).
• Modern computers combine CPUs & GPUs for the best performance.

GPU stands for Graphics Processing Unit. 1️ CPU (Central Processing Unit) in Mobile Phones
It is a specialized processor designed to handle graphics • Handles general computing tasks like running apps,
rendering and parallel computing tasks. Modern GPUs are managing the operating system, and processing user
widely used in gaming, AI, video editing, and scientific input.
simulations because they can process thousands of • Modern mobile CPUs are multicore processors (e.g.,
operations simultaneously. Octa-core in Snapdragon and MediaTek chips).
CPU stands for Central Processing Unit. 2️ GPU (Graphics Processing Unit) in Mobile Phones
It is the brain of the computer, responsible for executing • Handles graphics-related tasks like gaming, video
instructions, performing calculations, and managing tasks. playback, and animations.
The CPU handles general-purpose processing and works • Works alongside the CPU to ensure smooth visuals
closely with memory, storage, and input/output devices. and high-quality rendering.
Modern CPUs have multiple cores to perform tasks faster and Real-World Example
more efficiently. • A phone like the Samsung Galaxy S2️3 Ultra has a
Snapdragon 8 Gen 2️ CPU and an Adreno 740 GPU to
modern moble which is involved either cpu or gpu: provide smooth performance for gaming,
Modern mobile devices, like smartphones and tablets, use multitasking, and media.
both a CPU and a GPU to function efficiently. • The iPhone 1️5 Pro has an Apple A1️7 Pro chip, which
integrates a powerful 6-core GPU for advanced
graphics and gaming.
GPU Computing to Exascale and Beyond – Explained Simply

A GPU (Graphics Processing Unit) is a powerful processor mainly used for handling graphics in computers, gaming
consoles, and mobile phones. However, modern GPUs are also used for high-performance computing (HPC), artificial
intelligence (AI), and scientific research.

How Does a GPU Work?

1. Originally designed for graphics: Early GPUs were just co-processors that helped the CPU render images
and videos smoothly.
2. Highly parallel processing: Unlike a CPU (Central Processing Unit), which has a few powerful cores, a
GPU has hundreds or even thousands of smaller cores that can process tasks simultaneously.
3. General-purpose computing (GPGPU): Over time, GPUs started being used for non-graphics tasks like
machine learning, simulations, and cryptocurrency mining because they are excellent at performing massive
parallel calculations.

Real-World Example of GPU vs CPU

Imagine you are in a kitchen:

• A CPU is like a chef who works alone but is very skilled—he does everything himself, but it takes time.
• A GPU is like a team of 100 cooks—each one does a small task (chopping, frying, stirring) at the same time,
making the process much faster.

CPU vs. GPU: Key Differences

Feature CPU (Central Processing Unit) GPU (Graphics Processing Unit)
Purpose General computing tasks Graphics and parallel computing
Cores Few (4-16 cores) Many (hundreds to thousands)
Speed Fast but focused on sequential tasks Slower but handles multiple tasks at once
Use Cases OS management, office tasks, coding Gaming, AI, simulations, video rendering

Modern GPUs in Action

1️ Gaming

• GPUs render graphics quickly so games look realistic.

• Example: PlayStation 5 uses AMD RDNA 2 GPU to deliver high-quality graphics at 4K resolution.

2️ Artificial Intelligence

• AI and deep learning require massive calculations, which GPUs handle efficiently.
• Example: Tesla’s self-driving cars use NVIDIA GPUs for AI processing.

3️ Cryptocurrency Mining

• Mining Bitcoin or Ethereum requires solving complex mathematical problems, which GPUs can do faster than
CPUs.
Memory, Storage, and Wide-Area Networking – Explained Simply
This section discusses how memory, storage, and networking technologies have evolved over time and their impact on
computing.

1️Memory Technology
Growth of Memory Capacity

• DRAM (Dynamic Random-Access Memory) has grown from 16 KB (1976) to 64 GB (2011)—a 4x

increase every three years.
• However, memory speed has not improved at the same rate.
• This creates a memory wall problem, meaning CPUs get faster, but memory access remains slow, which
limits overall performance.

Example: Imagine a race car (CPU) getting faster and faster every year, but the fuel (memory) supply system
stays the same. The car’s potential is wasted because it doesn’t get fuel fast enough.

2️ Disks and Storage Technology

Growth of Storage Capacity

• Hard drives grew from 260 MB (1981) to 250 GB (2004) to 3 TB (2011).

• That’s about a 10x increase in storage every 8 years.
• Flash memory and SSDs (Solid-State Drives) are replacing traditional hard drives because they are faster
and more reliable.
• SSDs can handle 300,000 to 1 million write cycles per block, meaning they last for several years even with
heavy usage.

Example: Think of hard drives as old cassette tapes and SSDs as USB flash drives. SSDs are much faster, just
like how playing music from a USB is quicker than rewinding a cassette tape.

Power and Cooling Issues

• As systems grow, power consumption and heat become major problems.

• Lower power supply and cooling solutions are necessary for efficient storage systems.

Example: If you overclock a gaming PC, it generates a lot of heat and requires better cooling to prevent
damage.

3️ System-Area Interconnects (Local Networking)

Different Types of Networking in Clusters

• LAN (Local Area Network) → Connects computers in homes and offices.

• SAN (Storage Area Network) → Connects servers to disk storage.
• NAS (Network-Attached Storage) → Allows computers to access shared storage directly.
• Clusters use Ethernet switches and cables to link multiple computers for better performance.
 Example:

• LAN is like WiFi in your home, connecting your phone, laptop, and TV.
• SAN is like Google Drive, where multiple computers access the same storage.
• NAS is like a shared USB drive that everyone in an office can access.

4️ Wide-Area Networking (WAN)

Growth of Internet Speed

• Ethernet speed grew from 1️0 Mbps (1️979) → 1️ Gbps (1️999) → 4️0-100 Gbps (2011).
• By 2013, 1 Tbps (terabit per second) network links were expected to be available.
• Network performance doubles every two years, which is faster than Moore’s law (CPU speed doubles
every 18 months).
• High-bandwidth networking enables distributed computing, meaning many computers work together as
one big system.

Example:

• Old Dial-up Internet (1990s) was like walking—very slow.

• Fiber Optic Internet (Today) is like flying on a jet—super fast.
• Cloud computing (Google Drive, Netflix, AWS) exists because high-speed networks allow data to move
instantly.

What is a Virtual Machine (VM)?

• A Virtual Machine (VM) is like a computer inside a computer.

• It acts as an independent system but runs on shared hardware.
• VMs solve problems like underutilized resources, application compatibility, and security concerns.

Example: A VM is like a virtual phone inside your real phone. Using an app like VMOS on Android, you can
run a separate Android system inside your existing phone without affecting the original OS.

Why Do We Need Virtual Machines?

• Big companies (Google, Amazon, Microsoft) use VMs to create cloud computing environments.
• Virtualization allows multiple users to share computing, storage, and network resources efficiently.
• A VM mimics a real computer, allowing different OS and applications to run on the same hardware.

Example: Imagine a hotel where each room is like a VM. Even though it’s one big building (hardware), each
room (VM) functions independently with different guests (OS and applications).

Types of Virtual Machine Architectures (Figure 1.12)

1️ Physical Machine (Traditional Computer) – Fig. 1.12 (a)

• A physical computer has:

o Hardware (CPU, RAM, Storage)
o An OS (e.g., Windows, Linux, macOS)
o Applications running directly on the OS
 Example: A normal laptop where you install Windows OS and run apps like Chrome, MS Word, etc.

2️ Native VM (Hypervisor-Based VM) –

Fig. 1.12 (b)

• The Hypervisor (VMM) directly

manages the hardware.
• The guest OS (Linux, Windows, etc.)
runs on top of the VMM.
• The hardware is fully virtualized,
allowing multiple OS to run.

Example: Think of a landlord renting

multiple apartments (VMs). The landlord
(Hypervisor) directly controls the entire
building (hardware), and each tenant (guest
OS) lives independently.

Real Example: VMware ESXi, Microsoft Hyper-V, and Xen Hypervisor.

3️ Hosted VM – Fig. 1.12 (c)

• The host OS (Windows/Linux) runs normally on the hardware.

• A VMM (like VirtualBox or VMware Workstation) runs as an application.
• The guest OS (Linux, Windows) runs inside the VMM.

Example: A hotel where the hotel manager (host OS) runs everything. Guests (VMs) stay in rooms but rely on
the hotel’s main system.

Real Example: Running Windows inside macOS using Parallels or VirtualBox.

4️ Dual-Mode VM – Fig. 1.12 (d)

• The VMM is split into two parts:

o One part runs as an application (user level).
o Another part runs with system privileges.
• The host OS may need some modifications for this to work.

Example: A co-working office space where employees share some resources but also have their own private
offices.

Real Example: KVM (Kernel-based Virtual Machine) in Linux

Why Use VMs?

Hardware Independence → A VM can run on any machine, regardless of OS.

Security & Isolation → A virus in a VM won’t affect the host OS.
Portability → A VM (including OS + applications) can be moved to another system easily.

Example: You can copy a VM like a ZIP file and run it on another computer.
VM Primitive Operations – Explained Simply

This section explains how Virtual Machine (VM) operations work. These operations help in efficiently using
hardware, managing applications, and making computing flexible.

We will break down each point with simple real-world examples to make it easier to understand.

VM Primitive Operations (Figure 1.13)

1️ Multiplexing – Fig. 1.13(a)

• Multiple VMs share the same

hardware.
• This means that different OS (like
Windows and Linux) can run on a
single physical machine.
• This improves resource
utilization instead of leaving
some hardware idle.

Example:
Imagine a food court in a mall.

• Instead of having separate

buildings for each restaurant, they share the same space.
• Customers (VMs) can choose any restaurant (OS) they like, while the mall (hardware) serves all of them.

2️ Suspension – Fig. 1.13(b)

• A VM can be paused and stored in stable storage.

• This allows you to resume it later on the same or different hardware.

Example:
Think of a video game console where you press pause and turn off the device.

• The game is saved and can be resumed later exactly where you left off.

3️ Provision (Resume) – Fig. 1.13(c)

• A suspended VM can be resumed on the same or another hardware.

• This is useful when moving an application to a different computer/server.

Example:
If you save a Word document on Google Drive, you can open it later on another computer without losing
progress.
4️ Live Migration – Fig. 1.13(d)

• A VM can be moved from one hardware platform to another while running.

• This is useful for server maintenance or load balancing.

Example:
Think of a hotel where a guest moves from one room to another without checking out.

• Their belongings (data and applications) move with them, and they continue their stay without
interruption.

1. Distributed and Cloud Computing System Models

• Distributed computing involves multiple computers (nodes) connected through networks like LANs, WANs, or
SANs to work together as a single system.
• Cloud computing builds on this by offering resources (storage, computing power) as a service.

Example:

Think of a ride-sharing service like Uber or Ola. Different drivers (nodes) operate independently but are connected via
the app (network) to provide a seamless experience to users.

2. Classification of Computing Systems

Table 1.2 in the image categorizes different computing models:

1. Computer Clusters:
o Multiple computers connected via LAN/SAN.
o Used for high-performance computing (e.g., Google Search Engine, IBM RoadRunner).

Example:
A university’s research lab where multiple powerful computers work together to process large amounts of data.

2. Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Networks:

o No central server; computers share resources directly.
o Used in file sharing (e.g., BitTorrent, Skype).

Example:
When you download a file using BitTorrent, you’re getting pieces of it from multiple users rather than a single
server.

3. Computational Grids:
o Computers connected across different locations to share resources.
o Used for scientific research (e.g., SETI@Home, TeraGrid).

Example:
Scientists worldwide using a grid system to analyze climate change data by sharing computing power.

4. Cloud Platforms:
o Virtualized servers providing computing resources over the internet.
o Examples: AWS, Google Cloud.
 Example:
Instead of buying a physical server, a company can rent storage and computing power from AWS to host its
website.

3. Clusters of Cooperative Computers

• A cluster is a group of computers

working together to act as a single
system.
• Clusters use high-speed networks
(Ethernet, InfiniBand) to communicate.
• Often used in supercomputing (e.g.,
weather forecasting, AI training).

Example:

Netflix uses clusters of servers to handle video

streaming efficiently. When you watch a movie, your request is processed by multiple servers working together.

Cluster Architecture Explained

What is a Cluster?

A cluster is a group of interconnected computers (nodes) that work together as a single system. These computers are
connected through high-speed networks (LAN, SAN, InfiniBand) and are used for tasks like supercomputing, data
processing, and web hosting.

Key Components of Cluster Architecture

A typical cluster consists of the following elements:

1. Nodes (Computers)
o Each node in a cluster is an independent computer with its own CPU, memory, and storage.
o Nodes can be homogeneous (same type) or heterogeneous (different types).
o Nodes work together but can also function independently.
2. Network Interconnection
o Nodes are connected using high-speed networks such as:
▪ Ethernet (Standard in most clusters)
▪ Myrinet (Low-latency, high-speed network for high-performance computing)
▪ InfiniBand (Used in supercomputing for ultra-fast data transfer)
o These networks ensure low latency (fast communication) between nodes.
3. Storage System
o Clusters use shared storage, such as:
▪ Network Attached Storage (NAS)
▪ Storage Area Network (SAN)
o This allows all nodes to access the same data.

Cluster Architecture
A cluster is a group of computers (nodes) working together as a single system. These computers are connected via a network and
share resources to perform tasks more efficiently
Example:Imagine you have a big task, like baking 1,000 cakes. If you do it alone, it will take a long time. But if you have 10 friends helping
you, the work will be done much faster. Similarly, in Cluster Architecture, multiple computers (like your friends) work together to complete
a task efficiently.
SOFTWARE ENVIRONMENTS FOR DISTRIBUTED SYSTEMS AND CLOUDS

Service-Oriented Architecture (SOA)

Imagine an online shopping website. When you place an order:

• One service handles payments,

• Another service manages the inventory,
• Another service schedules delivery.

All these services work together but are independent, so the payment service can work for different shopping
websites. This is called Service-Oriented Architecture (SOA)—where different services communicate with each
other over the internet.

Key Components of SOA:

1. Service (Entity): The main part of SOA that performs a task.

Example: A payment service that processes transactions for online shopping.
2. Communication Systems – These help services talk to each other. Examples include:
o SOAP (Simple Object Access Protocol) – Like an official document used to communicate.
o REST (Representational State Transfer) – Simple way to send and receive messages using URLs
(e.g., sending requests via a web browser).
3. Security – Just like you use passwords or locks to protect your house, SOA uses security layers like:
o IPsec – Ensures safe data transfer.
o SSL/TLS – Secure communication over the internet.
4. Message-Oriented Middleware – This is like a post office that helps services send and receive messages.
Examples:
o JMS (Java Message Service)
o WebSphere MQ (by IBM)

Grids vs. Clouds

Grids vs. Clouds: A Simple Explanation

Grids and clouds are both computing models that allow multiple computers to work together, but they have key
differences.
What is a Grid?
• A grid is a network of computers that work together to solve large problems.
• It connects multiple independent computers to share resources like processing power and storage.
• Grids are usually used in scientific research, simulations, and data analysis.
• Example: A university research grid where multiple universities share computing power to analyze scientific
data.
What is a Cloud?
• A cloud is a large network of computers that provides on-demand access to computing power, storage, and
services over the internet.
• Examples: Google Drive, AWS (Amazon Web Services), Microsoft Azure.
• Cloud computing is flexible; it allows users to scale resources up or down as needed.

Parallel and Distributed Programming Models

These models help computers work together to solve problems faster.
1. Message-Passing Interface (MPI)
MPI is a way for computers in a cluster to talk to each other by sending and receiving messages.
🛠 Example:
Imagine you and your friends are each given a piece of a puzzle to complete. Once all pieces are done, you put them
together to form a big picture. This is similar to how MPI works—dividing tasks among multiple computers and then
combining results.
MapReduce
MapReduce is a special programming model designed for big data processing. It splits a huge problem into smaller
tasks and runs them on many computers at the same time.

Example:
Imagine a library with millions of books, and you need to count how many times a word appears. If you do it alone, it
will take forever. But if 1000 people count the word in different sections and then combine results, it will be much
faster. This is how MapReduce processes huge amounts of data.

Tools using MapReduce:

1. Hadoop – A popular open-source framework for processing large datasets.

2. Google MapReduce – Used by Google Search to process web pages efficiently.

Open Grid Services Architecture (OGSA)

This is a framework for building distributed computing applications. It helps large organizations share computing
resources easily.

🛠 Example:

• Imagine a group of universities working on a big climate change simulation. Instead of each university using
their own computers, they connect their systems into a grid to share computing power and data.

Key Features of OGSA:

1. Trust & Security – Uses encryption (like HTTPS) to keep data safe.
2. Resource Sharing – Similar to Netflix allowing you to watch movies stored in different locations.
3. Scalability – New computers (nodes) can be added easily when more power is needed.

1.5 Performance, Security, and Energy Efficiency (Simple Explanation)

When working with distributed systems, grids, and cloud computing, three key factors determine their
effectiveness: performance, security, and energy efficiency. Let's break them down in a simple way.

1️ Performance
Performance in computing refers to how fast and efficiently a system processes tasks. It depends on:
Throughput – The number of tasks completed per second. More throughput means better performance.
Latency – The time taken to complete a single task. Lower latency means faster performance.
Scalability – How well a system can handle an increasing number of tasks by adding more resources (e.g., more
servers or processors).
Load Balancing – Evenly distributing tasks among multiple computers to prevent overload.

Example:

Imagine a fast-food restaurant. A high-performance one will have multiple counters and workers, quickly taking
and fulfilling orders. A slow one will have long waiting lines and slow service.
2️ Security
Security ensures that data and resources in computing systems are protected from attacks, unauthorized access,
and failures. It includes:
Authentication – Verifying users' identity (e.g., using usernames, passwords, biometrics).
Authorization – Making sure only the right people can access certain data or services.
Encryption – Protecting data by converting it into a secure code.
Firewalls & Antivirus – Preventing malware, hackers, and cyber threats.
Backup & Recovery – Making copies of important data to restore in case of loss.

Example:

Think of security like a bank. You need to prove your identity to enter (authentication), the bank keeps your money
locked (encryption), and it has security guards (firewalls and antivirus) to prevent robbers (hackers) from stealing
your money (data).

3️ Energy Efficiency
Energy efficiency is about using less power while maintaining good performance.
Lower power consumption saves money and reduces environmental impact.
Cloud computing and virtualization help in reducing energy waste.
Green computing uses energy-efficient hardware and renewable energy sources.

Example:

Imagine you leave the lights, TV, and air conditioning on all day. This wastes electricity. Similarly, inefficient data
centers use too much power and generate heat, which requires even more energy for cooling. Energy-efficient
computing reduces this waste by using smart hardware and software.