Electrostatics

Chapter One: Electric Charges

and Fields
 Contents
1. Electric Charge
2. Electric Force in
PPT1/3
3. Electric Field
4. Electric Dipole in PPT2/3
5. Continuous Charge Distribution
6. Electric Flux
7. Gauss’s Law in
PPT3/3
8. Application of Gauss’s Law
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTROSTATICS
A SPARK OR A CRACKLE SOUND IS HEARD WHEN OUR SYNTHETIC CLOTHES
OR SWEATER RUB AGAINST OUR SKIN, PARTICULARLY IN DRY WEATHER.
ALSO WE EXPERIENCE A SENSATION OF AN ELECTRIC SHOCK EITHER WHILE
OPENING THE DOOR OF A CAR OR HOLDING THE IRON BAR OF A BUS AFTER
SLIDING FROM OUR SEAT.
THE REASON FOR THESE EXPERIENCES IS DISCHARGE OF ELECTRIC CHARGES
THROUGH OUR BODY, WHICH WERE ACCUMULATED DUE TO RUBBING OF
INSULATING SURFACES.
STATIC MEANS ANYTHING THAT DOES NOT MOVE OR CHANGE WITH TIME.
ELECTROSTATICS DEALS WITH THE STUDY OF FORCES, FIELDS AND
POTENTIALS ARISING FROM STATIC CHARGES.
THE CHARGES IN A ELECTROSTATIC FIELD ARE ANALOGOUS TO MASSES IN A
GRAVITATIONAL FIELD. THESE CHARGES HAVE FORCES ACTING ON THEM
AND HENCE POSSESS POTENTIAL ENERGY. THE IDEAS ARE WIDELY USED IN
MANY BRANCHES OF ELECTRICITY AND IN THE THEORY OF ATOM.
 HISTORY OF ELECTROSTATICS
In 600 B.C., Thales, a Greek Philosopher observed that, when a piece of
amber is rubbed with fur, it acquires the property of attracting light objects
like bits of paper.
In the 17th century, William Gilbert discovered that, glass, ebonite etc, also
exhibit this property, when rubbed with suitable materials.
The substances which acquire charges on rubbing are said to be
'electrified' or charged. These terms are derived from the Greek word
elektron, meaning amber.
The electricity produced by friction is called frictional electricity.
If the charges in a body do not move, then, the frictional electricity is also
known as Static Electricity.
Frictional electricity is another name for triboelectricity - electricity
generated by friction. It's most commonly associated with static electricity.
Charge separation often occurs through rolling or sliding contact or
collision, usually between different materials.
 FRICTIONAL ELECTRICITY

If two glass rods rubbed with silk cloth are brought close to each other, they repel each
other.
If two ebonite rods rubbed with wool/fur cloth are brought close to each other, they repel
each other.
The two strands of wool/fur or two pieces of silk cloth, with which the rods were rubbed, also
repel each other.
However, the glass rod and ebonite rod attract each other.

Two kinds of charges

1. If a glass rod is rubbed with a silk cloth, it acquires positive charge while the silk cloth
acquires an equal amount of negative charge.
2. If an ebonite rod is rubbed with fur, it becomes negatively charged, while the fur acquires
equal amount of positive charge.
This classification of positive and negative charges were termed by American scientist,
Benjamin Franklin.
Charging a rod by rubbing does not create electricity, but simply transfers or
redistributes the charges in a material.
 The bodies like glass or plastic rods, silk, fur and pith balls are
electrified, i.e, they acquire an electric charge on rubbing against
each other.

Like charges repel and unlike charges attract each other -

experimental verification.
The property of attraction and repulsion between charged bodies have
many applications such as electrostatic paint spraying, powder coating,
flyash collection in chimneys, ink-jet printing and photostat copying
(Xerox) etc.
Electric Charge is defined as - the property of subatomic particles that
causes them to experience a force when placed in an electromagnetic
field.
The property which differentiates the two kinds of charges is called the
polarity of charge.
The triboelectric series is a list that ranks materials according to their tendency to gain
or lose electrons.
The process of electron transfer as a result of two objects coming into contact with
one another and then separating is called triboelectric charging.
During such an interaction one of the two objects will always gain electrons (becoming
negatively charged) and the other object will lose electrons (becoming positively
charged).
 TRIBOELECTRIC SERIES
It is the work function of a material that determines its position in the series. Generally
speaking, materials with higher work functions remove electrons from materials with
lower work functions.
The work function is the minimum energy that must be given to
an electron to free it from the surface of a specific material and
is a function of the material itself.
The relative position of the two objects on the triboelectric series will define which
object gains electrons and which object loses electrons.In the triboelectric series,
materials are ranked from high to low in terms of the tendency for the material to
acquire a positive charge.
If an object high up on this list (asbestos, for example) were rubbed with an object low
down on the list (silicon rubber, for example), the asbestos would lose electrons to the
silicon rubber. The asbestos would, in this case, become positively charged and the
silicone rubber would become negatively charged. The further away two materials are
from each other on the series, the greater the charge transferred.
Materials next to each other on the series might not become charged at all when they are
brought in contact with one another. Materials in the middle of the list (steel and wood, for
example) are items that do not have a strong tendency to give up or accept electrons.
 GOLD LEAF ELECTROSCOPE

It is a simple device to detect the presence of charge on any body.

Gold leaf electroscope has two gold leafs suspended from a metal(usually
brass) stem in a vacuumed glass jar and connected to a metal cap. The glass
is grounded with the help of a metal foil to make it be uncharged. It can be
used to :Detect charge: Body under test is touched with the metal cap. If
the leaves diverge, the body is charged and if there is no effect on leaves,
then the body is uncharged.
To identify the nature of charge: The electroscope is charged by a known
body(say positively charged body) and then the body is removed. Next, the
body under test is brought in contact with the metal cap. If the leaves diverge
further, the body has same charge(positive) and if the leaves come closer to
each other, the body has opposite charge(negative).
Identify a body as conductor or insulator: Take two electroscopes. Charge one
of the electroscopes so that its leaves will diverge. Then, connect the two
electroscopes by the object under test. If the leaves of other electroscope
 CONDUCTORS & INSULATORS

Some substances readily allow passage of electricity through

them, others do not. Those which allow electricity to pass
through them easily are called conductors. They have electric
charges (electrons) that are comparatively free to move inside
the material. Metals, human and animal bodies and earth are
conductors.
Most of the non-metals like glass, porcelain, plastic, nylon,
wood offer high resistance to the passage of electricity through
them. They are called insulators.
When some charge is transferred to a conductor, it readily gets distributed over the entire
surface of the conductor. In contrast, if some charge is put on an insulator, it stays at the
same place.
EARTHING/ GROUNDING
When we bring a charged body in contact with the earth, all the
excess charge on the body disappears by causing a momentary
current to pass to the ground through the connecting conductor
(such as our body). This process of sharing the charges with the
earth is called grounding or earthing. Earthing provides a safety
measure for electrical circuits and appliances.
 METHODS OF CHARGING A BODY
(A) CHARGING BY CONDUCTION
Charging by conduction involves the contact of a
charged object to a neutral object. Hence when an
uncharged conductor is brought in contact with a
charged conductor, charge is shared between the two
conductors and hence the uncharged conductor gets
(A)
charged. During charging by conduction, both objects
acquire the same type of charge.

1.Bring a negatively charged rod close to the metallic sphere.

(B) CHARGING BY INDUCTION
2.As the rod is brought close to the sphere, the free electrons
in the sphere move away due to repulsion and start piling up at
the farther end. 3.The near end becomes positively charged
due to deficit of electrons. 4.This process of charge
distribution stops when the net force on the free electrons
inside the metal is zero. 5.Connect the sphere to the ground by
a conducting wire. The electrons will flow to the ground while
the positive charges at the near end will remain held there due
to the attractive force of the negative charges on the rod.
6.Disconnect the sphere from the ground. The positive charge
continues to be held at the near end. 7.Remove the electrified
rod. The positive charge will spread uniformly over the sphere
as shown
 BASIC PROPERTIES OF CHARGES
Charges are additive in nature.
Charges are scalars and can be added directly.
Let's say a system contains q1,q2,q3,q4……….qn,
then the net charge of the entire system will be
= q1 + q2 + q3 + q4 + ………………………..+ qn

Charge is conserved
Charges can neither be created nor be destroyed but
can be transferred from one body to another by certain
methods like conduction and induction. When two
bodies are rubbed against each other, transfer of
electrons occur from one body to another.

Quantisation of charge
Experimentally it is established that all free charges are integral multiples of a
basic unit of charge denoted by e. Thus charge q on a body is always given by q
= ne
The basic unit of charge is the charge acquired by an electron or proton. By
convention we take charge on the electron as negative and denote it as “-e” and
charge on a proton is simply “e” = 1.6 x 10-19 C
 S.I UNIT OF CHARGE
Symbol of : Positive charge is q (or) Q
Negative chare is –q (or) –Q

S.I unit of charge is coulomb

Representation of coulomb is C

No. of electrons in 1C of charge : 6 × 1018 electrons

Definition of 1 coulomb:
1 coulomb is defined as the amount of charge carried by 6 × 1018 electrons.
( 1 coulomb can also be defined using the mathematical form of Coulomb’s law in
electrostatics)

NOTE: Charges of this large magnitude are seldom encountered and hence we use
smaller units 1 µC (micro coulomb) = 10–6 C or 1 mC (milli coulomb) = 10–3 C
 COULOMB’S LAW IN ELECTROSTATICS
Coulomb’s law is a quantitative statement about the force between two
point charges.
( When the linear size of charged bodies are much smaller than the distance
separating them, the size may be ignored and the charged bodies are treated as
point charges).
STATEMENT OF COULOMB’S LAW:
The force of interaction between two point charges varies
inversely as the square of the distance between the charges
and directly proportional to the product of the magnitude of
the two charges and acts along the line joining the two
charges.
If two point charges q1, q2 are separated by a distance r in vacuum, the magnitude of
the force (F) between them is given by

F = k q1 q2
2
r

Where k is a constant of proportionality called Coulomb’s constant whose value in S.I

units is 9 × 109 Nm2C-2
 DEFINITION OF 1C

F = k q 1 q2
r2
If q1 = q2 = 1 C, r = 1 m ,
then, F = 9 × 109 N
Hence,
1 C is the charge that when placed at a distance of 1 m from another charge
of the same magnitude in vacuum experiences an electrical force of repulsion
of magnitude 9 × 109 N

One coulomb is too big a unit to be used as it is the charge carried by 6x10 18
electrons.
In practice, in electrostatics, smaller units like 1 mC or 1 µC are used.
 PERMITTIVITY
The constant ‘k’ in the equation for Coulomb’s law,
F = k q1 q2
2
r
is usually put as k = 1/4 πε 0 when charges are placed in vacuum or free space.
Therefore, Fv = 1 q1 q2
4 πε 0 r 2

ε0 is called the permittivity of free space. The value of ε 0 in S.I units is

ε0 = 8.854 × 10–12 C2 N–1m–2

If the charges are placed in any medium of permittivity ‘ε’, then the force of interaction between
the two charges can be written as,
F = 1 q q
m 1 2

4 πε r2
{The absolute permittivity, often simply called permittivity and denoted by the Greek
letter ε (epsilon), is a measure of the electric polarizability of a dielectric}.
((A dielectric is an electrical insulator that can be polarized by an applied electric field. When a
dielectric material is placed in an electric field, electric charges do not flow through the material as
they do in an electrical conductor but only slightly shift from their average equilibrium positions
causing dielectric polarization.
Polarizability is the ability to form instantaneous dipoles.))
 RELATIVE PERMITTIVITY (εr)

Permittivity is a material property that affects the Coulomb force between two
point charges in the material.
Relative permittivity is the factor by which the electric field between the charges is
decreased relative to vacuum.
DEFINITION:
Fv = 1 q1 q2 X 4 πε r2
Fm 4 πε0 r2 q1 q2
Fv ε
= = εr
Fm ε0

Relative permittivity (εr) is defined as

(a) the ratio of permittivity of a medium (ε) to permittivity of free space (ε 0)

(b) the ratio of force (Fv) between two charges separated by a certain distance in

vacuum to the force (Fm) between the same two charges separated by the same
distance in a given medium.
COULOMB’S LAW OBEYS NEWTON’S III
LAW

F21 → Force by q2 on q1 = kq1q2

(r21)2
F12 → Force by q1 on q2 = kq1q2
(r12)2
But, r12 = - r21
Therefore, F12 = - F21

Thus, Coulomb’s law agrees with Newton’s third law.

 FORCES BETWEEN MULTIPLE CHARGES
Force on any charge due to a number of other charges is
the vector sum of all the forces on that charge due to the
other charges, taken one at a time. The individual forces
are unaffected due to the presence of other charges. This is
termed as the principle of superposition.
The principle of superposition says that in a system of charges q 1, q2, ..., qn, the force
on q1 due to q2 is the same as given by Coulomb’s law, i.e., it is unaffected by the
presence of the other charges q3, q4, ..., qn. The total force F1 on the
charge q1, due to all other charges is the vector sum of all
the forces acting on that charge due to other charges taken
one at a time.
 ELECTRIC FIELD
An electric field is the space surrounding an electric charge (source charge) in
which force of attraction or repulsion is exerted on other charges (say, test charge) by
the source charge.

Electric fields are created by electric charges, or by time-

varying magnetic fields.

Electric field intensity is the measure of intensity or strength of electrical force (F) per
unit charge (q0) at any given point in the electric field. It is denoted by the letter E and
its S.I Unit is Newton per Coulomb (N/C)
The electric field intensity at a point due to a source charge is
the ratio of the force acting on a test charge q0 at that point to
the magnitude of the charge q0,
E = F/qo (direction of E is same as the
direction of F)
DERIVATION FOR E

The force F exerted by a charge Q on a charge q0 is given as,

F = k Q q0 ( from Coulomb’s law of electrostatics)
2
r
Therefore , E = F/q0 = kQ q0 = kQ
2 2
r q0 r
The charge Q, which is producing the electric field, is called
a source charge and the charge q, which tests the effect of a
source charge, is called a test charge.
Note that: the source charge Q must remain at its
original location. However, if a charge q is brought at any
point around Q, Q itself is bound to experience an electrical
force due to q and will tend to move.
A way out of this difficulty is to make q negligibly small.
The force F is then negligibly small but the ratio F/q is finite
and defines the electric field:
 ELECTRIC FIELD LINES
A very useful means of visually representing the vector nature of an electric field is
through the use of electric field lines or electric lines of force.
Electric field lines are imaginary lines along which a unit , positive charge
(called test charge) would accelerate when free to do so in the absence of
any other external forces.
PROPERTIES:
1. Electric field lines are straight lines for isolated charges - directed away

from an isolated positive source charge but directed towards an isolated

negative source charge.
2. Electric field lines always start from a positive charge and end

(terminate)on a negative charge. They do not form closed loops.

3. Electric field lines can never cross each other.

Reason: If two electric field lines cross at a point, then a test charge placed at that point
can move in two different directions simultaneously specified by the two tangents
drawn at that point. This is physically impossible.
4. Tangent drawn at any point to an electric field gives the direction of the
electric field at that point.
4. Number of electric field lines emerging or terminating on a charge is

proportional to the ratio of the magnitude of the charge to ε0 .

5. They possess lateral pressure and longitudinal tension.

6.
Electric field lines between like Electric field lines between unlike
charges charges.
Superposition Principle - Electric
Field of a System of Charges

The electric field due to a collection of N

point charges is the vector sum of the
individual electric fields due to each
charge.