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THE DYNAMICS OF MASS COMMUNICATION: Media in Transition

Well-known for its balanced approach to media industries and professions,

The Dynamics of Mass Communication offers a lively, thorough, and objective
introduction for mass communication majors and non-majors alike. The Dynamics
of Mass Communication takes a comprehensive and balanced look at the changing
world of mass media. This edition explores social media, the economy’s impact

MASS COMMUNICATION
on the media, and the media transformations that have taken place as traditional
media companies are joined by new digital media powers.

THE DYNAMICS OF
NEW TO THE TWELFTH EDITION:

New exploration of the effects, economics, political implications, and dysfunc-

tions of social networking sites such as Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube. Also
included is a discussion of the role of social media in the unrest in North Africa
and the Middle East and the problem of cyber-bullying.

Expanded discussion of events that have affected the media, from the economic
THE DYNAMICS OF
MASS COMMUNICATION
downturn significantly shrinking the media revenue, the emergence of new,
influential digital powers, to how apps are changing how we interact with media.

MD DALIM 1177704 01/20/12 CYAN MAG YELO BLACK

“I love how this book is organized and that is why I have used it for the TWELFTH EDITION
past ten years and plan to use it for the next ten years. It’s logical and
gives teaching the topic of mass communication a natural flow.”
— Candice Larson, Moorpark College

Online Learning Center

DOMINICK
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Go to the Online Learning Center to custom course materials that fit the
check out NBC video clips and a wealth needs of your classroom.
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ISBN 978-0-07-352619-5
MHID 0-07-352619-3 TWELFTH
90000 EDITION

9 780073 526195
[Link]

JOSEPH R. DOMINICK
 Confirming Pages

contents
Part I The Nature and History of
Mass Communication 1

Chapter 1
communication: mass
and other forms 3
the communication process 4
Encoding: Transmitting the Message 5
Decoding: Receiving the Message 5
Feedback 6 Functions of Mass Communication for Society 31
Noise 6 How People Use the Mass Media 40
communication settings 7 critical/cultural studies 44
Interpersonal Communication 7 A Brief History 44
Machine-Assisted Interpersonal Communication 8 Key Concepts 47
Mass Communication 9
Defining Mass Media 12 Chapter 3
mass media in transition 13 historical and cultural context 53
Technology 13
before mass communication 54
Economics 14
printing 55
Social Trends 14
Effects of the Gutenberg Revolution 55
characteristics of media organizations 15
Technology and Cultural Change 56
Formal Organizational Structure 15
conquering space and time: the telegraph and telephone 57
Gatekeepers 15
Development of the Telegraph 57
Large Operating Expenses 16
The Cultural Impact of the Telegraph 58
Competition for Profits 16
Government and Media 59
the internet: mass and interpersonal channel? 17
A Change in Perspective 59
models for studying mass communication 18
capturing the image: photography and motion pictures 60
transition: emerging media trends 19
Early Technological Development 60
Audience Segmentation: The End of Mass Communication
As We Know It? 19 Photorealism and Mathew Brady 61
Convergence 20 Photography’s Influence on Mass Culture 62
Increased Audience Control 22 Pictures in Motion 62
Multiple Platforms 23 Motion Pictures and American Culture 63
User-Generated Content 23 news and entertainment at home: radio and television
broadcasting 64
Mobile Media 23
Radio Broadcasting 64
Social Media 24
The Cultural Impact of Radio 65
Television Broadcasting 66
Chapter 2
The Cultural Impact of TV 66
perspectives on mass the digital revolution 67
communication 29 mobile media 71
functional analysis 31 social media 74
The Role of Mass Communication in Society 31 concluding observations: the impact of new media 75

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viii Contents

The Early 20th Century 111

Part II Media 79
The Impact of the Great Depression 112
Postwar Newspapers 112
Chapter 4 Contemporary Newspapers: Struggling to Survive 112
the internet and social media 81 newspapers in the digital age 114
Transitions 114
a brief history of the computer 82
Online Newspapers 115
the internet 83
Mobile Media 115
From ARPANET to Internet 83
User-Generated Content 116
Structure and Features of the Internet 84
Social Media 117
the evolving internet 88
defining features of newspapers 117
Broadband 88
organization of the newspaper industry 118
Going Mobile: The Wireless Web 88
Print Dailies 118
Monetizing the Web 88
Print Weeklies 120
Blogs 89
Special-Service and Minority Newspapers 120
internet economics and new online mega-companies 90
Organization of Online Newspapers 121
The Internet and the National Economy 90
newspaper ownership 122
New Mega-Companies 90
producing the print and online newspaper 122
Web Site Economics 91
Departments and Staff 122
the internet audience 92
Prepublication Routine 123
Sources of Feedback 92
the economics of newspaper publishing 124
Social Media 94
Revenue 124
Effects of Social Media 94
Expenses 125
Monetizing Social Media 96
Are Online and Apps the Answer? 125
Social Media as Mobilizers 96
Will Newspapers Survive? 128
Negative Impact 97
global newspapers 128
the social implications of the internet 98
the newspaper audience 129
A New Model for News 98
Sources of Feedback 129
Lack of Gatekeepers 99
Audiences 129
Information Overload 99
career outlook: the newspaper industry 130
Privacy Concerns 99
Escapism and Isolation 100
the future: the evernet 100 Chapter 6
career outlook: the internet and social media 101 magazines 135
a brief history 136
Chapter 5
The Colonial Period 136
newspapers 105
After the Revolution 136
a brief history 106 The Penny-Press Era 136
Journalism in Early America 106 The Magazine Boom 137
The Beginnings of Revolution 107 Between the Wars 138
The Political Press: 1790–1833 107 The Postwar Period 139
Birth of the Mass Newspaper 108 Contemporary Magazines 139
The Penny Press 109 magazines in the digital age 141
Newspapers as Big Business 110 Transition 142
Yellow Journalism 111 Replica Editions 143

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Contents ix

Apps for Mobile Platforms 143 the economics of book publishing 169
User-Generated Content 145 the book publishing audience 171
Social Media 145 Sources of Feedback 171
defining features of magazines 145 Audiences 172
organization of the magazine industry 146 career outlook: the book publishing industry 173
Content Categories 146
Functional Categories 150 Chapter 8
magazine ownership 151 radio 177
producing the magazine 151
Departments and Staff 151 a brief history 178
The Production Process 152 The Birth of Commercial Radio 178
economics 152 The Commercialization of Radio 179
global magazines 153 The Depression Years and World War II 181
the magazine audience 154 Innovation and Change: 1945–1954 182
Sources of Feedback 154 Growth and Stabilization: 1955–1990 184
Audiences 154 Contemporary Radio 184
career outlook: the magazine industry 154 radio in the digital age 185
Transition 185
Terrestrial Stations on the Web 185
Internet Radio 186
Chapter 7
HD Radio 186
books 159
Satellite Radio 187
a brief history 160 Apps and Mobile Radio 188
Colonial America 160 User-Generated Content 188
The Penny-Press Era 160 Social Media 188
The Paperback Boom 161 defining features of radio 189
The Early 20th Century 161 organization of the terrestrial radio industry 189
Postwar Books: Paperbacks and Consolidation 161 Local Stations, Nets, and Syndicators 189
The Contemporary Book Industry 162 AM and FM Stations 189
books in the digital age 163 Station Formats 190
Transition 163 Noncommercial Radio 192
E-Readers and E-Books 163 organization of online radio 194
Printing on Demand 163 ownership in the radio industry 194
Mobile Books 164 producing radio programs 194
User-Generated Content 164 Departments and Staff 194
Social Media 164 Putting Together a Program 195
defining features of books 165 the economics of radio 196
organization of the book industry 165 Sources of Revenue 196
Publishers 165 General Expenses 196
Distributors 167 global radio 197
Retailers 167 the radio audience 199
ownership in the book industry 167 Sources of Feedback 199
producing the book 168 Ratings and Shares 200
Departments and Staff 168 Audiences 200
The Publication Process 168 career outlook: the radio industry 200

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x Contents

Chapter 9 The Coming of Sound: The Late 1920s 235

sound recording 205 The Studio Years: 1930–1950 235
The Reaction of the Film Industry to TV 236
a brief history 206
Realignments: The Film Industry from 1960 to 1990 237
Early Technologies 206
New Technologies: 1990–2010 238
Rivalry and Growth 207
Contemporary Trends 238
The Impact of Radio on the Recording Industry 208
motion pictures in the digital age 239
The Depression Years 208
Transition 239
World War II and After 208
Making Digital Movies 239
The Coming of Rock and Roll 209
Digital Distribution to Theaters 239
The Commercialization of Rock 209
Digital Projection 240
The British Invasion 210
3-D Movies 240
Transitions 211
Digital Distribution to the Home 241
Industry Trends: 1970s–1990s 212
Mobile Movies 241
The Contemporary Sound Recording Industry 212
User-Generated Content 241
sound recording in the digital age 213
Social Media 241
Transition 213
defining features of motion pictures 241
Mobile Music 216
organization of the film industry 242
User-Generated Content 216
Production 242
Social Media 216
Distribution 243
defining features of sound recording 217
Exhibition 244
organization of the recording industry 217
ownership in the film industry 244
Talent 217
producing motion pictures 245
Production 218
Preproduction 245
Distribution 218
Production 246
Retail 219
Postproduction 247
ownership in the recording industry 220
the economics of motion pictures 247
producing records 220
Financing a Film 248
Departments and Staff 220
Dealing with the Exhibitor 248
Making a Recording 221
global movies 249
the economics of sound recording 221
the motion picture audience 250
Economic Trends 222
Sources of Feedback 250
New Business Models 222
Market Research 250
Rock Performers: The Bottom Line 223
Audiences 251
the sound recording audience 223
movies at home 251
Sources of Feedback 223
career outlook: the film industry 253
Audiences 224
career outlook: the recording industry 225
Chapter 11
broadcast television 257
Chapter 10
a brief history 258
motion pictures 229 The 1950s: Television Takes Off 259
a brief history 230 Coming of Age: Television in the 1960s 260
Early American Cinema 230 The 1970s: Growing Public Concern 260
The Roaring Twenties 234 The 1980s and 1990s: Increased Competition 262

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 Confirming Pages

Contents xi

Cable’s Continued Growth 262 defining features of cable, satellite, and internet tv 293
New Technologies 262 organization of the cable and satellite industries 294
contemporary broadcast television 263 Structure: Cable TV 294
television in the digital age 264 Programming and Financing: Cable TV 294
Transition 264 Pay-per-View (PPV) 296
3-D TV 265 Video-on-Demand (VOD) 296
Broadcasters and the Web 265 Structure: Satellite TV 297
Broadcasters and Broadband 266 Programming and Financing: Satellite TV 297
Mobile TV: Apps 266 Ownership of Cable and Satellite TV 298
User-Generated Content 266 internet video 298
Social Media 266 Structure: Sources and Content 299
defining features of broadcast television 267 Microcasting 301
organization of the broadcast television industry 267 Economics of Online Video 302
Production 268 the cable, satellite, and internet tv audience 303
Distribution 268 Sources of Feedback 303
Exhibition 269 Audiences 304
ownership in the television industry 270 career outlook: cable, satellite, and internet tv industries 304
producing television programs 271
Departments and Staff 271
Getting TV Programs on the Air 271 Part III Specific Media
Professions 307
the economics of broadcast television 272
Commercial Time 273
Where Did the Money Go? 273 Chapter 13
public broadcasting 274 news gathering and reporting 309
A Brief History 274 theories of the press 310
Programming and Financing 275 deciding what is news 311
home video 277 the news business 312
global tv 278 news reporting in the digital age 314
the broadcast television audience 279 More Sources of News 314
Sources of Feedback 279 Blogs 315
Ratings Reporting 280 Citizen Journalism 315
Audiences 281 Hyperlocal News 316
career outlook: the broadcast television industry 283 The Converged Journalist 317
New Tools 317
categories of news and reporting 318
Chapter 12
Hard News 318
cable, satellite, and internet Soft News 319
television 287 Investigative Reports 320
a brief history 288 the news flow 320
cable, satellite, and internet tv in the digital age 292 Print Media 320
Transition 292 Broadcast/Cable Media 321
Mobile Media and Apps 292 Online Media 321
User-Generated Content 292 the associated press 322
Social Media 293 media differences and similarities in news coverage 323

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xii Contents

readership and viewership 324 Advertising Volume in Various Media 366

career outlook: news gathering and reporting 325 Agency Compensation 367
business-to-business advertising 367
Chapter 14 Consumer Versus Business-to-Business Advertising 368
public relations 329 Media 368
Appeals 370
defining public relations 331
career outlook: advertising 370
a brief history 332
public relations in the digital age 335
Communicating with the Audience: Web Sites, Podcasts, and Blogs 335
Communicating with the Audience: Social Media 336
Part IV Regulation of
the Mass Media 373
Communicating with the Media 337
organization of the public relations industry 338 Chapter 16
pr departments and staff 340 formal controls: laws, rules,
the public relations program 341 regulations 375
Information Gathering 341
the press, the law, and the courts 376
Planning 342
A Free Press 376
Communication 343
Prior Restraint 376
Evaluation 343
protecting news sources 379
the economics of public relations 344
The Reporter’s Privilege 379
career outlook: public relations 345
Search and Seizure 381
covering the courts 382
Chapter 15
Publicity Before and During a Trial 382
advertising 349 Gag Rules 383
defining advertising 350 Cameras and Microphones in the Courtroom 384
Functions of Advertising 350 reporters’ access to information 385
Types of Advertising 351 Government Information 385
a brief history 352 Access to News Scenes 386
advertising in the digital age 356 defamation 386
Audience Control 356 Defenses Against Libel Suits 387
New Channels 357 Defamation and the Internet 390
Mobile Media: Apps and Advertising 357 invasion of privacy 391
User-Generated Content 357 The Right to Privacy 391
Decoupling 358 Trespass 393
organization of the consumer advertising industry 358 copyright 393
Advertisers 358 obscenity and pornography 396
Agencies 359 regulating broadcasting 398
Media 360 The Federal Communications Commission 398
producing advertising 362 Indecent Content 400
Departments and Staff 362 The Equal Opportunities Rule 400
The Advertising Campaign 363 The Fairness Doctrine 401
Advertising Research 365 regulating cable tv 402
the economics of advertising 366 the telecommunications act of 1996 403

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 Rev. Confirming Pages

Contents xiii

regulating advertising 403 Media and Socialization 432

Deceptive Advertising 403 The Media as a Primary Source of Information 433
Commercial Speech Under the First Amendment 404 Shaping Attitudes, Perceptions, and Beliefs 434
conclusion 405 Cultivation Analysis 436
Agenda Setting 438
Chapter 17 media effects on behavior: a short history 439
ethics and other informal controls 409 the impact of televised violence 440
Survey Results 440
personal ethics 410
Experimental Results 442
Ethical Principles 410
The Catharsis Versus Stimulation Debate 443
A Model for Individual Ethical Decisions 412
Field Experiments 443
performance codes 414
What Can We Conclude? 444
The Print Media 414
Video Game Violence 444
Broadcasting 415
encouraging prosocial behavior 445
Motion Pictures 416
Experiments 446
The Advertising Industry 417
Surveys 446
internal controls 419
Research Results 446
Organizational Policy: Television Networks’ Standards and Practices 419
political behavior effects 446
Organizational Policy: Newspapers and Magazines 421
Negative Advertising 446
Media Self-Criticism 422
Mass Media and Voter Choice 447
Professional Self-Regulation in Advertising 423
Televised Debates 447
outside influences 423
Television and the Political Behavior of Politicians 448
Economic Pressures 423
research about the social effects of the internet 448
Pressure Groups 425
communication in the future: the social impact 449
Education 427
Threats to Privacy 449
Fragmentation and Isolation 450
Part V Impact of the Media 429 Communication Overload 450
Escape 451
Chapter 18
Glossary 453
social effects of mass communication 431
Credits 460
investigating mass communication effects 432 Index 462
effects of mass communication on knowledge and attitudes 432

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 Confirming Pages

boxed features
Critical/Cultural Issues Do They Really Mean It? 365
These boxes illustrate the diverse perspectives of Advertising and Kids 369
those who use the critical/cultural paradigm discussed Ethical Problems Shared by Journalists
in Chapter 2. and College Students 420
PE Teachers in the Movies 48 New Code of Ethics for the Advertising Industry 424
The Meaning of Media 70
Cell Phones, Religion, and Culture 76 Media Probe
Teen Magazine Web Sites: What’s the Message? 141 These boxes provide additional illustrations, examples,
Digital and Print Magazines and the Reading and background to topics in the text.
Experience144 Sniff This 5
Labor versus Management in Journalism Communication Gone Awry 7
Textbooks 172
Bad Career Choices 22
Department Stores and the Early Days of Radio 180
Desperately Seeking Sockets 25
Radio and the Local Community 198
A Matter of Interpretation 35
The Bachelor 282
Facebook and Instant Messages 37
Who’s That in the Kitchen? 291
Unlinking via Text Message 38
Cultural Meaning and Trade Characters 354
End of an Era 58
The Rise of the Intangibles 67
Decision Makers Martin Cooper 69
Some of these names will be more familiar than oth- This Is Your Brain on a Cell Phone 73
ers, but all of the people profiled in these boxes have Tweeting and the City 85
had a significant impact on contemporary mass media. Owe Money? Be Careful What You Post
Mark Zuckerberg 95 on Facebook 92
Al Neuharth 120 The Importance of a Real Place in a Virtual World 97
Tina Brown 149 Ethel L. Payne 113
Jeff Bezos 170 The Debt Trap 125
Catherine Hughes 187 Number of Daily Newspapers per Capita 130
Berry Gordy Jr. 210 Sara Josepha Buell Hale 137
James Cameron 243 Ebony Magazine: Adjusting to the Digital World 139
Ted Turner 263 Convergence: A Magazine Gets into the TV
Judy McGrath 290 Business—Sort Of 147
How About a Book for $125,000? 164
Kindle or Traditional Textbooks? 165
Ethical Issues
Wizardry and E-books 168
Figuring out the right thing to do is sometimes diffi-
Meet the Author (Virtually) 169
cult as these boxes illustrate.
Payola 183
Images of War 64
Mscore 201
Ethical Obligations and the Internet 86
Recording Pioneer Emile Berliner 207
Black Hats Versus White Hats 93
Morbidity and Rock and Roll 212
What’s the Appropriate Job Description for
Promoting an Album or Single 215
a Converged Reporter? 123
Turning Music into Gold 218
Airbrushing and Ethics 143
Sponsoring Rock 224
“Truthiness” or Consequences? 173
Birth of a Controversy 232
Voice Tracking in Radio: Is Anybody There? 192
More Than You Ever Wanted to Know
The Ethics of File Sharing: Is It Really Stealing? 214
About Trailers 242
History and The Social Network 249
Food and Flicks 244
Sending a Message 272
All-Time Box Office Leaders—Another Look 247
The Ethics of Cell Phone Video 303
Scream 4, Toy Story 3, Hangover 2 250
The Innocence Project 322
Premium VOD 253
Naming Names 324
The More Things Change . . . 261
Public Relations Ethics: What Would You Do? 332
The Disappearing Soap 264
Negative Public Relations 344
Getting into College Thanks to Reality TV 265

xiv

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 Confirming Pages

Boxed Features xv

The Guys Behind YouTube 293 Do We Need Newsmagazines? 148

Cutting the Cord? 299 The Case of the Disappearing Book Reviewer 162
The Uploaders 301 Should Radio Pay More? 197
The Erosion of Trust 314 A Music Tax? 213
Top Sites for News 317 Diversity in Television 274
Full Disclosure? 338 Do We Need the Public Broadcasting Service? 276
How Ethical Are Public Relations Professionals? 342 Journalism and the Financial Crisis 313
Is That a Smile I See? 364 Where the Boys Aren’t 318
Price Comparisons 367 IMC: Integrated Marketing Communications 334
The Broad Reach of the First Amendment 377 Advertising: Good or Bad? 353
Prior Restraint and the High School and Scraping 361
College Press 379 Advertising and Social Media: New Risks 366
Who Carries the Shield? 381 How Fair Is the Fairness Doctrine? 401
What Is Actual Malice? 388 Disappearing Public Editors 422
Is This Fair Comment? 390 Political Pressure: The Blacklist 426
What Is Negligence? 391
Facebook in the Court 393
Soundbyte
The Legion of Decency 418
These boxes illustrate the unusual, the ironic, and the
Policing YouTube 419
offbeat things that sometimes occur in the media
Untangling the Effects of TV 434
world.
Reality TV: A Model for Social Media Behavior? 435
Beware Autocorrect 7
Is Anybody Watching? 445
Punctuation Matters 9
The Internet and Depression 449
What . . . No Metallica? 41
A Real Turnoff 43
Media Talk Skeptic 58
Need a good discussion starter? These boxes refer to Maybe They’ll Call Him iPhone Instead of Ivan 72
Video clips at the Online Learning Center that intro- Did Kramer Invent Facebook? 75
duce important issues in mass communication. Another Hazard of the Digital Age 83
Advertisers Gone Wild: New Ways Halt! Who Goes There? 84
to “Get the Message” 38 Follow the Leader 94
How the Web Lures Children into Pornography 99 Till Facebook Do Us Part 98
TV Phenom American Idol 211 R.I.P. (Rest in Paper) 119
The Dumbing of America 312 Who? 124
Planting Stories in Iraq 335 Hay There 153
Food for Thought: Advertising to Kids 359 But He Never Told a Lie 160
Yahoo! Caught in the Web 400 Quick Reads 165
Cartoon Controversy 414 Too Much Convergence? 188
You Can’t Tell a Book by Its Cover: Textbooks and Hate 442 You’ll Get a Charge out of This 213
Watching Movies Can Be a Pain 238
Social Issues Suppose They Made a Movie and Nobody Came . . . 251
New developments in mass communication raise new How Many in Your House? 278
concerns. These boxes explore how the media operate Whoops! 300
in a social context. We Needed a Study to Tell Us That? 323
Too Much? 21 Telling Them Apart 331
Twitter and the News 33 Do You Watch the Commercials? 356
Status Conferral and the Fringe 36 Typosquatting 357
Are We Making Progress? 68 Handle with Care 387
Counterfeit Clicks 89 They Obviously Weren’t Listening 422
Comment Boards: Meaningful Discussion Good Vibrations? 444
or Just Mean? 114 Technology Improves Relationships 450
A Nonprofit Newspaper? 127

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 Revised Pages

preface
Three things made me realize that a new edition of The Dynamics of Mass Communication
was in order. The first was a news article that reported that (1) Facebook had nearly
700 million members worldwide (that means about 1 in every 10 people in the world is
a member) and (2) the company was valued at about $100 billion dollars. Not bad for an
idea that started in a dorm room.
Apps were the second thing. Apps weren’t around when the 11th edition was writ-
ten and the iPad had yet to come out. These days articles with cute titles about the
growing popularity of apps for mobile media are appearing everywhere. Some of the
more clever examples I found were “App-lause,” “Planet of the Apps,” “Get Appy,”
“What’s App-ening?” “What’s App Doc?” and my personal favorite, “App, App and
Away.” More than 10 billion apps had been downloaded by mid-2011. It was obvious
that this app stuff was catching on.
The third thing had to do with the companies that now control most of the Internet’s
media commerce: Netflix, Apple, Google, Amazon, and Yahoo. When I first started
working on the first edition of Dynamics (way, way back in 1980), Apple was only
three years old and thanks to its early success as a computer builder, the company had
revenues of about $330 million and employed around 50 people. In 2010, Apple had
$65 billion in revenue and nearly 50,000 employees. Netflix, Google, Yahoo, and Ama-
zon did not exist in 1980. In short, over the past 30 years, there has been a rearranging
of the guard in mass communication. Traditional media companies, such as Harper-
Collins, Condé Nast, Sony Music, Paramount Pictures, NBC, and Gannett, while still
influential, have been joined by the new digital powers.
As you have probably deduced by now, these three developments—social media,
apps, and the new media Goliaths—are major themes in the 12th edition.
The new edition also examines other events that have affected the media. The eco-
nomic downturn that caused media revenues to shrink over the past couple of years
has, it is hoped, bottomed out. Nonetheless, money is still tight and it is doubtful that
some media industries will ever see their incomes rise to previous levels.
With the exception of YouTube and news/weather videos, the user-generated con-
tent craze has cooled off. Many bloggers have turned to Twitter or Facebook to express
their thoughts. Most mass media are relying less on amateur content and more on pro-
fessionally produced material. Even YouTube has put more emphasis on content pro-
duced by pros.
Video on the Web has exploded in the last couple of years. Internet-connected TV
sets and DVD players are in many households. New software has made it ridiculously
easy to add video to social media sites. Advertisers and public relations firms rely heav-
ily on Web video in structuring their campaigns. Politicians declare their candidacies
via Web video. The Online Video Guide lists numerous sites where a viewer can find
videos in more than two dozen categories.
Finally, when I was working on the previous edition, Amazon’s Kindle had been on
the market for less than a year, and there were still doubts about its ultimate success.
Amazon’s e-reader sold about 400,000 units in 2008. As of this writing, experts estimate
that the company has sold more than 8 million Kindles, and the device has gotten a lot
of competition, including the iPad, the Nook, and Sony’s e-reader. The book publishing
industry is now feeling the same disruption that the recording industry felt when file
sharing and digital downloading became the preferred way of acquiring music.
So much for the general overview. Here’s a more specific look at what’s new in the
12th edition.

xvi

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 Revised Pages

Preface xvii

New to the 12th Edition

Users of previous editions of the book will quickly notice that Chapter 18 (“Interna-
tional and Comparative Media Systems”) in the 11th edition has been dropped from
the 12th edition. Reviewers suggested that such a topic seemed too specialized in a
basic introduction to media and should be left to a more advanced course. Nonetheless,
key parts of that chapter are now included in the appropriate media chapters so that
students who wish to take a course in the international area will be familiar with funda-
mental information on the topic.
Next, the organization of the book has been slightly rearranged. Chapter 12 (“The
Internet and the World Wide Web”) in the 11th edition is now Chapter 4 (retitled “The
Internet and Social Media”) and leads off Part II (“Media”). Since the Internet has had
such a drastic impact on all of the mass media, it seems appropriate to discuss the
Internet first rather than last. Consequently, Part II starts with the newest medium
(the Internet), then looks at the oldest medium (print), and finally more recent media
(sound and pictures).
In addition, Chapter 4 has undergone a major revision. The revised chapter has an
expanded section examining the effects, economics, political implications, and dysfunc-
tions of social networking sites such as Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, and MySpace.
More specifically, the new Chapter 4 discusses, among other topics, the impact of social
media on traditional media, the role of social media in the unrest in North Africa and
the Middle East, and the problem of cyberbullying.
Here are some of the changes that you will find in individual chapters.
■ Part I: Chapter 1 has been streamlined and contains additional discussion of mobile
media and tablet computers. Chapter 2 has updated examples of the various media
functions and Chapter 3 has an expanded discussion of the cultural impact of the
social media.
■ Part II: As mentioned above, the reworked Chapter 4 now leads off this section and
is titled “The Internet and Social Media” to better reflect the increasing importance
of social networks. This chapter now contains a look at the leading companies in
the digital field: Apple, Amazon, Google, and Facebook. The newspaper industry is
experimenting with new online models to generate revenue, and this development
is discussed in Chapter 5 along with an examination of popular apps for newspa-
pers. Speaking of apps, Chapter 6 looks at how magazines are using apps to bring
digital versions to tablet computers and how the industry is using social media to
increase readership. Chapter 7 now contains a new section on how e-readers are
changing the book publishing industry. The Internet has paved the way for hun-
dreds of new radio stations, and Chapter 8 examines the impact of this trend for
traditional radio and looks at how radio networks and local stations are using apps
to expand their listenership. The sound recording industry has been profoundly
changed by the digital revolution. Chapter 9 now contains an expanded discus-
sion of the impact of MP3 players and smartphones on the industry along with an
analysis of the changing revenue streams. Chapter 10 has a new discussion of the
rise (and potential fall) of 3-D movies and a revised section about how Hollywood
relates to the home video industry. Chapter 11 describes how broadcasters have
embraced social media and how apps have turned the iPad into a TV set. Chapter 12
describes the explosion of Web-based TV, including an updated analysis of its eco-
nomic basis.

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xviii Preface

■ Part III: Chapter 13 opens with a discussion of the most recent report on the news
media from the Pew Research Center and looks at the newest trends in hyperlocal
reporting. Chapter 14 opens with an analysis of the public relations problems for
BP as the result of the Gulf oil spill. The chapter also contains an expanded section
that considers how PR professionals are using the Web and social media in public
relations campaigns. The advertising industry has also welcomed social media, and
Chapter 15 illustrates how social media have been incorporated into modern adver-
tising campaigns.
■ Part IV: Chapter 16 contains an updated status of legal issues. Chapter 17 now
includes a discussion of the ethical issues involved in the New York Times’s decision
to publish documents it obtained from WikiLeaks.
■ Part V: Chapter 18 brings up to date the latest findings from social science research,
including a revised section on the impact of violent video games.

Box Score
As in past editions, the boxed inserts in each chapter provide background material or
extended coverage of topics mentioned in the text and raise issues for discussion and
consideration. The 12th edition includes more than 80 new or revised boxes.
The boxes are grouped into several categories. The Media Talk boxes refer students
to the Online Learning Center and introduce important issues in mass communication.
Instructors can use these as discussion starters.
The Social Issues boxes highlight matters of social concern that have generated some
controversy. Examples include a discussion of how media coverage confers status on
fringe groups and a consideration of whether we still need newsmagazines.
As the name suggests, Ethical Issues boxes raise questions about the proper way
to act in difficult circumstances. For instance, what ethical problems are involved in
“negative” public relations or in posting cell phone videos on video-sharing sites?
Critical/Cultural Issues boxes illustrate how this perspective can be used to further
our understanding of mass communication. Examples include the influence of depart-
ment stores on the development of radio and how the Food Network maintains tradi-
tional images of masculinity and femininity.
The Media Probe boxes take an in-depth look at subjects that have significance for
the various media. Some examples include an examination of payola, how corporations
are supporting rock groups, and the disappearing soap opera.
The Decision Makers boxes profile individuals who have made some of the impor-
tant decisions that have had an impact on the development of the media. Examples
include James Cameron, Tina Brown, and Catherine Hughes.
And, as before, the Soundbytes are brief boxes that highlight some of the strange,
ironic, offbeat, and extraordinary developments that occur in the media, such as coffins
made of newsprint and George Washington’s overdue library books.

Continuity
The organization of the book has changed a bit since the 11th edition. Part I, “The
Nature and History of Mass Communication,” presents the intellectual context for
the rest of the book and is unchanged from the 11th edition. Chapter 1 compares and
contrasts mass communication with other types of communication and notes that the
distinctions are becoming fuzzier. Chapter 2 introduces two perspectives commonly

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 Revised Pages

Preface xix

used to understand and explore the operations of the media: functional analysis and the
critical/cultural approach. Chapter 3 takes a macroanalytic approach and traces the
general history of media from the invention of printing to the explosion of social media.
Part II, “Media,” represents the core of the book. Chapter 4, as noted earlier, is a revised
and expanded version of Chapter 12 from the 11th edition, retitled “The Internet and
Social Media.” Chapters 5–12 then examine each of the traditional media. The organiza-
tion of each chapter follows a similar pattern. First, there is a brief history from the medi-
um’s beginnings to how it is transforming itself in the digital age. This is followed by
sections that describe how the medium is becoming more mobile, how it has been affected
by user-generated content, and how it is using social media. Next comes a discussion of
the defining characteristics of each medium and a description of the industry structure.
I have kept the emphasis on media economics. Since the major media in the United
States exist to make a profit, it is valuable for students to appreciate where the money
comes from, how it is spent, and why making a profit these days is harder than ever.
This is even more important today with several media industries struggling to survive as
traditional revenue streams dry up and their online efforts cannot make up the shortfall.
Part III, “Specific Media Professions,” examines three specific professions closely
associated with the mass media: news reporting, public relations, and advertising.
Similar to the approach in Part II, each chapter begins with a brief history, examines
the structure of that particular profession, considers the changes brought about by the
digital revolution, and discusses key issues in the field.
Part IV, “Regulation of the Mass Media,” examines both the formal and informal
controls that influence the media. These are complicated areas, and I have tried to make
the information as user-friendly as possible.
The concluding Part V, “Impact of the Media,” continues to emphasize the social
effects of the mass media. As noted earlier, Chapter 18 in the 11th edition, “Interna-
tional and Comparative Media Systems,” has been dropped and its key sections distrib-
uted to the appropriate chapters.
Once again, I have tried to keep the writing style informal and accessible. When-
ever possible, I have chosen examples from popular culture that I hope all students are
familiar with. Technical terms are boldfaced and defined in the glossary at the end of
the book. The book also contains a number of charts, graphs, diagrams, and tables that
I hope aid understanding.

Supporting Materials
Online Learning Center
The Online Learning Center houses the Media Talk video clips, all of the instructor
resources (Instructor’s Manual, Test Bank, and PowerPoint slides), and the tradi-
tional student quiz materials. Access the Online Learning Center at [Link]/
dominick12e.

Create
Craft your teaching resources to match the way you teach! With McGraw-Hill Create,
you can easily rearrange chapters, combine material from other content sources, and
quickly upload content you have written like your course syllabus or teaching notes.
Arrange your book to fit your teaching style. Create even allows you to personalize your
book’s appearance by selecting the cover and adding your name, school, and course
information. Order a Create book and you’ll receive a complimentary print review copy

dom26193_fm_i-[Link] xix 27/01/12 12:44 PM

 Revised Pages

xx Preface

in 3–5 business days or a complimentary electronic review copy (eComp) via email in
about one hour. Go to [Link] today and register. Experience how
McGraw-Hill Create empowers you to teach your students your way.

CourseSmart e-Textbook
This text is available as an eTextbook at [Link]. At CourseSmart
your students can take advantage of significant savings off the cost of a print textbook,
reduce their impact on the environment, and gain access to powerful Web tools for
learning. CourseSmart eTextbooks can be viewed online or downloaded to a computer.
The eTextbooks allow students to do full text searches, add highlighting and notes, and
share notes with classmates. CourseSmart has the largest selection of eTextbooks avail-
able anywhere. Visit [Link] to learn more and to try a sample chapter.

Tegrity
Tegrity Campus is a service that makes class time available all the time by automati-
cally capturing every lecture in a searchable format for students to review when they
study and complete assignments. With a simple one-click start and stop process, you
capture all computer screens and corresponding audio. Students can replay any part of
any class with easy-to-use browser-based viewing on a PC or Mac. Educators know that
the more students can see, hear, and experience class resources, the better they learn.
With Tegrity Campus, students quickly recall key moments by using Tegrity Campus’s
unique search feature. This search helps students efficiently find what they need, when
they need it, across an entire semester of class recordings. Help turn all your students’
study time into learning moments immediately supported by your lecture.

Acknowledgments
Thanks to all of those instructors who used previous editions of The Dynamics of Mass
Communication and were kind enough to suggest improvements. Several colleagues
deserve special mention: Professor Noah Arceneaux provided a boxed insert. Profes-
sor Scott Shamp was kind enough to share his blog page, and Professor Michael Cas-
tengera’s newsletter, “Message from Michael,” was a valuable resource. In addition,
thanks to researcher Meaghan Dominick for her efforts with the Decision Makers boxes
and to Carole Dominick for her efforts as a scrivener.
Once again I appreciate the sedulous efforts of all the reviewers who offered sugges-
tions for the 12th edition:
Jane Campbell, Columbia State Community College
Susan J. De Bonis, Georgia Southern University
Donald G. Godfrey, Walter Cronkite School of Journalism
Dee Gross, Lorain County Community College
Susan Katz, University of Bridgeport
Candice Larson, Moorpark College
Robert M. Ogles, Purdue University
Jeff South, Virginia Commonwealth University
Emily Chivers Yochim, Allegheny College
And, as always, a big thanks to all the people at McGraw-Hill on publishing yet
another edition: Vice President Editorial Michael Ryan, Sponsoring Editor Susan

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 Revised Pages

Preface xxi

Gouijnstook, Marketing Manager Leslie Oberhuber, Julia Akpan for her comprehen-
sive editorial development, Director of Development Rhona Robbin, Production Editor
Holly Irish, Media Project Manager Jennifer Barrick, Photo Researcher David A. Tietz,
and Designer Preston Thomas.

The Audience
As most instructors will attest, the introductory course in mass communication attracts
two types of students. One type is interested in following a professional career in some
form of media (a career path made even more challenging by the current market con-
ditions). This student wants to know the nuts and bolts of the media—how they are
organized, how they work, who does what, and what career possibilities are out there.
The second type of student will probably never pursue a career in the media but will
become a member of the audience and consume a great deal of media content. These
students are more interested in analyzing and understanding how the media operate
and what impact they have on society. To use an overworked expression, they want to
become “media literate.”
An original goal of the first edition of Dynamics was to present an up-to-date,
detailed, and comprehensive look at contemporary media that would benefit aspir-
ing media professionals and at the same time provide a useful foundation for those
who will end up in other careers. A second goal was to help both students and faculty
understand and appreciate the fast-changing world of mass communication a little bet-
ter. As has been the case 11 times before, it is hoped that this new edition still fulfills
both of those goals.

Joseph R. Dominick
Dacula, Georgia

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 Revised Pages

Your
Media in Transition:
Where we were,
where we are,
where we’re going.

Guided
Media today change in the blink of
an eye, and being tuned into cur-
rent and emerging media trends is
crucial to becoming a savvy media
consumer and—increasingly—a

Tour
media producer as well.
The Dynamics of Mass
Communication provides a
forward-looking approach while
continuing to supply critical infor-
mation about the foundation on
which the current media empires
were built.

Chapter13
news
gathering and
reporting
This chapter will prepare you to:

■ understand the most important theories of the press

■ describe the qualities that characterize news
■ identify the three main types of news stories
■ understand how the digital revolution has affected
news gathering, reporting, and the news business
■ discuss the similarities of broadcast, print, and online
journalism
■ describe the changes in the news audience over the
past several years

A s in past editions, we will begin this section by examining

the most recent report from the Project for Excellence in
Journalism sponsored by the prestigious Pew Research Center, a
highly respected authoritative organization whose conclusions are
not taken lightly. Its latest report, “The State of the News Media
2011,” suggests that there may be a reason for optimism after
several years of discouraging findings. Here are some excerpts from
the report:

By several measures, the state of American news media

improved in 2010.
After two dreadful years, most sectors of the industry saw
revenue begin to recover. With some notable exceptions,
cutbacks in newsrooms eased. And while still more talk than
action, some experiments with new revenue models began to
show signs of blossoming. . . .
Beneath all this, however, a more fundamental challenge
to journalism became clearer in the last year. The biggest
issue ahead may not be lack of audience or even lack of new
revenue experiments. It may be that in the digital realm the
news industry is no longer in control of its own future. . . .
Despite strong ratings for Fox News, the total audience for
television network news programs continues to decline.

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Chapter Opening
previews identify key goals for
each chapter through learning
objectives, while timely vignettes
set the stage for what’s to come.

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 Revised Pages

media
talk
Advertisers Gone
Wild: New Ways to
“Get the Message”
Media Talk
Clip 7: 2 minutes
margin notes feature focus ques- 15 seconds
tions about the NBC videos found You can watch Clip 7 on the Online
Learning Center home page, www
on the Online Learning Center that .[Link]/dominick12e. Select
Student Center and then Chapter 2.
are pertinent to chapter topics. This clip shows how advertisers
are going out of their way to place
ads in the strangest places. What
functions does advertising serve
for society? Why are advertisers
resorting to placing ads in unusual
places? Where is the oddest place
you have seen an advertisement?
Do you think advertisements
located in odd places are more
effective than traditional advertise-
ments (such as billboards, televi-
sion commercials, newspaper ads)?
What types of ads are you least
likely to respond to?

www

dom26193_ch02_028-[Link] 38 09/01

Ethical Issues
boxes provide opportunities for
critical thinking about ethical issues
specific to mass communication
industries.

ethical
Issues Naming Names

There’s nothing illegal about reporting the name of a juvenile who has been the juvenile suspect if he or she has been charged as an adult. Others will
charged with a crime, but the news media have generally followed a policy take the age of the person arrested into consideration. They may report the
of not revealing the suspect’s name. The Code of Ethics of the Society of names of 16- or 17-year-olds but refrain from identifying younger indivi-
Professional Journalists urges that news media be cautious about naming duals. Still others look at the severity of the crime; the more severe, the
juvenile suspects. The reasoning behind this policy is that juveniles lack the more likely they are to reveal the name of the suspect. The problem with
maturity of adults and often don’t realize the consequences of their actions. this approach is that it sometimes leads to inconsistent results. A teen in
Identifying youthful suspects may result in stigmatizing them for the rest one story may be named while a teen in another story is not identified.
of their lives. In short, the media give the juvenile a chance to go straight The most extreme position argues that the name of anybody
without carrying the baggage associated with an arrest. arrested for a crime should be reported. Not naming the suspect leaves a
Recently, however, there has been a trend toward naming juveniles, hole in the story. Somebody committed a crime. Somebody was arrested.
particularly if they have been involved in serious crimes. The decision to Who? It makes no difference to the person whose car was carjacked if it
publish or not publish the name varies from newsroom to newsroom and was taken by a teen or an adult. The car is still gone. Suspects have the
illustrates an ethical philosophy called situational ethics. Situational ethics entire criminal justice system protecting them while the victims have no
suggests that each individual problem or situation is unique and calls for one to advocate for them. Finally, the proponents of this position argue
a unique solution. There is no universal ethical principle that yields an that naming juvenile offenders might even encourage them to go straight
unswerving path of action. For example, some media outlets will name and prevent future crimes.

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 Revised Pages

Social Issues
boxes explore new developments
in how mass media operate in a
social context.

social
Issues Do We Need the Public Broadcasting Service?

The debate about PBS has been going on since the growth of cable televi- more than a decade. (The U.S. program was based on a British series that
sion in the 1980s and 1990s. Many of the new channels featured content premiered in 1979.) Typical prime-time programming includes reruns of
that was previously the province of PBS. The History Channel, the Discovery old British sitcoms such as Keeping Up Appearances and Are You Being
Channel, Animal Planet, Nickelodeon, the Hallmark Channel, and others Served? Critics also suggest looking at the schedule of the local PBS
fragmented the audience for PBS programs. PBS ratings have been declin- affiliate. How much local programming is aired during the typical week?
ing (along with the ratings of many other networks) for the past decade. The programmers at PBS, however, face a dilemma. If their shows
From 2000 to 2010, PBS’s ratings dropped 37 percent. venture too far away from mainstream, such as programs that examine
What should be the role of PBS in a 500-channel television uni- gay and lesbian lifestyles or global warming, PBS is criticized as being too
verse? A mission statement adopted by PBS stations in 2004 says in part liberal. If their shows stick with the familiar, they are branded as obsolete
that “public television is more essential than ever in the cluttered media or redundant with those of the commercial networks.
landscape.” It goes on to point out that in an age of conglomerate media A second issue concerns the drift of public television toward its com-
ownership, PBS stations may be the only locally owned stations in the com- mercial counterparts. That 2004 mission statement proclaims the goal of
munity and are better suited to responding to local needs. The document commercial television is to attract as many viewers as possible and expose
goes on to state: them to advertising but suggests that PBS is different. In the past decade,
Public television . . . strives for impact and measures its success by however, PBS has opened up its programs to an expanded program of
the extent of its ability to educate and inform, to enlighten and underwriting, whereby a sponsor donates money to a station or PBS in
entertain. In short, public television strives to: return for a 30-second message at the beginning of the program. Many
of these messages look exactly like ads playing on commercial TV. In addi-
■ Challenge the American mind.
tion, underwriters would rather reach a large audience than a small one.
■ Inspire the American spirit.
This means that public TV, if it wants to continue to attract underwriting
■ Preserve the American memory. revenue, will try to air programs that attract a large audience, much like
■ Enhance the American dialogue. commercial TV.
■ Promote global understanding. The transition to digital makes the questions about the role of PBS
even more complicated. Does PBS really need a Facebook fan page or a
Those are lofty goals. Does the programming on PBS stations fulfill
YouTube channel? Check out the PBS Twitter feed. Does it fulfill the goals of
them? Critics suggest that PBS programs have grown musty with age.
the mission statement? This is a debate not likely to end soon.
Nova, Masterpiece, and NewsHour have all been on the air for 30 to 40
years. The American version of Antiques Roadshow has been around for

decision Judy McGrath

makers conglomerate, and McGrath quickly moved up the ranks to creative director,
executive vice president, and eventually chair and chief executive at MTV
For many of you reading this, Judy McGrath would seem to have the ultimate Networks. Under her direction MTV expanded all over the world.
dream job: As president of the MTV Networks Music Group, she was responsible When the music video novelty began to wear off in the mid-1980s
for MTV, MTV2, VH1, CMT, and all of the company’s digital media services. and ratings started to sag, McGrath introduced programs that became
Under her direction MTV has grown from a small niche cable network to an popular culture icons: Beavis and Butt-Head, The Real World, The MTV Music
international brand that symbolizes a unique attitude and lifestyle.
Always a music fan, McGrath first tried to get a job writing for Rolling
Awards, MTV Unplugged, and Total Request Live. She also introduced politi-
cal coverage to MTV and was instrumental in the development of the 1992
Decision Makers
Stone. When her efforts proved unsuccessful, she turned to writing advertis- Choose or Lose get-out-the-vote campaign. More recently, McGrath has led
ing copy and then went to work for Mademoiselle and Glamour. In 1981 she MTV into other media: movies, books, and the Internet. boxes profile people who have
heard about a new cable channel launched by Warner Entertainment that What does she see in MTV’s future? Since a high proportion of MTV
would be devoted to rock music. Despite the fact that she could not even viewers are also Web surfers and spend a good deal of time on [Link], had a significant impact on
get the channel on her home TV, McGrath joined the newly created MTV as a look for more integration of the music on MTV and MTV2 with the Web site. contemporary mass media.
copywriter and on-air promotion person. (She was one of the ones respon- [Link] will be used to highlight some of the artists or genres featured on
sible for using all the space film footage to promote the channel.) To the sur- the cable channels. In addition, plans are under way for more international
prise of many people, MTV was successful in attracting 16- to 24-year-olds, expansion, particularly in Asia. Her plans will have to be carried out by
an audience coveted by advertisers. MTV became part of the huge Viacom someone else. McGrath stepped down from her position in 2011.
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 BRIAN TRACY SPEAK TO HOW TO PRESENT WITH POWER
in ANY SITUATION
 Speak to Win How to Present with Power in Any Situation
Brian Tracy AMACOM American Management Association New York •
Atlanta • Brussels • Chicago • Mexico City • San Francisco Shanghai
• Tokyo • Toronto • Washington, D.C. .16729$ $$FM 11-30-07
[Link] PS
 Special discounts on bulk quantities ofAMACOM books are
available to corporations, professional associations, and other
organizations. For details, contact Special Sales Department,
AMACOM, a division of American Management Association, 1601
Broadway, New York, NY 10019. Tel: 212-903-8316. Fax: 212-903-
8083. E-mail: specialsls@[Link] Website:
[Link]/go/specialsales To view all AMACOM titles
go to: [Link] This publication is designed to
provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the
subject matter covered. It is sold with the understanding that the
publisher is not engaged in rendering legal, accounting, or other
professional service. If legal advice or other expert assistance is
required, the services of a competent professional person should be
sought. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Tracy,
Brian. Speak to win : how to present with power in any situation I
Brian Tracy. p. cm. Includes index. ISBN- 13: 978-0-8144-0157-6
ISBN- 10: 0-8144-0157-0 1. Public speaking. I. Title. PN4129.15.T73
2008 808.5' l—dc22 2007043407 © 2008 Brian Tracy All rights
reserved. Printed in the United States of America. This publication
may not be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted
in whole or in part, in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior
written permission of AMACOM, a division of American Management
Association, 1601 Broadway, New York, NY 10019. Printing number
10 987654321 .16729$ $$FM 11-30-07 [Link] PS
 This book is fondly dedicated to my wife, Barbara, who has
been with me and supported me over the years while I have been
traveling and speaking all over the world. She has been a loyal and
understanding partner, friend, and wonderful mother. Without her,
nothing would have been possible, and with her support, there have
been no limits. .16729$ $$FM 11-30-07 [Link] PS
This page intentionally left blank
 Contents Introduction: Speaking to Win 1 Chapter 1 The
Arts of Speaking and Rhetoric 8 Chapter 2 Planning and Preparation
Made Simple 18 Chapter 3 Self-Confidence and Mental Mastery:
Eliminating the Fear of Public Speaking 41 Chapter 4 Start Strong
with Any Audience 55 Chapter 5 Mastering Meetings with Small
Groups 70 Chapter 6 Mastering Small-Group Presentations and
Negotiations 81 Chapter 7 Platform Mastery: Impressing Large
Audiences 96 Chapter 8 Vocal Mastery: Powerful Voice Techniques
118 Chapter 9 Tricks of the Trade: Techniques of Master Speakers
131 Chapter 10 Controlling Your Space 144 Chapter 11 End with a
Bang: Leave Them Breathless! 164 Chapter 12 Making Persuasive
Sales Presentations 173 Index 195 About the Author 201 .16729$
CNTS 11-30-07 [Link] PS
This page intentionally left blank
 Speaking to Win Our destiny changes with our thoughts;
we shall become what we wish to become, do what we wish to do,
when our habitual thoughts correspond with our desires. —ORISON
SWETT MARDEN Your ability to speak to an audience is essential to
your success. Speaking well can garner the respect and esteem of
others, make you more valuable to your company, and get attention
from people who can help you and open doors for you. Good
speaking ability will also convince people that you are generally more
talented and intelligent than others who do not speak as well. What
is your most valuable asset? Your mind. One of the most precious
skills you have is your ability to think well and to express yourself
clearly. This skill can help you earn more and get pro1 .16729$ INTR
11-30-07 [Link] PS
 Speak to Win moted faster as much as any other talent you
can develop. After all, the only way you can demonstrate your
mastery of a subject is by expressing your thoughts and ideas clearly
aloud and in writing. When you speak well, people say, "He really
knows what he's talking about." The good news is that your mind is
like a muscle. It grows stronger and more capable with use.
Organizing your thoughts and words in advance makes you more
alert and aware of what you are saying and how you are saying it.
The act of planning, preparing, and delivering talks and
presentations forces you to use your mind at a higher level, and it
actually makes you smarter. Eliminate Your Fear and Turbocharge
Your Career Some years ago, I gave a one-day seminar on executive
effectiveness to a group of businesspeople. During the talk I
emphasized the importance of being able to speak well and influence
people in business. At the end of the day, a somewhat shy
businessman came up to me and told me that, as a result of my
comments, he had decided that he was going to learn how to be a
good speaker. He was tired of being ignored by his supervisors and
passed over for promotions. A year later, I received a letter from him
telling me his story. He had immediately taken action on his
resolution. He joined a local chapter of Toastmasters and began
attending weekly meetings. At each meeting, each member was
required to stand up and speak on some subject, and each person
was given a grade at the end of the meeting. Toastmasters uses the
process of "systematic desensitization." .16729$ INTR 11-30-07
[Link]
 Introduction: Speaking to Win This means that if you do
something over and over, you finally become desensitized to it.
When you speak repeatedly in front of others, you eventually lose
your fears and misgivings. He also took a Dale Carnegie course for
14 weeks. At each session, he was required to speak in front of his
peers. Within six months, he had given so many long and short
presentations to friendly groups of peers that most of his fear and
anxiety about speaking was gone. In its place was a growing
confidence in his ability to express himself to an audience. Doors
Open for You At about this point in his growth and development,
there was a small emergency at his engineering firm. One of the
partners had been scheduled to give a presentation to the members
of a client company. But the partner was ill and unable to make the
meeting. The businessman's boss asked him if he would prepare and
present the company's proposal instead. He accepted the
assignment. He prepared thoroughly throughout the evening and the
following morning. He then went to the client's office, made an
excellent presentation for the firm's services, and got the business.
When he returned to the office, his boss told him that the president
of the prospective client had called and thanked him for sending
someone to give such an excellent presentation of the firm's
services. Within a few weeks, he was being sent out regularly to call
on the firm's prospects and clients. He was promoted, and then
promoted again. Soon he was a member of senior management and
on his way to becoming a partner. He told me that his whole life
changed by making a decision to become a good speaker and
following up that decision with specific actions. .16729$ INTR 11-30-
07 [Link] PS
 Speak to Win Increase Your Self-Esteem Becoming an
excellent public speaker will help you in every part of your career.
But there is an even more important reason to learn to speak well to
an audience. Psychologists tell us that your level of self-esteem, or
"how much you like yourself," largely determines the quality of your
inner and outer life. The better and more persuasively you speak,
the more you like yourself. The more you like yourself, the more
optimistic and confident you are. The more you like yourself, the
more positive and personable you are in your relationships with
others. The more you like yourself, the healthier, happier, and more
positive you become in everything you do. Improve Your Self-image
When you learn to speak effectively, your self-image improves as
well. Your self-image is your "inner mirror." It's the way you see
yourself and think about yourself prior to and during any event. The
more positive your self-image, the more competent your
performance. The very act of visualizing yourself performing at your
best prior to any event or activity will improve your performance. We
are all highly sensitive to the thoughts, feelings, and especially the
respect of others. Somerset Maugham wrote, "Everything we do in
life is to earn the respect of others, or at the very least, not to lose
their respect." So when you speak well, your audience likes and
respects you more. As a result, you like and respect yourself more as
well. When you get positive feedback from others as the result of
speaking well, your self-image improves. You see yourself and think
about yourself in a more positive way. You develop a sense of
personal power. You walk, talk, and act with greater confidence.
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 Introduction: Speaking to Win Excellent Speaking Is
Learnable Perhaps the best news about speaking to groups is that it
is a learnable skill. Most people who are competent speakers today
at one time could not lead silent prayer in a phone booth. Many
people who appear confident and articulate in front of an audience
were at one time terrified at the idea of standing up and speaking in
public. Your goal should be to be in the top 10 percent of
communicators. And you should continually remind yourself that
almost everyone who is in the top 10 percent today started in the
bottom 10 percent. Everyone who is doing well was once doing
poorly. As Harv Eker says, "Every master was once a disaster." You
have probably heard it said that practice makes perfect. Some
people go even further and say that perfect practice makes perfect.
However, the truth is that imperfect practice makes perfect. On your
journey to mastering the art of speaking to an audience, you will
make many small and large mistakes. You will often feel nervous and
inadequate. You will say the wrong things and forget to say the right
things. You will mumble and stumble and wonder if you will ever get
it right. Move out of Your Comfort Zone But in order to achieve
excellence in speaking or in any field, you must be willing to move
out of your comfort zone and into your discomfort zone. You must
be willing to feel clumsy and awkward during your growth and
development if you are ever going to move to a higher level of
competence. You may remember the story of the famous Greek
orator, De.16729$ INTR 11-30-07 [Link] PS
 Speak to Win mosthenes, considered one of the finest
speakers of antiquity. When he began, he was nervous, shy, and
troubled by both a stutter and a speech impediment. But he was
determined to be a good speaker. To overcome his difficulties, he put
pebbles in his mouth and spoke loudly to the sea for hours every
day. In time, he eliminated his stutter and overcame his speech
impediment. His voice grew louder, stronger, and more confident. He
became one of the greatest orators in history. If you are a beginning
speaker, this book will show you how to accelerate the process of
speaking with competence, confidence, and clarity. If you are a more
experienced speaker, this book will give you some of the most
powerful techniques, tactics, and methods of great speakers in every
area of business, politics, and personal life. The Four Ds to Speaking
Excellence To become an outstanding speaker, you simply must have
the four Ds. 1. Desire. First, you must have an intense, burning
desire to speak well. If your desire is strong enough and you want to
achieve speaking mastery long enough, nothing can stop you from
reaching your goal. But desire is not enough. 2. Decision. You must
make a decision this very day that you are going to make every
effort, overcome any obstacle, and do whatever it takes to become
excellent. 3. Discipline. You must have the discipline to plan,
prepare, and deliver talks and presentations, over and over again,
until you achieve mastery. There are no shortcuts to hard work in
developing an essential skill. 4. Determination. Finally, you must
have the determination to .16729$ INTR 11-30-07 [Link]
 Introduction: Speaking to Win persist and persevere in spite
of any short-term setback, obstacle, or embarrassment you may
experience. The Only Limit Is You Our greatest enemies are always
our own doubts and fears. But there are no limits to what you can
do, be, or have except for the limits you place on yourself. Over the
years, I have delivered more than 4,000 presentations and spoken
personally to more than 5,000,000 people in 46 countries. In the
pages ahead, I will take you by the hand and show you, step by
step, how to develop the courage, confidence, and competence to
be a winning speaker in any situation. .16729$ INTR 11-30-07
[Link] PS
 The Arts of Speaking and Rhetoric All his oratorical efforts
were made for practical effect. He never spoke merely to be heard.
—ABRAHAM LINCOLN, in his eulogy on Henry Clay HP I hroughout
history, the height of human effectiveness has -L been the ability to
persuade others. As such, the aim or goal of public speaking is to
cause an action to take place that would not have taken place in the
absence of the words of the speaker. For example, when
Demosthenes spoke, people said, "What a fine speaker he is." But
when Alcibiades spoke, they said, "Let us march!" Your job as a
speaker is to motivate and impel your listeners to think, feel, and act
differently as the result of your words. It is to 8 .16729$ $CH1 11-
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 The Arts of Speaking and Rhetoric make them take action
of some kind. It is to motivate them to "march!" Fortunately,
becoming a master speaker and business communicator is a
learnable skill. If you can learn how to drive a car, type on a
keyboard, or use a cell phone, you can become an effective speaker
and change not only your life, but the lives of your listeners. The
Three Elements of Persuasion Aristotle was the first major
philosopher to recognize the importance of rhetoric as an essential
tool of the leader. He broke down the essential elements of
persuasion into three parts: logos (logic), ethos (ethic), and pathos
(emotion). Let us take each of them in turn. Logos refers to the
logic, the words, and the reasons in your argument. It is important
that everything that you say fits together like links in a chain or
pieces of a jigsaw puzzle to form a coherent statement or argument.
When you think through and plan your talk, you organize your
various points in a sequence from the general to the particular, from
the start to the conclusion, with each point building on each previous
point to form a persuasive argument. The second aspect of
persuasion is ethos. This refers to your character, ethics, and your
believability when you speak. Increasing your credibility with your
audience before and during your speech increases the likelihood that
listeners will accept your arguments and take action on your
recommendations. The third aspect of persuasion is pathos. This is
the emotional content of your argument and is perhaps the most
important. It is .16729$ $cm 11-30-07 15:11 :4o ps
 10 Speak to Win only when you connect emotionally and
move people at a fundamental level that you can motivate them to
change their thinking and take a particular action. All three elements
— logos, ethos, and pathos — must be woven together if you want
to move people and persuade them to your point of view. The Three
Components of Your Message Albert Mehrabian of UCLA conducted a
series of studies into effective communication some years ago. He
concluded that there are three components of any spoken message:
the words, the tone of voice, and the speaker's body language. The
Words Surprisingly, according to Mehrabian, the words count for only
7 percent of the message conveyed. Of course, the words you use
are vitally important and must be selected with care. They must be
organized in a proper sequence and be grammatically correct. But
everyone has heard a boring, academic speaker whose words were
brilliant but whose message fell flat. The words alone are not
enough. The Tone The second element of communication that
Mehrabian identified was the tone of voice. In his calculation, 38
percent of the message is contained in the speaker's tonality and
emphasis on various words. Recite the sentence "I love you very
much." By putting the emphasis on any one of those words or by
making the sentence a .16729$ $CH1 11-30-07 [Link] PS
 I The Arts of Speaking and Rhetoric 11 question rather than
a statement, you can change the entire meaning of the sentence.
Try it. Make your tone reflect a sincere statement or a question.
Notice how the meaning can be completely different just by focusing
on a single word. Every man has had the experience of arguing with
the woman in his life over a simple subject. Because men tend to
use words as tools and women tend to use words for understanding
and relationship building, they hear the same words differently. For
example, she might become angry or hurt at something he said. He
will respond by saying, "But I just said such and such." She will reply
angrily, "It wasn't what you said; it was the way you said it." By
deliberately changing your tone of voice and being aware of how
important it is, you can change the entire message and the
subsequent effect it has on your listeners. The Body Mehrabian also
found that fully 55 percent of the message is contained in the
speaker's body language. This is because there are 22 times as
many nerves from the eye to the brain as from the ear to the brain.
For this reason, visual impressions are very powerful. Be Aware of
Your Style of Communication Excellent communicators always pay
attention to the effect their body language has on the level of
acceptance of the message they are trying to convey. When your
arms hang loosely at your side, with your palms outward and open,
and you look directly at the audience with a .16729$ $CH1 11-30-07
[Link] PS
 12 Speak to Win smile as you speak, your listeners relax
and absorb your message like a sponge absorbs water. If your face
is serious and unsmiling, with your arms folded or gripping the
lectern, your listeners respond as if an angry parent is scolding
them. They close up and become defensive, resisting your message
and your attempt to persuade them to think and act in a particular
way. Body language is very important! Because I have given so
many talks to so many audiences, speakers continually ask me for
my comments on a talk or seminar that they have just delivered. I
am always reluctant to give critical feedback because people in
general seem to be hypersensitive to comments that are not glowing
and positive. Nonetheless, it is amazing how often I give the same
piece of advice: "Slow down, pause, and smile between points and
sentences." It is equally amazing how many speakers take this
advice and notice an immediate and positive difference in the way
their audiences respond to them. When you slow down, your words
are clearer and you appear more articulate. Your tone of voice is
more pleasant and enjoyable. And when you smile, you radiate
warmth, friendliness, and acceptance. This causes your audience to
relax and become more open to your message. We'll talk more about
this in Chapter 8. A Simple Structure for Short Talks There is a
simple three-part structure that you can use to design any speech.
You can use this model for a one-minute talk or for a 30-minute talk.
Part One Part one is the opening. You simply tell the audience what
you are going to say in your speech. For example, you could say:
"Thank .16729$ $CH1 11-30-07 [Link] PS
 I The Arts of Speaking and Rhetoric 13 you for being here.
In the next few minutes, I want to tell you about the three problems
facing our industry today and the actions we can take to turn them
to our advantage in the months ahead." This opening sets the stage,
prepares the audience, and gives your speech a track to run on. Part
Two The second part is to tell them what you promised in the
opening. This can consist of one, two, or three points. If it is a short
speech, it should only include three key points developed in a
sequence. For example, you might say: "We are facing increased
competition, shrinking profit margins, and changing customer tastes.
Let us look at each of these, in order, and consider alternative ways
of dealing with them effectively." Part Three The third part of
speaking is a summary of what you just told the audience. You
should never expect your listeners to memorize everything that you
have said the first time they hear it. Looking back, summarizing and
repeating is helpful and enjoyable for your audience. For example,
you could say: To summarize, to deal with increased competition, we
must improve the quality of our offerings and the speed at which we
deliver them to our customers. To deal with shrinking markets, we
must expand into new markets and increase our product offerings to
attract new customers. To deal with changing customer tastes, we
must develop and market products and services that our customers
want today, rather than what they may have wanted in the past.
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 14 Speak to Win With our joint commitment to these three
goals, we will not only survive but thrive in the exciting times ahead.
Thank you. You Have a Job to Do Peggy Noonan, speechwriter for
Ronald Reagan, once wrote, "Every speech has a job to do." One of
the most important things you must do, before you speak, is start
with the end in mind. Determine what you want your talk to
accomplish. Ask yourself what I call the "objective question": "If
they interviewed people after my talk and asked them, 'What did you
get from this speech and what are you going to do differently as a
result?' what would I want them to say?" Everything in your speech,
from your opening through the body to your closing remarks, should
aim at achieving this goal. When I work with corporate clients, I ask
them the "objective question." I also ask them why they are inviting
me to speak and what objective or objectives they want me to
accomplish with their audience. We then discuss and agree on
exactly how we want the audience to think, feel, and act after the
talk or seminar. Once we are both clear, I will then design the talk or
seminar, from beginning to end, to ensure that we achieve that
result. You can do the same. A Complex Structure for Longer
Speeches In designing a longer talk, there is a more complex
structure that you can use. It consists of the following eight parts,
each of which I will develop and explain in the pages ahead. 1. The
Opening. The purpose of the opening is to get the audience's
attention, build expectations, and focus listeners on .16729$ $CH1
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 I The Arts of Speaking and Rhetoric 15 the speaker. There
is no point in talking if no one is listening or paying attention. 2. The
Introduction. This is where you tell the audience what is coming and
why it is important. 3. The First Point. This is where you transition
into the body of your talk. Your first point sets the stage and begins
to deliver on your initial promise. 4. The Transition into the Next
Point. You must make it clear that you have finished with one point
and are now moving on to another. This is an art in and of itself. 5.
The Second Key Point. This point should follow logically from your
first point. 6. Another Transition. Here you make it clear that you are
moving onward to another subject. 7. The Third Key Point. This
flows naturally from the first two points and begins moving you
toward the end of your talk. 8. The Summary. This is your conclusion
and call to action. In Chapter 2, you will learn how to organize and
develop your talk so that you achieve each of these goals in the
proper order and sequence. In learning to speak effectively, there is
no substitute for practice, especially practicing aloud. Over the years,
I have observed hundreds of talks given by both amateurs and
professionals, and you can always tell when they have been
practiced thoroughly beforehand. Speaking with Power and Presence
The popular author Elbert Hubbard was once asked how one
became a writer. He replied, "The only way to learn to write is to
write and write and write and write and write and write and write."
.16729$ $cm 11-30-07 [Link] ps
 16 Speak to Win Likewise, to learn the art of speaking, the
only way to learn is to speak and speak and speak and speak and
speak and speak and speak. Learning to speak is like learning any
other skill. It requires practice and repetition until you have
mastered the ability to communicate and persuade. One of the best
ways to improve your speaking style and ability is to recite poetry
aloud. Memorize a poem that you enjoy, one with a great story and
wonderful lines, and then recite it over and over again. Each time
you recite this poem aloud, put energy and passion into your voice.
Vary the rhythm and tone and emphasis on the various words.
Imagine that you are auditioning for a major role in a big-budget
movie that will make you rich and famous. Deliver the lines of this
poem as though it is extremely important that you connect
emotionally and enthusiastically with the listener. When you read
good poetry, you not only learn how to develop sentences, but you
also learn how to use a wider variety of words to make your points
more effectively. The rule is this: People will forget what you said,
but they will remember how you said it. As you change the emphasis
from word to word and from sentence to sentence, you develop an
almost musical ability to speak in such a way that listeners are
caught up in your message. Another great exercise is to read
Shakespeare, especially the famous monologues from Hamlet,
Macbeth, Julius Caesar, and Romeo and Juliet. When you read these
wonderful monologues and soliloquies, you expand your command
of language and your competence in rhetoric and persuasion.
Learning from Others One of the very best ways to become a better
speaker is to listen to as many other speakers as possible. Take
notes. Observe how .16729$ $CH1 11-30-07 [Link] PS
 I The Arts of Speaking and Rhetoric 17 they walk, talk,
move, and gesture. Observe how an experienced speaker opens a
talk; transitions into the body of the talk; uses examples,
illustrations, and humor; wraps up the talk; and concludes her time
with the audience. Make a list of the points you want to observe,
from the opening to the close, and give the speaker a grade from 1
to 10 for each of those points. Think about how he or she could
have done each thing better and how you could do it better yourself.
Listen to some of the best speeches ever given, many of which are
available on CD. Play them over and over and notice how the
speaker uses logos, ethos, and pathos to persuade the listener to
think, feel, and act differently. Summary The wonderful thing about
communication is that you cannot get worse at it by doing it. To
master the arts of speaking and rhetoric, you must be prepared to
learn and practice, over and over again, for months and even years.
There are no shortcuts. It is also important to remember that
preparation is what separates mediocrity from greatness. So spend
time developing your logic, planning your words, and working
toward your goal for your audience. And practice. Every new line of
poetry that you remember and recite, every monologue that you
deliver aloud, every speaker that you observe and critique increases
your ability to become an excellent speaker yourself. There are no
limits. .16729$ $cm 11-30-[Link] ps
 Planning and Preparation Made Simple The true worth of a
man is to be measured in the objects he pursues. —MARCUS
AURELIUS Fully 90 percent of your success as a speaker will be
determined by how well you plan your speech. Ernest Hemingway
once wrote, "You must know ten words for every word you write, or
the reader will know that this is not a true thing." In speaking,
however, you must read and research 100 words for every word you
speak, or the listener will know that you are speaking off the top of
your head. The listener will immedi18 .16729$ $CH2 11-30-07
[Link] PS
 I Planning and Preparation Made Simple 19 ately sense that
you lack a depth of knowledge in your subject unless you are not
only prepared but overprepared. Poor preparation before an
intelligent, discerning audience automatically downgrades your
credibility — your ethos. If you are unprepared, or even worse, if
you tell listeners that you are "not an expert on this subject," they
immediately turn off to your message, no matter how good it is. On
the other hand, excellent preparation is immediately obvious. It
increases your credibility. Preparation impresses your listeners and
makes them more open and receptive to your message. Start with
Audience Demographics and Characteristics The starting point of
preparation is your audience. Remember, it is not about you; it is
about them. Begin as if you were a market researcher and you are
determined to understand your customers fully. Who are they
exactly? Who will be in the audience? This is the key to an effective
talk and to excellent preparation. Here are some demographic
particulars that you can use to tailor your speeches. Age and Age
Range How old are your audience members and what are their age
ranges? Younger audiences have different understandings, different
cultural knowledge, and different backgrounds from older audiences.
Knowing their age is very important. Gender What is the gender mix
in your audience? Sometimes my audiences will be 50:50 males and
females. Sometimes my audiences .16729$ $CH2 11-30-07 [Link]
PS
 20 Speak to Win | will be 95 percent men or 95 percent
women. This gender breakdown will influence how you design your
remarks and make your points. Income What are the incomes of the
people in your audiences? How much do they earn on average?
What is their income range, from the lowest to the highest? In
particular, how do they earn their incomes, and what influences
those incomes? Knowing this can help you to refer to money and
income-related topics in a way that it is more acceptable to more of
your listeners. Education What is the educational background of the
people in your audience? Are they high school graduates? Are they
university graduates? Do they have liberal-arts degrees or
engineering degrees? Knowing the type of education your listeners
have helps you choose relevant examples, illustrations, and
vocabulary. Occupation What do your audience members do for a
living? How long have they been working in their particular fields?
What is happening in their particular fields today? Is this a boom
time or a bust time for the work that they do? Family Status What is
the family status of your audience? Are audience members married,
single, divorced, or widowed? Are they mostly married or .16729$
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