TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING Module - 5

AIRPORT ENGINEERING
Air transport has the following characteristics:
1. UnbrokenJourney: Air transport provides unbroken journey over land and sea. It is the
fastest and quickest means of transport.
2. Rapidity: Air transport had the highest speed among all the modes of transport.
3. Expensive: Air transport is the most expensive means of transport. There is huge
investment in purchasing aero planes and constructing of aerodromes.
4. Special Preparations: Air transport requires special preparations like wheelers links,
meteorological stations, flood lights, searchlights etc.

Advantages:
1. High Speed: The supreme advantage of air transport is its high speed. It is the fastest

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mode of transport and thus it is the most suitable mean where time is an important factor.
2. Comfortable and Quick Services: It provides a regular, comfortable, efficient and quick
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service.
3. No Investment in Construction of Track: It does not require huge capital investment in the
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construction and maintenance of surface track.
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4. No Physical Barriers: It follows the shortest and direct route as seas, mountains or forests
do not come in the way of air transport.
5. Easy Access: Air transport can be used to carry goods and people to the areas which are
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not accessible by other means of transport.

6. Emergency Services: It can operate even when all other means of transport cannot be
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operated due to the floods or other natural calamities. Thus, at that time, it is the only
mode of transport which can be employed to do the relief work and provide the essential
commodities of life.
7. Quick Clearance: In air transport, custom formalities can be very quickly complied with
and thus it avoids delay in obtaining clearance.
8. Most Suitable for Carrying Light Goods of High Value: It is most suitable for carrying
goods of perishable nature which require quick delivery and light goods of high value
such as diamonds, bullion etc. over long distances.
9. National Defence: Air transport plays a very import and role in the defence of a country.
Modern wars have been fought mainly by aeroplanes. It has upper hand in destroying the

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TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING Module - 5

enemy in a very short period of time. It also supports over wings of defence of a country.
10. Space Exploration: Air transport has helped the world in the exploration of space.
Disadvantages:
Inspite of many advantages, airtransport has the following limitations:
1. Very Costly: It is the costliest means of transport. The fares of air transport are so high
that it is beyond the reach of the common man.
2. Small Carrying Capacity: Its carrying capacity is very small and hence it is not suitable
to carry cheap and bulky goods.
3. Uncertain and Unreliable: Air transport is uncertain and unreliable as it is controlled to a
great extent by weather conditions. Unfavourable weather such as fog, snow or heavy rain
etc. may cause cancellation of scheduled flights and suspension of air service.
4. Breakdowns and Accidents: The chances of breakdowns and accidents are high as
compared to other modes of transport. Hence, it involves comparatively greater risk.

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5. Large Investment: It requires a large amount of capital investment in the construction and
maintenance of aeroplanes. Further, very trained and skilled persons are required for
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operating air service.
6. Specialised Skill: Air transport requires a specialised skill and high degree of training for
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its operation.
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7. Unsuitable for Cheap and Bulky Goods: Air transport is unsuitable for carrying cheap,
bulky and heavy goods because of its limited capacity and high cost.
8. Legal Restrictions: There are many legal restrictions imposed by various countries in the
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interest of their own national unity and peace.

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Components of Airport
The main components of airport are
1. Runway
2. Terminal Building
3. Apron
4. Taxiway
5. Aircraft Stand
6. Hanger
7. Control Tower
8. Parking

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Runways: It is the most important part of an airport in the form of paved, long and narrow
rectangular strip which actually used for landing and takeoff operations. It has turfed (grassy)
shoulders on both sides.The width of runway and area of shoulders is called the landing strip.
The runway is located in the centre of landing strip. The length of landing strip is some what
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larger than the runway strip in order to accommodate the stop way to stop the aircraft in case
of abandoned takeoff.
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Terminal Buildings: Also known as airport terminal, these buildings are the spaces where
passengers board or alight from flights. These buildings house all the necessary facilities for
passengers to check-in their luggage, clear the customs and have lounges to wait before
disembarking.
The terminals can house cafes, lounges and bars to serve as waiting areas for passengers.
Ticket counters, luggage check-in or transfer, security checks and customs are the basics of
all airport terminals.
Hangers: A hangar is a closed building structure to hold aircraft, space craft or tanks in
protective storage. Most hangars are built of metal, but other materials such as wood and
concrete are also used. Hangars are used for protection from the weather, direct sunlight,
maintenance, repair, manufacture, assembly and storage of aircraft on airfields, aircraft
carrier.
Aprons: Aircraft aprons are the areas where the aircraft park. Aprons are also sometimes
called ramps. They vary in size, from areas that may hold five or ten small planes, to the very

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large areas that the major airports have.

Taxiway: Taxiway is the paved way rigid or flexible which connects runway with loading
apron or service and maintenance hangers or with another runway. They are used for the
movement of aircraft on the airfields for various purposes such as exit or landing, exit for
takeoff etc. The speed of aircraft on taxiway is less than that during taking off or landing
speed.
Aircraft Stand: A portion of an apron designated as a taxiway and intended to provide
access to aircraft stands only.
Control Tower: A tower at an airfield from which airtraffic is controlled by radio and observed
physically and by radar.
Parking: Parking is a specific area of airport at which vehicles park

Site selection for airport

The selection of a suitable site for an airport depends upon the class of airport under
consideration. However if such factors as required for the selection of the largest facility are

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considered the development of the airport by stages will be made easier and economical. The
factors listed below are for the selection of a suitable site for a major airport installation:

1. Regionalplan
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2. Airport use
3. Proximityto otherairport
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4. Ground accessibility
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5. Topography
6. Obstructions
7. Visibility
8. Wind
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9. Noise nuisance
10. grading,drainageand soilcharacteristics
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11. Futuredevelopment
12. Availabilityofutilitiesfromtown
13. Economicconsideration

Regional plan: The site selected should fit well into the regional plan there by forming it an
integral part of the national network of airport.
Airport use: The selection of site depends upon the use of an airport. Whether for civilian or
for military operations. However during the emergency civilian airports are taken over by
the defence. Therefore the airport site selected should be such that it provides natural
protection to the area from air raids. This consideration is of prime importance for the
airfields to be located in combat zones. If the site provides thick bushes, the planes can be
stored inside unnoticed.
Proximity to other airport: The site should be selected at a considerable distance from the
existing airports so that the aircraft landing in one airport does not interfere with the

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TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING Module - 5

movement of aircraft at other airport. The required separation between the airports mainly
depends upon the volume of air traffic.
Ground accessibility: The site should be so selected that it is readily accessible to the users.
The airline passenger is more concerned with his door to door time rather than the actual time
in air travel. The time to reach the airport is therefore an important consideration especially
for short haul operations.
Topography: This includes natural features like ground contours trees streams etc. A raised
ground a hill top is usually considered to be an ideal site for an airport.
Obstructions: When aircraft is landing or taking off it loses or gains altitude very slowly as
compared to the forward speed. For this reason long clearance areas are provided on either
side of runway known as approach areas over which the aircraft can safely gain or lose
altitude.
Visibility: Poor visibility lowers the traffic capacity of the airport. The site selected should
therefore be free from visibility reducing conditions such as fog smoke and haze. Fog
generally settles in the area where wind blows minimum in a valley.
Wind: Runwayis so oriented that landing and take off is done by heading into the wind

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should be collected over a minimum period of about five years.
Noise nuisance: The extent of noise nuisance depends upon the climb out path of aircraft
type of engine propulsion and the gross weight of aircraft. The problem becomes more acute
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with jet engine aircrafts. Therefore the site should be so selected that the landing and takeoff
paths of the aircrafts pass over the land which is free from residential or industrial
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developments.
Grading, drainage and soil characteristics: Grading and drainage play an important role in
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the construction and maintenance of airport which in turn influences the site selection. The
original ground profile of a site together with any grading operations determines the shape of
an airport area and the general pattern of the drainage system. The possibilityof floods at the
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valley sites should be investigated. Sites with high water tables which may require costly
subsoil drainage should be avoided.
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Future development: considering that the air traffic volume will continue to increase in
future more member of runways may have to be provided for an increased traffic.

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Aircraft characteristics affecting the design and planning of

airport

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Airportclassification:
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Based on take-off and landing:

• Conventional Take – Off and Landing Airport (CTOL)
Runway Length > 1500 m
• Reduced Take – Off and Landing Airport (RTOL)
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Runway Length 1000 to 1500 m

• Short Take – Off and Landing Airport (STOL)
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Runway Length 500 to 1000 m

• Vertical Take – Off and Landing Airport (VTOL)
Operational area 25 to 50 sq m.
FAA Classification:
Based on AirCraft Approach speed:

Approach Category Approach Speed (knots)

A <91
B 91 – 120
C 120– 140
D 141– 165
E >165
1 knot =1.852 kmph

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Based on Function:
1. Civil Aviation
Domestic International

2. Military Aviation

ICAO Classification:

Based on Geometric Design:

Airport BasicRunwayLength(m) WidthofRunway Maximum Longitudinal
Type Maximum Minimum Pavement (m) Grade (%)
A Over2100 2100 45 1.5
B 2099 1500 45 1.5
C 1499 900 30 1.5
D 899 750 22.5 2.0
E 749 600 18 2.0

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Based on Aircraft Wheel Characteristics:
CodeNo. SingleIsolatedWheelLoad(kg) TyrePressure(kg/cm2)
1 45000 8.5
2 34000 7.0
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3 27000 7.0
4 20000 7.0
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5 13000 6.0
6 7000 5.0
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7 2000 2.5
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According to the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) a runway is a "defined

rectangular area on a land aerodrome prepared for the landing and take-off of aircraft".

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Problem
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The following is the wind date at proposed airport site when
wind intensity is above 6.4 kmph. Determine the best direction
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to orient the runway and hence calculate total wind coverage
and calm period.
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Duration of wind, %
Direction 6.4 -25 25 -40 40 -60
kmph kmph kmph
N 4.2 1.6 0.2
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NNE 7.1 3.6 0.3

NE 5.2 2.3 0.5
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ENE 2.2 1.4 0.4

E 1.8 0.2 0.0
ESE 1.3 0.7 0.0
SE 1.6 0.4 0.0
SSE 3.1 0.9 0.0
S 6.2 1.3 0.5
SSW 10.3 4.2 0.5
SW 7.6 2.1 0.3
WSW 5.0 0.9 0.1
W 2.2 1.4 0.4
WNW 1.7 0.3 0.0
NW 0.8 0.2 0.0
NNW 4.0 1.0 0.0

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Solution
Duration of wind, % Total in each
Direction 6.4 -25 25 -40 40 -60 direction
kmph kmph kmph %
N 4.2 1.6 0.2 6
NNE 7.1 3.6 0.3 11
NE 5.2 2.3 0.5 8
ENE 2.2 1.4 0.4 4
E 1.8 0.2 0.0 2
ESE 1.3 0.7 0.0 2
SE 1.6 0.4 0.0 2
SSE 3.1 0.9 0.0 4
S 6.2 1.3 0.5 8
SSW 10.3 4.2 0.5 15
SW 7.6 2.1 0.3 10
WSW 5.0 0.9 0.1 6
W 2.2 1.4 0.4 4
WNW 1.7 0.3 0.0 2

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NW 0.8 0.2 0.0 1
NNW 4.0 1.0 0.0 5
Total Coverage in all Directions
C 90
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Total Coverage in all Directions = 90 %

Calm period = 100 – Total Coverage in all Directions
= 100 – 90
= 10 %
Best orientation of runway is NNE and SSW
Wind coverage = N+NNE+NE+S + SSW + SW + Calm period
= 6 + 11 + 8 + 8 + 15 + 10 + 10
= 68 %
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TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING Module - 5

The following is the wind date at proposed airport site when

wind intensity is above 6.4 kmph. Determine the best direction
to orient the runway and hence calculate total wind coverage
and calm period.
Duration of wind, %
Direction 6.4 -25 25 -40 40 -60
kmph kmph kmph
N 7.4 2.7 0.2
NNE 5.7 2.1 0.3
NE 2.4 0.9 0.5
ENE 1.2 0.4 0.2
E 0.8 0.2 0.0
ESE 0.3 0.1 0.0
SE 4.3 2.8 0.0
SSE 5.5 3.2 0.0
S 9.7 4.6 0.0
SSW 6.3 3.2 0.5
SW 3.6 1.8 0.3
WSW 1.0 0.5 0.1

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W 0.4 0.1 0.0
WNW 0.2 0.1 0.0
NW 5.3 1.9 0.0
NNW 4.0 1.3 0.3
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Type II wind rose:
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– From the wind data table, it is observed that the percentage of time during which the wind
velocity is less than 6 kmph works out to (100-88) = 12. This period is called the calm
period and does not influence the operations of landing and take-off because of low wind

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velocity.
– Thus the wind velocities below 6 kmph have no effect on the fixing of orientation of a
runway.
– The concentric circles with radii corresponding to 6, 25, 50, and 80 kmph to some scale
are drawn. Thus, each circle represents the wind velocity to some scale
– Starting with centre of the concentric circles, the 16 radial directions are shown on the
outer circle. The mid points of 16 arcs on the outer most concentric circle are marked and
they are given the cardinal directions of compass like N, NNE, NE, ENE, E, etc.
– There corded duration of winds and expressed as percentage are shown for each cardinal
irection. It may be noted that the cardinal direction is central to sector.
– A transparent rectangular template or paper strip is taken. Its length should be slightly
greater than the diameter of the wind rose diagram and its width should be greater than
twice the allowable cross wind component i.e.25 kmph.
– The scale for cross wind component should be the same as that of the concentric circles of
the wind rose diagram.
– Along the centre of the length of this template, a line is marked corresponding to the

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direction of runway.
– The two parallel lines, one on either side of the centre-line, is drawn at a distance equal to
the allowable crosswind component i.e. 25 Kmph from the centre line. In otherwords, the
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two parallel lines are 50 Kmph away from each other.
– The wind rose diagram is fixed in position on a drawing board.
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– A hole is drilled in the centre of the template and it is placed on the wind rose diagram
such that its centre lies over the centre of the wind rose diagram.
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– In this position, the template is fixed by a pin passing through its centre so that the
template can rotate about this pin as axis.
– The template is rotated and is placed along a particular direction.
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– In this position of the template, the duration of 6-25, 25-50 and 50-80 Kmph winds are
read for the cardinal directions (N, NNE, NE etc.) lying between the two extreme
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parallel line marked on the template.

– The sum of all these durations is expressed as the percentage and it gives the total wind
coverage for that direction.

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Problems on Basic Runway Length

1. The length of the runway under the Standard condition is 1620 m. The airport site has
an Elevation of 270m. And the reference temperature of the airport is 32.90 0 C. It is
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decoded to construct the runway with can effective Gradient of 0.20 %. Determine the
Corrected length of the Runway
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Solution
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Given: L = 1620 m, Airport reference temperature = 32.90 C. Elevation = 270m and
effective Gradient = 0.20 %
Step 1 : Correction for Elevation
Correction = 7×L× Elevation / (100×300)
= 7×1620×270/(100×300)
= 102.06 m
Corrected Runway Length, L1 = L+ Correction
= 1620+102.06
=1722.06 m

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TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING Module - 5

Step 2: Correction for Temperature

Standard Atmospheric temperature = 15 0 C -0.0065× Elevation
= 15 0 C -0.0065× 270
=13.25 0 C
Rise of the temp. = Airport reference temp. – Std. Atm. temp.
=32.90 0 C - 13.250 C
=19.65 0 C
Correction = L1 × Rise of the temperature /100
=1722.06×19.65/100
= 338.38m

Corrected Length, L2 = L1 + Correction for temp.

= 1722.06+338.38

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=2060.44 m

Step 3. Combined Correction

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=27.18%

As per ICAO this combined correction should not Exceed 35 % Hence the correction is ok
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Step 4. Correction for Gradient

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Applying Correction for the Effective Gradient at the rate of 20% for Each 1 % effective Gradient
Correction = 20 × L2 × Effective Gradient /100
= 20 × 2060.44 × 0.20 /100
= 82.41m
Corrected Length = 2060.44 + 88.41
=2142.85 m
Above value may be rounded to the nearest 10 m, then the corrected length
Correction Length = 2140 m

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TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING Module - 5

2. The length of the runway under the Standard condition is 2100 m. The airport is provided at an
Elevation of 410 m above MSL. The airport reference temperature is 32 0 C. The construction
plans provides the following data. Determine the length of Runway also apply correction as per
ICAO and FAA specication
300- 900- 1500- 1800- 2100- 2700-
End to end of Runway (m) 0 -300
900 1500 1800 2100 2700 3000
Grade ( %) + 1.00 - 0.50 + 0.50 + 1.00 - 0.50 - 0.40 0.10

Solution

Given: L = 2100 m, Airport reference temperature = 32 0 C Elevation = 410 m

Step 1 : Correction for Elevation

Correction = 7×L× Elevation /(100×300)

= 7×2100×410/(100×300)

= 200.90 m

Corrected Runway Length, L1= L+ Correction

= 2100+ 200.90 .IN

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=2300.90 m
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Step 2: Correction for Temperature
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Standard Atmospheric temperature = 15 0 C - 0.0065× Elevation

= 15 0 C -0.0065× 410
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=12.335 0 C
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Rise of the temp. = Airport reference temp. – Std. Atm. temp.

=32 0 C - 12.335 0 C

=19.665 0 C

Correction = L1 × Rise of the temperature /100

= 2300.90 ×19.665/100

= 452.47m

Corrected Length, L2 = L1 + Correction for temp.

= 2300.90 +452.47

=2753.37 m

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Step 3. Combined Correction

=31.112%
As per ICAO this combined correction is less than 35 % hence the correction is ok

Step 4. Correction for Gradient

The elevations of different points as per proposed grading plan
Chainage (m) 0 300 900 1500 1800 2100 2700 3000

Elevation (m) 100 103 100 103 106 104.5 102.1 101.8

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Correction = 20 × L2 × Effective Gradient /100

= 20 × 2753.37 × 0.183 /100

= 100.77m

Corrected Length = L2 + Correction

= 2753.37 + 100.77

=2854.14 m
Above value may be rounded to the nearest 10 m, then the corrected length
Corrected Length = 2860 m

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3. The data below refers to the daily temperature for the hottest month of the year 1988 for given
airport site. Determine the airport reference temperature
Temperature, ͦ C Temperature, ͦC
Date Date
Maximum Average Maximum Average
1 42.5 25.5 16 43.7 26.2
2 42.5 25.5 17 43.8 25.9
3 42.7 25.7 18 44.0 26.3
4 43.0 25.9 19 44.8 26.3
5 43.0 25.9 20 44.1 26.3
6 43.0 25.9 21 44.3 26.5
7 42.8 25.8 22 44.3 26.9
8 43.0 25.9 23 44.5 26.5
9 43.0 25.9 24 44.6 26.5
10 43.1 25.0 25 44.6 26.9
11 43.3 26.3 26 44.7 27.0

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12 43.5 26.4 27 44.6 27.0
13 43.3 26.3 28 44.7 27.0
14 43.5 26.4 29 44.8 26.2
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15 43.6 26.3 30 45.0 27.2
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Solution:
Mean of the maximum daily temperature, tm = 1312.3/30
= 43.74 ͦ C
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Mean of the average daily temperature, ta = 787.4 /30

= 26.25 ͦ C
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= 32.08 ͦ C

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Runway geometrics

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Design of exit taxiway connecting runway and and parallel
Taxiway
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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HIGHWAY AND AIRPORT PAVEMENTS
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Highway pavement and an airport pavement are similar to each other. Both receive loads from
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rubber tyred vehicles travelling at high speeds. Both are built up of material such as cement
concrete, stone aggregates and bitumen bound layers. Both rests on natural soil subgrade.
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There are, however, some differences between highway and airport pavement. Firstly, Airport
loadings are very high when compared to highway loading. Tyre pressure of aircraft is also higher
than highway tyre pressures. The impact of aircraft on landing is very high.
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For ensuring smooth flow at very high speed, runway surfaces need to be build to a very high
degree of finish, free from bumps. Skidding becomes a serious problem at very high speeds of the
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aircraft and extra care has to be exercised to prevent accidents.

Airport pavements are generally thicker than highway pavements & require better surfacing
materials because the loading & tire pressure of aircraft are much greater than those of highway
vehicles. However, the main differences are –

1. The number of load repetitions on airport pavements is lower than that on highway pavements.
On airport pavements, due to the wander effect of aircraft landing & taking off, several
passages of a set of gears are counted as one repetition, whereas on highway pavements, the
passage of one axle is considered as one repetition.

2. The total weight of an aircraft is higher than that of typical road vehicle (e.g. – commercial
vehicles like trucks). Hence the design load for is higher in case of airport pavements (50 tons
approx.), as compared to highway pavements (10 tons approx.).

3. Tire pressures (which influences contact area & contact pressure) on aircraft (up to 1580 kPa)
are much higher than that of conventional truck tires (up to 800 kPa).
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4. The lateral placement of traffic on highways is such that the trucks travel within 0.9 to 1.2
meter from the pavement edge, whereas the lateral placement of traffic on an airport pavement
is primarily concentrated in the center of the runway, distributed mostly over central 20 meters
of the runway width.

5. The traffic on highway pavements is highly channelized. Whereas wheel loading on airport
pavements less channelized than on highway pavements due to the large variation in the wheel
assembly configurations & layout of different aircraft.

6. The design of highway pavements is based on moving loads with the loading duration as an
input, for viscoelastic behaviors & the resilient modulus under repeated loads, for elastic
behaviors. The design of airport pavements is based on moving loads in the interior of runways
but stationary loads at the end of runways. As a result, thicker pavements are used at the
runway end than in the interior.

7. The most severe distresses to an airport pavement occur where the traffic follows a designated
line along the aprons, taxiways & at runway ends. Flexible highway pavements exhibit serious
distress at pavement edges whereas airport pavements do not.

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Department of Civil Engineering, AIT, Chikkamagaluru Page 28

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