TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING Module - 1

INTRODUCTION
Transportation: Transportation may be defined as the convey men and materials from one place to
another.
Engineering: Engineering means the application of science to design building and use of machines
for construction.
Transportation Engineering: It is the branch of civil engineering which deals with construction
and maintenance of the road, the railway track, harbour and airport for safe and efficient movement
of road vehicles, trains, ships, boats and aircrafts on it respectively.

Module - 1
Importance of transportation: The importance of transportation will be studied under the
following headings.

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1. Role of transportation.
2. Economic activities and transport.
3. Social effects of transportation.
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Role of Transportation: Transportation contributes to the economic, industrial, social and cultural
development of any country. Transportation is important for economic development of any
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religion. Since every commodity produced needs transport at all stages from production to
distribution. In the production stage, transportation is required for carrying raw materials. In the
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distribution stage it is required from production centre to marketing centre and later to retailers and
consumers for distribution. The inadequate transportation facilities retard the process of socio-
economic development of country. The adequacy of transportation system of a country indicates its
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economic and social development.

Economic Activity and Transport: The economic activities are the process by means of which the
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products are utilised to satisfy human wants. Two important factors well known in economic
activities are,
1. Production or supply.
2. Consumption for human wants or demand.
Man and his products are thus not bound to his local surroundings. The importance of
transportation in economic activity is to be found in its effects on both human wants for goods and
satisfaction through production and distribution. While discussing the general effects of
transportation, it may be said that the increased productivity and its efficient transportation can
lower the cost of products. The transportation cost is always an influencing factor on consumer
price of commodities.
Social effects of transportation: The various social effects of transportation are,
1. Sectionalism and Transportation: Improved transportation has important implication in
reducing sectionalism within country and also outside the country. Under developed colonies
and tribes are improving their living conditions since the distance have apparently been reduced
with reduction in travel time. More frequent travels in other parts of the country and outside the
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country tend to increase the knowledge of people from other sections of society. The
international understanding for better peace and order also improves with efficient network of
transportation.
2. Concentration Of Population into Urban Area : The improved transportation network brings
prosperity to the urban population. The prosperity and employment opportunities in urban area
attract the population from other areas resulting in enhanced economic activities. Adequate
mass transportation facilities are needed to cater the internal movements in urban area such as
daily movement to and from the factories, offices, schools, hospitals and other social needs.
Efficient rapid transit facilities are necessary for sub-urban and inter-city long distance travel
for business needs, social visits and tourist activities. This also encourages the people to live in
places away from their work centres, thus helping to decrease the growth of slums in urban
areas. In general, transportation facilities are essential for well-being community.
3. Aspects of Safety, Law and Order :Transport facilities are essential for rushing aids to areas
affected by an emergency. To maintain law and order at home, it is required to have an efficient
system of transport network. To defined the territory of country against the external aggression

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and to guard the borders with the foreign territories, transport facility are needed connecting the
farthest border area from headquarters or capitals. At times, this alone may be a sufficient
reason to develop a transport network which may not involve any economic and social benefit
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directly.
Modes of Transportation: Since human being is surrounded by three basic medium i,e., land,
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water and air. The modes of transportation also connect with these three mediums for movement.
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Land has given scope for development of road and rail transport. Water and air have developed
water and airways respectively.
Therefore, there are four modes of transportation,
1. Roadways or Highways or Highway Engineering.
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2. Railways or Railway Engineering.

3. Waterways or Harbour Engineering.
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4. Airways or Airport Engineering.

Railway Engineering: It is the branch of civil engineering which deals with the construction and
maintenance of railway track for safe and efficient movement of train on it.
Harbour Engineering: It is the branch of civil engineering which deals with the construction and
maintenance of harbour on sea or river shore for safe departure and arrival of ship on it.
Airport Engineering: It is the branch of civil engineering which deals with the construction and
maintenance of airport for safe landing and take-off of aircraft.
Highway Engineering: It is the branch of civil engineering which deals with the construction and
maintenance of road for safe and efficient movement of vehicle on it.
Among the four modes of transportation, air transportation is the fastest mode of transportation. It
also provides more comfort and saves the transportation time. Transportation by water is the
slowest among four modes but these mode needs minimum energy.

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TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING Module - 1

Transportation along the railway track could be advantageous by railways between the station for
both passengers and goods, particularly for longer distances. The energy requirement to haul unit
load through unit distance by railway is only a fraction (one fourth to one sixth) of that required by
road. Therefore it is used transportation of bulk goods.
Road transportation is the only mode that can give maximum service to one and all. This mode has
also the maximum flexibility for travel with respect to route, direction, time and speed through any
mode of road vehicle. It is also possible to provide door to door service. The other three modes
depend on road transport for service to and from their respective terminals, airport, harbour or
stations.
Characteristics of road transport
1. Roads are used by various types of road vehicles like passenger car, buses, trucks, 2 and 3
wheeled automobiles and pedal cycle’s animal drawn vehicles. But railway tracks are used
only by rail locomotives and wagons, waterways are used by ships and boats.
2. Lowest initial investment motor vehicles are much cheaper than other carriers like rail

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locomotives and wagons, water and air carriers. Construction and maintenance of road is
also cheaper than that of railway tracks, harbour, docks and airport.
3. Flexibility in location direction, speed and timing to transfer vehicle from one lane to
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another and from one road to another according to need and convenience. This flexibility of
change in location, direction, speed and timings of travel is not available to other modes of
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transport.
4. In particular for short distance of travel, road transport saves time. Trains stops at junction
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and main stations for comparatively longer time.

5. Speed of movement is directly related with the severity of accident. The road safety
decreases with the increasing in dispersion in speed. Road transport is subjected to a high
degree of accidents due to flexibility of movements offered to the road users. Derailment of
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railway locomotives and air crash of aeroplanes is also uncommon. They are in more fact
disastrous.
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6. Road transport is the only means of transport that offers itself to the whole community
alike.
Jaykar Committee
After the 1st world war various types of vehicles using the road is increased the existing roads were
not capable to withstand the mixed traffic condition. To examine and report on the question of road
development in India, Indian Road Development Committee was formed with Mr.M.R. Jaykar as
chairman in 1927 and was called Jaykar committee.
Jaykar Committee Recommendations
The most important recommendations of Jaykar committee was,
1. The road development in the country should be considered as a national interest as this has
become beyond the capacity of provincial government and local bodies.
2. An extra tax should be levied on petrol from road users to develop a road development fund
called central road fund (CRF).

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3. A semi-official technical body should be formed, to pool the technical knowledge from
various parts of country and act as advisory bodies on various aspects of roads.
4. A research organisation should be instituted to carry out research and development works
and to be available for consultations.
Implementations: Most of the recommendation of the Jaykar committee was accepted by
government and major items implemented subsequently. The central road fund was formed by year
1929, the semi-official body called Indian Road Congress was formed in 1934 and Central Road
Institute was started in 1950.
Central Road Fund (CRF) :As per recommendation of Jaykar committee central road fund was
formed in 1929. The consumers of petrol were charged with an extra tax of 2.64 paisa per litre of
petrol consumption from 1 st march 1929. The rate of collection of tax towards Central Road Fund
has been revised in order to argument the revenue under this fund. As per Act 2000, present tax is
Rs 2 per litre. The revenue collected under this fund, 80% is being allotted by central government
to the various states based on actual petrol consumption or revenue collected. The balance 20% is

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been set apart as Central Reserve, from which grants are being given by central government for
meeting expenses on the administration of road fund, road experiments and research work on
various aspects of roads and bridges.
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Indian Road Congress (IRC) : As per recommendation of Jaykar committee, a semi-official
technical body called Indian Road Congress was formed in 1934. IRC has played an important role
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in formulation of four 20 year plan. It has become an active body of national importance
controlling specification, standardisation and recommendation on materials, design and
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construction of roads and bridges. The IRC publishes journals, research publications,
specifications, guidelines and other publication on various aspects, on highways and bridges. The
main objectives of IRC are,
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1. To provide national forum for regular pooling of experiences and ideas on all matters
affecting planning, construction and maintenance of roads and bridges.
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2. To recommend standard specifications.

3. To form a long term (20 year) road development plan.
Central Road Research Institute (CRRI): In accordance with the recommendation of Jaykar
committee on research organisation, central road research institute was started in 1950. The CRRI,
New Delhi is a premium national laboratory engaged in research and development work in field of
road transport. As an effective organisation in road sector CRRI is always remained in the forefront
by exploring the emerging areas and providing guidance in solving problems concerning roads.
Thus, the various functions of CRRI are,
1. To engage itself in fundamental and applied research on road materials, design and
construction.
2. Offering technical advice to state government on various problems concerning roads.
3. To device suitable equipment’s for various tests on measurement of irregularities on road
surface, test on materials etc…

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Classification of roads
Types of road: Basically, different types of roads can be classified based on various aspects
namely, All-weather roads and Fair-weather roads.
1. Based on different seasons of the year
All-weather roads: These roads are negotiable during all weather, except at major river
crossings where interruption of traffic is permissible up to a certain limit extent, the road
pavement should be negotiable during all weathers.
Fair-weather roads: On these roads the traffic may be interrupted during monsoon season at
causeways where streams may overflow across the roads.
2. Based on the carriageway
Paved Roads: These roads are provided with a hard pavement course which should be at least a
water bound macadam (WBM) layer.
Unpaved Roads: These roads are not provided with a hard pavement course of at least a WBM

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layer. Thus earth roads and gravel roads may be called as unpaved roads.
3. Based on Surface pavement provided
Surface Roads: These roads are provided with a bituminous or cement concrete surfacing.
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Roads which are provided with bituminous surfacing are called as black toped roads and that of
concrete are referred to as concrete roads respectively.
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Unsurfaced Roads: These are not provided with bituminous or cement concrete surfacing.
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4. Based on Traffic Volume:

Heavy
Medium
Light traffic roads.
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5. Based on Load transported or tonnage:

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Class-I or Class-A Class-II or Class-B.

6. Based on location and Function first Road Development Plan:
National Highways (NH): The NH connects the capital cities of the states and the capital
cities to the port. The roads connecting the neighbouring countries are also called as NH. The
NH are at least 2 lanes of traffic about 7.5m d wide. The NH are having concrete or
bituminous surfacing.
State Highways (SH): SH are the main roads within the state and connect important towns
and cities of state. The width of state highways is generally 7.5m.
Major District Roads (MDR): These roads connect the areas of production and markets with
either a SH or railway. The MDR should have at least metalled single lane carriage way (i.e.,
3.8m) wide. The roads carry mixed traffic.
Other District Roads (ODR): these roads connect the village to other village or the nearest
district road, with ghat, river etc. these roads have a single lane and carry mixed traffic.
Village Roads (VR): these roads, like other district roads, connect the village or village or
nearby district road. The roads carry mixed traffic.
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7. Modified Classification of Road system by Third Road Development Plan: As per IRC the
road were classified into following three system in 1981,
1. Primary System.
2. Secondary System.
3. Tertiary System.
The primary system consists of Expressways and National Highways, secondary system
consists of State Highways and Major District Roads and tertiary system also consists of Other
District Roads and Village Roads.
Expressways: Expressways are a separate class of highways with superior facilities and
design standards and are meant as through routes having very high volume of traffic. The
expressways are to be provided with divided carriageways, controlled access, grade separation
at cross roads fencing. These highways should permit only fast moving vehicles
8. Based on Urban Roads:

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a) Arterial roads
b) Sub-arterial roads
c) Collector Streets
d) Local Streets
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Arterial and Sub-arterial roads are primarily for through traffic on a continuous route, but sub-
arterials have a lower level of traffic mobility than the arterials. Collector streets provide access to
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arterial streets and they collect and distribute traffic from and to local streets which provide access
to abutting property.
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ROAD PATTERNS
There are various types of road patterns and each pattern has its own advantages and limitations.
The choice of the road pattern depends upon the various factors such as Locality, Layout of the
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different towns, villages, industrial and production centres and planning Engineer. The various road
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patterns may be classified as follows:

1. Rectangular or block pattern:

In this, entire area is divided into rectangular segments having a common central business and
marketing area. This area has all the services located in the central place. This pattern is not
convenient or safe from traffic operation point of view and it results into more number of
accidents at intersections. Eg: Chandigarh city.

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2. Radial or star and block pattern:

In this, roads radially emerge from the central

business area in all directions and between
two built-up areas will be there. The main
advantage in this, central place is easy
accessible from all the directions. Eg: Nagpur

3. Radial or star and circular pattern: In this roads radiate in all the directions and
also circular ring roads are provided.
Advantages: Traffic will not touch the heart

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of the city and it flows radially and reaches
the other radial road and thereby reducing the
congestion in the centre of the city. This ring
road system is well suited for big cities where
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traffic problems are more in the heart of the
city. Eg: Connaught place in New Delhi.
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4. Radial or star and grid pattern:

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It is very much similar to star and the circular

pattern expects the radial roads are connected
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by grids. In this pattern a grid is formed

around the central point which is a business
centre. Eg: Nagpur road plan.

5. Hexagonal pattern:

In this entire zone of planning is divided into

hexagonal zones having separate marketing
zone and central services surrounded by
hexagonal pattern of roads. Each hexagonal
element is independent. At each corner of
hexagon three roads meet.
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6. Minimum travel pattern:

In this type, city is divided into number of nodal points around a central portion by forming sectors. And
each sector is divided again in such a way that from each of the nodal centre, the distance to the central place
is minimum.

Highway alignment
Highway Alignment and Surveys
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The position or the layout of central line of highway is called as alignment on the ground. A new
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road should be aligned carefully, as if the alignment is improper the cost of construction and
maintenance will increase drastically. Once alignment is aligned, it can’t be changed because
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changing of alignments involves more costs.

Requirements of an ideal alignment.
Following are the basic requirements for an ideal alignment between two stations
1. It should be short,
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2. It should be easy,
3. It should be safe,
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4. It should be economical,
If it is not possible for an alignment to satisfy all the four requirements, a highway alignment.
Which satisfies maximum number of requirements may be considered as the best or ideal
Alignment.
Factors affecting highway alignment.
1. Obligatory points.
2. Traffic.
3. Geometric.
4. Economics.
5. Other considerations.
The above five factors to be considered as for as road alignment on plain and rolling terrain. If the
alignment is in hilly terrain, addition to the above five factors other additional four fact ors should
be considered they are.
1. Stability.
2. Drainage.
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3. Geometric standards for hill roads.

4. Resisting length.
Obligatory points: These are also called as control points the obligatory points can be broadly
classified into two groups.
a) Points through which alignment can pass.
b) Points through which alignment shouldn’t pass.

Points through which alignment can pass.

The obligatory points through which the alignment has to pass may cause the road alignment to
deviate from its shortest path .various examples are mountains pass, bridge site ,intermediate town
or a Pond thus here mountain pass , bridge site ,intermediate town and pond or lake has obligatory
points.

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Points through which alignment shouldn’t pass.

Alignment shouldn’t pass through middle of the town or village because it will create Congestion
.the alignment shouldn’t pass through important religious places such as temples, Mosques and
churches because it disturbs sentiments of a particular community. lastly the Alignment shouldn’t
pass through marshy land and costly fertile land because the cost of the pavement increases
drastically .thus here middle of the town or village , religious places, Marshy land and costly fertile
area act as obligatory points.

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Traffic: The alignment should satisfy the traffic requirement .origin and destination studies should
be carried out to indicate the trend of traffic flow in an area. Hence during the alignment of a new
road, normally traffic flow and its future development should be given due consideration.
Geometric Design: The geometrics of highway includes the cross section details like width of
roads, number of lanes, horizontal curve, radius of curves, amount of superelevation ,design speed
and extra width at curves. The vertical alignment includes gradient, type of vertical curve, shape
and length of vertical curve, sight distance requirement lastly depending on the type of terrain
condition appropriate geometrics should be provided.
Economics: The cost of the construction, maintenance and operation should e minimum .to reduce
cost of construction, deep cuts and high embankments must be avoided the number of bridge
structures and culverts must be reduced to minimum.
Other considerations: Before aligning a road, other considerations such as territory aspects,
boundary aspects and strategic aspects are to be taken care.

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Special considerations while Aligning roads on hilly Areas:
Stability: The stability of hill slopes and provision of earth retaining structures are to be taken care
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as for stability factors are considered.
Drainage: To lead away the rain water, both surface and subsurface drainage should be provided
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both in longitudinal and lateral directions. Apart from that, at suitable points cross drainage works
has to be provided in the form of pipe or box culvert.
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Geometric standards of hill roads: Especially at hilly regions while aligning a new road
alignment, change of grade, vertical curve, radius and length of vertical curve sight distance
requirement etc are to be taken into considerations.
Resisting length: In hilly terrains, since the radius of curve is small and length available for curve
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is less to gain the momentum for vehicle to climb a particular slope, some minimum length is
required .such a length is called resisting length.
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Engineering Surveys
Before a highway alignment is finalized in highway project the engineering surveys are to be
carried out. Four stages of engineering survey are.

1. Map study.
2. Reconnaissance survey.
3. Preliminary survey.
4. Final location and detail survey.

Map study: The first step in road survey and investigation is to study all available information’s in
the office .the survey of India published toposheets to the scale of 1:50000 to 1:250000. The
toposheets give contours, existing roads and other communication facilities and villages and towns,
thus the toposheet will act as valuable data source. The geological survey of India published maps
on soil types, geological features (faults) and ground water conditions. The town planning
organization has land use plans and master plans drawings .when a full examination of available
maps and data’s is made in the office the engineer would have some idea about alternative
alignments. This stage is also known as desk study.
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Reconnaissance survey: it starts with field inspection to know the general character of area. A
field survey party may inspect a fairly broad sketch of land along the proposed alternative routes in
the map study. In this stage, all information’s which are useful in design, construction and
maintenance should be collected. Only simple instruments like abney level, clinometer, barometer,
etc are carried. The following list gives the points on which data should be gathered.
 Type of terrain in which alignment passes.
 Length of road along various alternatives.
 Bridging requirements like number of bridges , number of spans ,etc
 Details of geometrics like approximate value of gradients , length of gradients ,radius of
curves, etc
 Soil type along the routes from field identification test and observation of geological
features.
 Sources of construction material.
 Climate conditions like temperature, rainfall ,etc

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 Value of land like agricultural land , forest land, built up area ,etc
 Crossing with railway line and other communication line.
 design characteristics
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From the details collect during reconnaissance survey, the alignment proposed in map study may be
altered or even changed completely .as the result of reconnaissance, a few alternative alignments
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may be chosen for further study based on practical considerations observed at site.
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Note: A rapid reconnaissance of area especially when it is vast and terrain is difficult may be done
by an aerial survey.
Preliminary survey: The main objectives of the preliminary survey are
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1. To survey the various alternative alignments and to collect the necessary information.
2. To compare the different proposals in view of the requirement of good alignment.
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3. To estimate the quantity of earth work, materials and other construction aspects and to work
out the cost of alternative proposal.
4. To finalise the best alignment from all considerations.
The preliminary survey consists of establishing a base line traverse also called a primary traverse. It
is a series of straight lines along a selected alignment. A theodolite is used for traversing and levels
are taken along and across the traverse. The distances are measured continuously along a traverse
line with a metallic tape. Levels along the line should be taken at an interval of 50m under all
intermediate breaks in ground. The cross sections should be at intervals of 100-200m in plain
terrain and can be reduced in hilly terrain. Bench mark should be established at the interval of 250-
300m. The points where individual straight line intersect should be carefully referred be located by
means of offsets. The width to be covered for such detailing should be about the land width
proposed to be acquired.
The information on subsoil, water table, rainfall intensity, soil type should be collected and
recorded. The survey enables the preparation of map including the plan and sections [longitudinal
and cross section]

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The scales generally recommended are;-

 Plain and rolling terrain -1:2500 for horizontal scale
-1:250 for vertical scale ,
 In built up areas and hilly terrains -1:1000 for horizontal scale
-1:100 for vertical scale

It is desirable to map in contours to an interval of 1-3m. The map should indicate all the physical
features survey. The drawing will enable the final centre line to be selected in the office keeping in
mind the geometric standards for horizontal and vertical alignment.
Rapid method using aerial survey and modern technique using GPS
Aerial photographic surveys and photogrammetric methods are very much suited for preliminary
surveys, especially when the distance and area to be covered are vast. The survey may be divided
into the following steps:

1. The photographs are examined under stereoscopes and control points are selected to

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establish the traverses of the alternate proposals. The control points are located on maps.
2. Using stereo-pair observations, the spot levels and, subsequently, contour details may be
noted down on the maps.
3. Photo-interpretation methods are used to assess the geological features, soil conditions,
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drainage requirements, etc.
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Final location and detail survey: Finally the selected route , the central line should be transferred
to the ground .while transferring the central line on the ground wherever there is sudden changes in
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directions then suitable curves has to be incorporated. While providing actual geometrics in field
the original alignment get shifted because of extra width of curve.
The details of level along the longitudinal section and proposed cross section are to be take care
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.they have to be prepared in terms of plans giving details of constructions as well as structural
details .
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Geometric design
Geometric design is an aspect of highway design with visible features and dimensions of road. The
safe, efficient and economic operation of a highway is governed to large extent by the care with
which the geometric design has been workout. Efficient and comfortable operation of traffic is
possible if the design elements have been meticulously considered. At the same time a well
designed highway should be economical. Therefore the objective of geometric design is to provide
optimum efficiency in traffic operation and maximum safety at reasonable cost
It is possible to design and construct the pavement in stages but it is very expensive and difficult to
improve the geometrics in stages at a later date. Hence it is important to plan and design the
geometric features using the initial alignment itself, taking into consideration the future growth of
traffic flow and possibility of road being upgraded at a later stage.
Geometric design of highway deals with the following stages,
1. Cross sectional elements - Pavement surface characteristics

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- Camber
- Carriageway
- Kerbs
- Road margins
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- Width of roadway
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- Right of way
- Cross sections of roads
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2. Sight distance - Stopping sight distance

- Overtaking sight distance
- Sight distance at intersections
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3. Horizontal alignment - Design speed

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- Horizontal curves
- Superelevation
- Radius of Horizontal curves
- Extra widening
- Transition curve
- Set-back distance
4. Vertical alignment - Gradient
- Vertical curves - Summit curves and valley curves

5. Intersection elements - The design of road intersection with facilities for safe and
efficient traffic movement needs knowledge of traffic
engineering.

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The important factors, which affect the geometric elements, are

1. Design speed
2. Topography
3. Traffic factors
4. Design hourly volume and capacity
5. Environmental and other factors
Design speed: This is an important factor controlling the geometric design elements of highways.
There is considerable variation in the speeds adopted by different drivers and by different types of
vehicles. Hence it is not easy to select a value for design because the value selected should
accommodate nearly all demands with reasonable adequacy. Yet the design should not fail
completely under extreme condition.
Design speed is the speed determined for design and correction of physical features that influence
the vehicle. It is the maximum speed that can be maintained over a specified section of a highway.
Almost all geometric elements of a road are dependent on the design speed. In India different speed

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standards have been assigned depending upon the class of road such as NH, SH, etc.
Table 1: Design speed for rural highways
Design speed for various terrains
Road
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Plain Rolling Mountainous Steep
Classification
Ruling Min. Ruling Min. Ruling Min. Ruling Min.
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NH and SH 100 80 80 65 50 40 40 30
MDR 80 65 65 50 40 30 30 20
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ODR 65 50 50 40 30 25 25 20
VR 50 40 40 30 25 20 25 20
Topography: The topography influences the geometric design of highway significantly. The
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design standards specified for various classes of roads are different depending upon terrain
classification. The terrains are classified based on the general slope of the country across the
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alignment. The following classification is generally adopted by “IRC”.

Sl. Cross slope of
Terrain Classification
No. the country in %
1 Plain 0 - 10
2 Rolling 10 - 25
3 Mountainous 25 - 60
4 Steep >60
Traffic factors: The traffic factors, which affect the geometric design of roads, are the vehicular
characteristics and human characteristics of road users. The important vehicular characteristics,
which affect traffic behaviour, are the different vehicle classes such as passenger cars, buses,
trucks, motor cycles, etc. have different speed and acceleration characteristics, apart from having
different dimensions and weights. The important human factors, which affect traffic behaviour,
include the physical, mental and psychological characteristics of drivers and pedestrians.

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Design hourly volume and capacity : The traffic flow or volume keeps fluctuating with time,
low traffic flow during off - peak hour and highest traffic flow during peak hour. It will be
uneconomical to design the roadway for the peak hour traffic flow. Therefore a reasonable value of
traffic volume is decided for the design and this is called the design hourly volume
Environmental and other factors
The environmental factors such as aesthetics, landscaping, air pollution, noise pollution and other
local conditions should be given due consideration in the design of road geometrics.
Cross sectional elements
Pavement surface characteristics
The important pavement surface characteristics which are given due consideration during the
geometric design are
1. Friction
2. Pavement unevenness
3. Light reflecting characteristics

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Friction
The friction between the vehicle tyre and the surface is one of the factor determine the operation
speed and the distance requirement in stopping and accelerating the vehicle. When a vehicle
negotiating in a horizontal curve friction force counteract the centrifugal force governs the safe
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operating speed. Hence the frictional force plays a major role during the acceleration and
retardation of the vehicle. The coefficient of friction or skid resistance offered by the pavement
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surface under various driving and surface condition is important with reference to the skid
condition. The maximum coefficient of friction comes into picture when the breaking efficiency is
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high enough to almost arrest the rotation of the wheels on application of breaks.
Skid: Skid occurs when the wheel slide without revolving or when the wheels partially revolve. When
the breaks are applied, wheels are locked partially or fully the vehicle moves forward then the
U

longitudinal skidding takes place. It varies from zero to 100 %

While a vehicle negotiates a horizontal curve if the centrifugal force is greater it drags the vehicle away
VT

from the path outwards and skidding takes place is called lateral skidding. Lateral skidding is
considered to be most dangerous as vehicle goes out of control and leads to accident.
Slip: Slip occurs when a wheel revolves more than the corresponding longitudinal movement along
the road. Slipping usually occurs in the driving wheel of a vehicle when the vehicle rapidly
accelerates from slow speed on pavement which is either slippery or wet or when the road surface
is loose with mud
Factors affecting the friction or skid resistance
Following factors are observed to influence the skid resistance
1 Type of pavement surface like cement concrete surface, bituminous surface, Water bound
macadam surface, etc.
2. Condition of pavement like wet or dry, even or uneven, oil spilled, smoothened or rough,
mud or dry sand on pavement.
3. Type and condition of tyre that is new with good treads or smoothened and worn out tyre.
4. Speed of vehicle

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TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING Module - 1

5. Extent of break application or brake.

6. Load and tyre pressure
7. Temperature of tyre and pavement
8. Type of skid
The frictional force that develops between the wheel and the pavement is the load acting multiplied
by a factor called the coefficient of friction and denoted as "f." The choice of the value of f is a
very complicated issue since it depends on many variables. IRC suggests the coefficient of
longitudinal friction as 0.35 - 0.4 depending on the speed and coefficient of lateral friction as 0.15.
The former is useful in sight distance calculation and the latter in horizontal curve design.
Pavement unevenness
It is always desirable to have an even surface, but it is seldom possible to have such a one. Even if a
road is constructed with high quality pavers, it is possible to develop unevenness due to pavement
failures. Unevenness affects the vehicle operating cost, speed, riding comfort, safety, fuel
consumption and wear and tear of tyres. Unevenness index is a measure of unevenness which is the

.IN
cumulative measure of vertical undulations of the pavement surface recorded per unit horizontal
length of the road. An unevenness index value less than 1500 mm/km is considered as good, a
value less than 2500 [Link] is satisfactory up to speed of 100 kmph and values greater than 3200
mm/km is considered as uncomfortable even for 55 kmph.
C
Light reflecting characteristics
N
Night visibility very much depends upon the light reflecting· characteristics of the pavement
surface. The glare caused by the reflection of headlight is considerably more on wet pavement
SY

surface than on dry pavement. Though light coloured or white pavement surfaces give good
visibility at night, they produce glare and eye strain during bright sun light. Black top pavement
surfaces on the other hand should provides poor visibility during the nights especially when the
surfaces wet.
U

Camber
VT

Camber or cant is the cross slope provided to raise middle of the road surface in the transverse
direction to drain off rain water from road surface. The objectives of providing camber are:
• Surface protection especially for gravel and bituminous roads
• Sub-grade protection by proper drainage
• Quick drying of pavement which in turn increases safety

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The camber is given a parabolic (Fig.-l) or the straight line (Fig.-2) shape in cross section. For
providing the desired amount and shape "camber boards" (templates) are prepared. These are used to
check the lateral profile of the finished pavement during construction.
The factors on which the camber depends are
a)The type of pavement surface.
b)The amount of rainfall
If the pavement surface is impervious in nature (cement concrete pavement), flat camber is
provided. On the other hand if the pavement surface is pervious in nature (WBM road), steep
camber is required. Similarly steep camber is required in the areas of heavy rainfall. Whereas flat
cambers may be sufficient in the areas of less rainfall the values of camber recommended by the
IRC are given in the following table.
Sl. Types of road surface Range of camber in areas of rainfall range
No
Heavy Light
1 C. C. and high type bituminous surface 1 in 50 (2.0%) 1 in 60 (1.7%)

.IN
2 Thin bituminous surface 1 in 40 (2.5%) 1 in 50 (2.0%)
3 WBM and gravel pavement 1 in 33 (3.0%) 1 in 40 (2.5%)
4 Earth road 1 in 25 (4.0%) 1 in 33 (3.0%)
C
Too steep camber is not desirable because of the following reasons
1. Transverse tilt of vehicles causes uncomfortable side trust and a drag on the steering of the
N
vehicle. Also the thrust on the wheels along the pavement edges is more causing unequal wear
and tear of the tyres.
SY

2. During overtaking operation discomfort is felt when crossing the crown of the surface.
3. Formation of cross ruts due to rapid flow of water
4. Problems of toppling over of steel tyred vehicles like bullock carts.
5. Tendency of most of the vehicles to travel along the centre line.
U

Problems
VT

1. Design a straight line camber board for a two - lane national highway provided with a high type
bituminous surface in heavy rainfall area.
Solution: As per IRC for high type bituminous surface in heavy rainfall area the camber to be provided
is 2% or 1 in 50

Width of Carriageway
The surface of the roadway suitably designed and constructed with road metals (aggregates) to
carry the vehicular traffic is called carriageway or pavement. The width of carriageway or
pavement depends on the width of traffic lane and number of lanes. The carriageway intended for
one line of traffic movement is called "traffic lane". Width of a traffic lane depends on the width of
the vehicle and the clearance. Side clearance improves operating speed and safety. The maximum
permissible width of a vehicle is 2.44 and the desirable side clearance for single lane traffic is 0.68
m. This requires minimum of lane width of 3.75 m for a single lane road However, the side
clearance required is about 0.53 m, on both side and 1.06 m in the center. Therefore, a two lan e
road require minimum of 3.5 meter for each lane.

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The desirable carriage way width recommended by IRC is given in the following table

S1. Class of road Width of

No. carriageway
1 Single lane 3.75 m
2 Two lanes without raised 7.0m
3 kerbs
Two lanes with raised kerbs 7.5 m
4 Intermediate carriage 5.5 m

.IN
5 Multi - lane pavements 3.5 m / lane

Traffic separators or Medians

Traffic separators or Medians are placed between the lanes of highway to divide the traffic
C
moving in opposite directions. The main function of traffic separators is to prevent head on
collision between vehicles moving in opposite directions on adjoining lanes. The traffic
N
separators may also help to:
1. Channelize the traffic into steams at intersections
SY

2. Shadow the crossing and turning traffic

3. Segregate slow traffic and to protect pedestrians.
The different types of traffic separators are
U

a) Pavement marking
b) Physical dividers
VT

c) Area separators
IRC recommends a minimum desirable width of 5 m for medians of rural highways, which may be
reduced to 3 m where land is restricted and on long bridges it may be reduced 1.2 to 1.5 m.1he
absolute minimum width of 1.2 m and minimum desirable width of 5 m for the medians of urban
highways.
Kerbs
Kerbs indicate the boundary between the carriage way and the shoulder or islands or footpaths.
Based on their function kerbs are divided into four types
 Low or mountable kerbs: This type of kerbs is provided such that they encourage the
traffic to remain in the through traffic lanes and also allow the driver to enter the shoulder
area with little difficulty. The height of this kerb is about 10 cm above the pavement edge
with a slope which allows the vehicle to climb easily. This is usually provided at medians
and channelization schemes and also helps in longitudinal drainage.
 Semi-barrier type kerbs: When the pedestrian traffic is high, these kerbs are provided.
Their height is 15 cm above the pavement edge. This type of kerb prevents encroachment of
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parking vehicles, but at acute emergency it is possible to drive over this kerb with some
difficulty.
 Barrier type kerbs: They are designed to discourage vehicles from leaving the pavement.
They are provided when there is considerable amount of pedestrian traffic. They are placed
at a height of 20 cm above the pavement edge with a steep batter.
 Submerged kerbs: They are used in rural roads. The kerbs are provided at pavement edges
between the pavement edge and shoulders. They provide lateral confinement and stability to
the pavement.

.IN
C
N
Road margins
SY
U
VT

The portion of the road beyond the carriageway and on the roadway can be generally called road
margin. Various elements that form the road margins are given below.
1 Shoulder: Shoulders are provided along the road edge and are intended for accommodation of
stopped vehicles, serve as an emergency lane for vehicles and provide lateral support for base
and surface courses. The shoulder should be strong enough to bear the weight of a fully loaded
truck even in wet conditions. The shoulder width should be adequate for giving working space
around a stopped vehicle. It is desirable to have a width of 4.6 m for the shoulders. A minimum
width of 2.5 m is recommended for 2-lane rural highways in India.
2 Parking lanes: Parking lanes are provided in urban lanes for side parking. Parallel parking is
preferred because it is safe for the vehicles moving on the road. The parking lane should have a
minimum of 3.0 m width in the case of parallel parking.

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3. Service roads: Frontage roads or Service roads access to access controlled highways like
freeways and expressways. They run parallel to the highway and will be usually isolated by a
separator and access to the highway will be provided only at selected points. These roads are
provided to avoid congestion in the expressways and also the speed of the traffic in those lanes
is not reduced.
4. Driveways: Driveways connect the highways with commercial establishments like fuel -
stations, service stations, etc. driveways should be properly designed and located, fairly away
from an intersection. The radius of the drive way curve should be kept as large as possible, but
the width of the drive way should be minimized to reduce the length of cross walks.
5. Cycle track: Cycle tracks are provided in urban areas when the volume of cycle traffic is high
Minimum width of 2 meter is required, which may be increased by 1 meter for every additional
track.
6. Footpath: Footpaths are exclusive right of way to pedestrians, especially in urban areas. They

.IN
are provided for the safety of the pedestrians when both the pedestrian traffic and vehicular
traffic is high. Minimum width is 1.5 meter and may be increased based on the tra_c. The
footpath should be either as smooth as the pavement or smoother than that to induce the
pedestrian to use the footpath.
C
7. Guard rails: They are provided at the edge of the shoulder usually when the road is on an
N
embankment. They serve to prevent the vehicles from running off the embankment, especially
when the height of the fill exceeds 3 m. various designs of guard rails are there. Guard stones
SY

painted in alternate black and white are usually used. They also give better visibility of curves
at night under headlights of vehicles.
8. Embankment slope: Embankment slopes should be as flat as possible for the purpose of safe
traffic movement and also for aesthetic reasons, Though from the slope stability point, a steeper
U

slope may be possible, the slope may be kept as flat as' permitted by economic considerations,
VT

Road side landscaping can improve the aesthetic features of road side making road travel more
pleasant
Width of formation (Roadway width)
Width of formation or roadway width is the sum of the widths of pavements or carriage way
including separators and shoulders. This does not include the extra land in formation/cutting. The
values suggested by IRC are given in Table
Table : Width of formation for various classed of roads
Roadway width in m
Road
classification Plain and rolling Mountainous and
terrain steep terrain
NH/SH 12 6.25 - 8.80
MDR 9 4.75
ODR 7.5 - 9 4.75
VR 7.5 4.0

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Right of way
Right of way (ROW) or land width is the width of land acquired for the road, along its alignment. It
should be adequate to accommodate all the cross-sectional elements of the highway and may
reasonably provide for future development. The right of way width is governed by:
 Width of formation: It depends on the category of the highway and width of roadway and
road margins.
 Height of embankment or depth of cutting: It is governed by the topography and the vertical
alignment.
 Side slopes of embankment or cutting: It depends on the height of the slope, soil type etc.
 Drainage system and their size which depends on rainfall, topography etc.
 Sight distance considerations: On curves etc. there is restriction to the visibility on the inner
side of the curve due to the presence of some obstructions like building structures etc.
 Reserve land for future widening: Some land has to be acquired in advance anticipating
future developments like widening of the road.

.IN
Table: Normal right of way for open areas
Land width in m
Road
classification Plain and rolling Mountainous and
C
terrain steep terrain
NH/SH 45 24
N
MDR 25 18
ODR 15 15
SY

VR 12 9
Built-up areas
NH/SH 30 20
MDR 20 15
U

ODR 15 12
VR 10 9
VT

Typical cross sections of roads

Figure: Cross section of VR or ODR in embankment in rural Area

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Figure: Cross section of MDR in cutting in rural Area

.IN
C
N
SY

Figure: Cross section of NH or SH in rural Area

U
VT

Figure: Cross section of two lane city road in Built – up area

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Figure: Cross section of Divided Highway in Urban area

.IN
C
N
SY
U
VT

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Sight Distance
The distance along the road surface at which the driver has visibility of objects (stationary or
moving) from a specified height above the road surface is known as sight distance. In other words it
is the length of road visible ahead to the driver at any instance. Restrictions to sight distance may
be caused due to the objects as shown in fig 1, 2 and 3

.IN
Fig.1 Sight distance at horizontal curve
C
N
SY

Fig.2 Sight distance at vertical summit curve

U
VT

Fig.3 Sight distance at intersection

Three sight distance situations are considered in geometric design. They are
1. Stopping sight distance (SSD)
2. Overtaking sight distance (OSD)
3. Sight distance at Intersection
Apart from the above three situations IRC considered the following sight distances in highway
design.
a) Intermediate sight distance.
b) Head light sight distance.
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The sight distance in general depends upon the features of the roads (horizontal alignment and
vertical alignment), height of driver's eye level and height of object above the road surface.

Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)

Stopping Sight Distance is the absolute minimum sight distance required to bring the vehicle
travelling at design speed to a stop without collision with any obstruction. The SSD on the summit
curve is that distance measured along road surface at which an object of 0.15 m can be seen by a
driver whose eye level is at a height of 1.2 m above the road surface
The SSD depends on the following factors
1. Total reaction time of driver
2. Speed of vehicle
3. Efficiency of brakes
4. Frictional resistance between the road and tyres.
5. Gradient of the road if any

.IN
Reaction time of driver: Reaction time of driver is the time taken by the driver between instant at
which the object is seen and instant at which the brakes are applied. The total reaction time of
driver may vary from 1.5 seconds for simple situations to as much as 3 to 4 seconds or even more
in complex situations. IRC recommends the total reaction time of driver is 2.5 seconds for SSD and
C
2.0 seconds for OSD. Larger the value of total reaction time larger will be the SSD
N
Speed of the vehicle: The speed of the vehicle very much affects the sight distance. Higher the
speed, more time will be required to stop the vehicle. Hence it is evident that, as the speed
SY

increases, sight distance also increases.

Efficiency of brakes: The efficiency of the brakes depends upon the age of the vehicle, vehicle
characteristics etc. If the brake efficiency is 100%, the vehicle will stop the moment the brakes are
applied. But practically, it is not possible to achieve 100% brake efficiency. Therefore the sight
U

distance required will be more when the efficiency of brakes are less. Also for safe geometric
design, we assume that the vehicles have only 50%brake efficiency.
VT

Frictional resistance between the tyre and the road: The frictional resistance between the tyre
and road plays an important role to bring the vehicle to stop. When the frictional resistance is more,
the vehicles stop immediately. Thus sight required will be less. No separate provision for brake
efficiency is provided while computing the sight distance. This is taken into account along with the
factor of longitudinal friction. IRC has specified the value of longitudinal friction in between 0.35
to 0.4.
Gradient of the road: Gradient of the road also affects the sight distance. While climbing up a
gradient, the vehicle can stop immediately. Therefore sight distance required is less. While
descending a gradient, gravity also comes into action and more time will be required to stop the
vehicle. Sight distance required will be more in this case.

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P I E V Theory
According to "PIEV" theory the total reaction time is split up into 4 parts

Perception time: It is the time required for the sensations received by eyes or ears to be

.IN
transmitted to the brain through nerves system and spinal chord.
Intellection time: It is the time required for understanding the situation.
Emotion time: It is 'the time elapsed during emotional disturbances such as fear, anger, etc. with
reference to the situation
C
Volition time: It is time taken for the final action.
N
It is also possible that a driver may apply breaks or take any avoiding action without thin king. The
"PIEV" theory has been illustrated in the following figure.
SY

Equation for SSD

SSD = lag distance + braking distance
Lag distance: The distance travelled by the vehicle during the reaction time is known as lag
U

distance.
Braking distance: The distance travelled by the vehicle after the application 'of brake to the dead
VT

stop position is known as braking distance.

V2
SSD = 0.278𝑉𝑡 + −−−−−−−−− at grade
254f
𝑉2
SSD = 0.278𝑉𝑡 + 𝑛 − − − − − on gradient
254( 𝑓 ± )
100

Where SSD = Stopping Sight Distance, m

V = Design speed, Kmph.
t = Total reaction time of driver, Sec. (2.5 sec for SSD)
f = Co-efficient of friction between the road surface and tyres of vehicle.
f= µ×ƞ
Where ƞ = break efficiency and µ = Skid resistance for 100 % break efficiency
Table: Coefficient of longitudinal friction
Speed, kmph 20 -30 40 50 60 - 65 80 - 100
Coefficient of friction, f 0.40 0.38 0.37 0.36 0.35
n = Gradient of road, %
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Note: Use + ve sign for upgrades and - ve sign for down grades
Problems
1. Calculate the SSD for designed speed of 80 kmph for
One - way traffic road.

i) Two - way traffic road.

Assume appropriate values for the reaction time of the driver and the co-efficient of friction
Solution
Assume, t = 2.5 sec for SSD and f = 0.35 for speed of 80 kmph
SSD on a One - way traffic road
V2
SSD = 0.278Vt +
254f
802
SSD = 0.278 × 80 × 2.5 +
254 × 0.35
SSD = 127.6 m = 128m

.IN
SSD on a two - way traffic road
SSD = 2(SSD of one way traffic road)
SSD = 2[128 ] = 256 m
C
2. Calculate the SSD required for avoiding a head on collision of two cars approaching from
opposite directions at 100 kmph and 80 kmph. Make suitable assumptions.
N
Solution :
V2
SY

SSD = 0.278𝑉𝑡 +
254f
U

SSD for vehicle -1

Assume, t = 2.5 sec for SSD and f = 0.35 for speed of 100 kmph
1002
VT

SSD1 = 0.278 × 100 × 2.5 + = 182 m

254 × 0.35
SSD1 = 182 m
SSD for vehicle -2
Assume, t = 2.5 sec for SSD and f = 0.35 for speed of 80 kmph
802
SSD2 = 0.278 × 80 × 2.5 + = 128 m
254 × 0.35
SSD2 = 128 m
To avoid head on collision, SSD =SSD1 + SSD2
= 182 +128 = 310 m
3. The design speed of a particular road with a gradient of 1 in 40 is 65 kmph. Find S S D for
ascending and descending gradients. Assume suitable data.
Solution
Given: V = 65 kmph and n = 1 in 40 = 100 / 40 =2.5 %
Assume, t = 2.5 sec for SSD and f = 0.36 for speed of 65 kmph

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V2
SSD = 0.278Vt + n − − − − − on gradient
254( f ± )
100
For ascending grade
652
SSD = 0.278 × 65 × 2.5 + 2.5
254( 0.36 + )
100

752
SSD2 = 0.278 × 75 × 2.5 + 2
254( 0.35 + )
100
SSD = 88.4 m
For descending grade
652
SSD = 0.278 × 65 × 2.5 + 2.5
254( 0.36 − )
100

.IN
SSD = 94.8 m

4. Calculate the absolute minimum sight distance required to avoid a head on collision of two cars
approaching from opposite directions at 80 kmph and 65 kmph. Assume the reaction time as 2.5
C
Sec. Co-efficient of friction as 0.85 and break efficiency of 50 % in either case.
Solution :
N
V2
SSD = 0.278𝑉𝑡 + If break efficiency is given
254f × ƞ
SY

SSD for vehicle -1

Given: V = 80 kmph , µ = 0.85, ƞ = 50 % = 0.5 and t = 2.5 sec
U

802
SSD1 = 0.278 × 80 × 2.5 +
254 × 0.85 × 0.5
VT

SSD1 = m
SSD for vehicle -2
Given: V = 65 kmph , µ = 0.85, ƞ = 50 % = 0.5 and t = 2.5 sec
652
SSD2 = 0.278 × 65 × 2.5 +
254 × 0.85 × 0.5
SSD2 = m
To avoid head on collision, SSD = SSD1 + SSD2 =

Overtaking Sight Distance

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Traffic characteristics in India marked by mixed modes of traffics. Therefore it becomes necessary
for vehicles moving at design speed to overtake slower vehicles. Hence it is essential to provide
Overtaking Sight Distance at reasonable interval to enable fast moving vehicles to safely overtake
the slow moving vehicles.

The minimum distance open to the vision of the driver of vehicle intending to overtake slow

.IN
vehicle ahead with safety against the traffic of opposite direction is known as O S D or safe passing
sight distance. The O S D on the summit curve is the distance measured along the centre of the road
at which a driver with his eye level 1.2 m above the road surface can see the top of an object 1.2 m
above road surface
C
The above figure shows the overtaking operation of vehicle 'A' travelling at design speed and
N
another slow vehicle 'B' at a two-lane road with two - way traffic. Third vehicle ‘C’ comes from
opposite.
SY

Assumptions:
 The overtaking vehicle 'A' reduces its speed from design speed to the speed of slow moving
vehicle ‘B’ and moves behind it allowing a safe spacing till there is an opportunity for safe
overtaking operation.
U

 On getting an opportunity the driver of vehicle 'A' accelerates, shifts to the next lane,
VT

overtakes and shift back to the original lane without disturbing the path of opposite vehicle
'C'
The overtaking operation may be split info 3 operations, thus dividing the overtaking distance into
3 parts dl, d2 and d3.
dl = distance travelled by overtaking vehicle A during the reaction time (t)
= 0.278 Vb t
d2= distance travelled by the overtaking vehicle' A' during the actual overtaking operation time (T)
= 0.278 Vb T + 2 s
d3 = distance travelled by on-coming vehicle C during the overtaking operation time (T).
= 0.278 V. T
Thus OSD = dl + d2 + d3
Therefore OSD = 0.278 V t + 0.278 Vb T + 2 s + 0.278 V T
Where V = Speed of overtaking vehicle or design speed, kmph.
Vb= Speed of overtaken vehicle, kmph

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t = Reaction time of driver ( 2 sec for OSD)

s = Spacing of vehicles = 0.2 Vb + 6
T = duration of actual overtaking operation

or

A = Acceleration, kmph / sec

a = Acceleration, m / sec2

The acceleration values of the fast vehicle depends on its speed and given in Table below
Speed Maximum overtaking
(kmph) acceleration (kmph / sec)

.IN
25 5.00
30 4.80
C
40 4.45
N
50 4.00
65 3.28
SY

80 2.56
100 1.92
Notes:
U

1. In case the speed of the overtaken vehicle is not given, it can be assumed that it moves 16
kmph slower the design speed.
VT

2. On divided highways, d3 need not be considered

3. On divided highways with four or more lanes, IRC suggests that it is not necessary to
provide the OSD, but only SSD is sufficient.
Overtaking zones
The overtaking opportunity for vehicles moving at design speed should be given at frequent
intervals. These zones, which are meant for overtaking are called overtaking zones. The OSD and
pavement width should be sufficient for safe overtaking operations. Sign posts should be installed
at sufficient distance (equal OSD) in advance to indicate the start of the overtaking zones. Similarly
sign posts should be installed ahead at sufficient distance (equal OSD) to indicate the end of the
overtaking zones. The desirable length of overtaking zones is 5 time OSD and the minimum is
three times OSD

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TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING Module - 1

.IN
Problems 1. The speeds of overtaking and overtaken vehicles are 80 and 60 kmph respectively. If
the acceleration of the overtaking vehicle is 2.5 kmph / sec. Calculate the overtaking sight distance.
C
What is the desirable length of overtaking zone?
Given: V = 80 kmph, Vb= 60 kmph, t = 2 sec (assumed) and A = 2.5 kmph / sec.
N
Solution
SY

s = 0.2 Vb + 6 = 0.2 x 60 + 6 = 18 m
14.4 s 14.4 × 22.8
T= √ =√ = 11.70 sec
A 2.4
U

4s 4 × 20
T= √ =√ = 8.99 sec
VT

a 0.99

d1 = 0.28 Vb . t = 0.278 x 60 x 2 = 33.36 m

d2 = 2 s + 0.278 Vb. T = 2 x 18 + 0.278 x 60 x 10.18 = 205.80 m
d3 = 0.28 V. T = 0.28 x 80 x 10.18 = 226.40 m
OSD = d1 + d2 + d3
OSD = 33.36 + 205.80 + 226.40 = 465.56 m
Say OSD = 466 m
Desirable length of overtaking zone = 5(OSD) = 5 × 466 = 2330 m

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Sight distance at intersections

At intersections where two or more roads meet, visibility should be provided for the drivers

.IN
approaching the intersection from either side. They should be able to perceive a hazard and stop the
vehicle if required. Stopping sight distance for each road can be computed from the design speed.
The sight distance should be provided such that the drivers on either side should be able to see each
C
other. This is illustrated in the figure above. Design of sight distance at intersections may be used
on three possible conditions:
N
 Enabling approaching vehicle to change the speed
 Enabling approaching vehicle to stop
SY

 Enabling stopped vehicle to cross a main road

Horizontal Alignment
Horizontal curve
U

It is curve provided along the highway to introduce a change in direction along the centre line of
road. When a vehicle negotiates a horizontal curve at some speed an outward force acts
VT

horizontally through the C. G of the vehicle is known as centrifugal force. The centrifugal force is
given by the following equation
W v²
P=
gR

Where P = Centrifugal force, kg

W= Weight of the vehicle, kg
v = Speed of vehicle, m / sec
R= Radius of the curve, m
g= Acceleration due to gravity,
The centrifugal force acting on the vehicle while negotiating the curve has two effects
1. Overturning effect
2. Transverse skidding effect

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TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING Module - 1

Overturning effect:

The figure shows the effect of centrifugal force to cause overturning about a wheel 'B' on
horizontal curve.
Overturning moment due to centrifugal force = P x h ----------1

.IN
𝑊𝑏
This is counter acted by the restoring moment = ----------2
2
Equating (1) and (2) for equilibrium of the vehicle.
Wb
We have P×h=
C
2

P b
N
=
W 2h
When the centrifugal ratio approaches a value equal to 𝑏⁄2ℎ. Then there is a danger of overturning
SY

of the vehicle

Transverse skidding effect:

U
VT

.
The lateral skid may occur due to the centrifugal force if the resisting friction is lower. Refer the above fig
for equilibrium condition centrifugal force should be equal to lateral friction
P = FA + FB
P = f ( RA + R B)
P=fW
P
Therefore =f
W
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TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING Module - 1

Where
 FA and FB is the fractional force at tyre A and B,
 RA and RB is the reaction at tyre A and B,
 f is the lateral coefficient of friction and
 W is the weight of the vehicle.
In the above expression when the centrifugal ratio approaches a value ‘ f ‘ lateral skid takes place and
hence its value should be less than lateral friction.

Radius of horizontal curve

The radius of the horizontal curve depends upon the super elevation and the co -efficient of friction
between tyres and pavement surface for a particular design speed. IRC recommends two design speeds in
the form of "Ruling design speed" and "Minimum design speed". Hence the radius computed based on the
above speeds are called as "Ruling minimum radius" and Absolute minimum radius". Following equations
is used to compute the radius of the horizontal curve.
V2 (Ruling)

.IN
R(Ruling) =
127 (e+f )
V2 (Minimum)
R(Minimum) =
127 (e+f )
Where R(Ruling) = Ruling minimum radius, m
C
R(Minimum) = Absolute minimum radius, m
V(Ruling) = Ruling design speed, kmph
N
V(Minimum) = Absolute minimum design speed, kmph
e = Super elevation (ratio) = 0.07 As per IRC
SY

f = Co-efficient of lateral friction = 0.15 As per IRC

Problems
1. Calculate the values of ruling minimum radius and absolute minimum radius of a horizontal
U

curve for a national highway in plain terrain.

VT

Solution:
Assume - Ruling design speed for NH in plain terrain, V (Ruling) = 100 kmph
- Minimum design speed for NH in plain terrain, V(Minimum) = 80 kmph
- e =0.07 and f = 0.15
V2 1002
Ruling minimum radius, R = = = 357.90 m say R = 360 m
127(e+f) 127(0.07+0.15)
V2 1002
Ruling minimum radius, R = = = 229.10 m say R = 230 m
127(e+f) 127(0.07+0.15)

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TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING Module - 1

Superelevation

Transverse slope given to the road surface to counteract the effects of centrifugal force (skidding

.IN
and overturning) on the vehicle is called superelevation or banking or cant (e). It is expressed as the
ratio of the height of outer edge w.r.t the horizontal width
C
Equation for superelevation
V2
N
e+f= −−−−−1
127 R
SY

Where e = Superelevation (ratio) = E / B

V= Design speed, kmph.
f= Co-efficient of lateral friction = 0.15 as per IRC
U

R = Radius of curve, m
g= Acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 m /sec2
VT

In above equation if f = 0 the superelevation obtained is called as equilibrium superelevation.

V2
e=
127 R
Note: If 'e' is the superelevation and 'B' is the width of pavement on the curve, then the total rise of
outer edge w.r.t inner edge is given by
E=e×B

Maximum superelvation
As per equation (1) the value of superelevation requires increases with increase in speed and
decrease in radius for a constant value of friction. In view of mix traffic consisting of fast and slow
traffic it is essential to limit the supecelevation to a maximum of 0.07 (7 %) while that of hilly
terrain is 10 percent and urban road is 4 percent.

Minimum superelvation
In order to have an effective drainage of surface water it is essential to proved the minimum superelevation
equal to or less than the camber provided for a particular pavement surface and the amount of rainfall.

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TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING Module - 1

Design of superelevation for mixed traffic

Step 1: Find e for 75 percent of design speed, neglecting f, i.e..
V2
e= ------------------------1
225 R
If the calculated value of 'e' from above equation (1) is less than 0.07, the value so obtained is provided.
If the value of 'e' exceeds 0.07 then provide the maximum superelevation equal to 0.07 and step (2) is
followed
Step 2: Find ‘f’ for the design speed and max e, i.e.
V2 V2
f= –e= – 0.07 ---------------------2
127 127
If the calculated value of ‘f’ from above equation (3) is less than 0.15, the superelevation of
0.07 is safe for the design speed 'V'. If not the speed on such curves is to restricted and step (3) is
followed
Step 3: Find the allowable speed’ Va ‘for the maximum e = 0:07 and f = 0:15,
𝑉𝑎 = √127 𝑅(𝑒 + 𝑓)

.IN
Appropriate warning sign and speed limit regulation sign are installed to restrict and regulate the speed of
the vehicles at such curves

Attainment of super-elevation
C
1. Elimination of the crown of the cambered section by:
a) Rotating the outer edge about the crown: The outer half of the cross slopes is rotated about
N
the crown at a desired rate such that this surface falls on the same plane as the inner half.
b) Shifting the position of the crown: This method is also known as diagonal crown method.
SY

Here the position of the crown is progressively shifted outwards, thus increasing the width
of the inner half of cross section progressively.
U
VT

2. Rotation of the pavement cross section to attain full super elevation by: There are two methods
of attaining superelevation by rotating the pavement
a) Rotation about the center line: The pavement is rotated such that the inner edge is depressed
and the outer edge is raised both by half the total amount of superelevation, i.e., by E=2 with
respect to the centre.
b) Rotation about the inner edge: Here the pavement is rotated raising the outer edge as well as
the centre such that the outer edge is raised by the full amount of superelevation with respect
to the inner edge.

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TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING Module - 1

Problems
1. A two lane road with design speed of 65 kmph. has a horizontal curve of radius 315 m, design
superelevation for the mixed traffic. Also find the total rise at the outer edge if the the width of
the pavement on curve is 7.6 m.
Solution
Step 1: Find e for 75 percent of design speed, neglecting f, i.e..
V2
e=

.IN
225 R
652
e=
225 × 315
e = 0.06 < 0.07
C
Hence provide e = 0.06
Total rise of outer edge w.r.t inner edge = E = ex B = 0.06 x 7.6 = 0.456 m.
N
2. Design the super elevation of a horizontal curve of radius 260 m for design speed of 80 kmph.
SY

Solution
Step 1: Find e for 75 percent of design speed, neglecting f, i.e..
V2
e=
225 R
U

802
e=
VT

225 × 260
e = 0.109 > 0.07
Hence provide e = 0.07 and check for f
Step 2: Find ‘f’ for the design speed and max e, i.e.
V2
f= − 0.07
127R
802
f= − 0.07
127 × 260
f = 0.124 < 0.15
Hence the design speed of 80 kmph is safe on the Superelevation of e = 0.07
3. Design the supere1evation for a horizontal curve of radius 315 m for a design speed of 100 kmph.
Solution
Step 1: Find e for 75 percent of design speed, neglecting f, i.e..

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TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING Module - 1

V2
e=
225 R
1002
e=
225 × 315
e = 0.141 > 0.07
Hence provide e = 0.07 and check for f
Step 2: Find ‘f’ for the design speed and max e, i.e.
V2
f= − 0.07
127R
1002
f= − 0.07
127 × 315
f = 0.179 > 0.15

.IN
Hence the design speed of 100 kmph is not safe on the Superelevation of e = 0.07 and speed is to
be restricted
Step 3: Find the allowable speed’ Va ‘for the maximum e = 0:07 and f = 0:15,
C
𝑉𝑎 = √127 𝑅(𝑒 + 𝑓)
𝑉𝑎 = √127 × 315(0.07 + 0.15)
N
𝑉𝑎 = 93.80kmph
Appropriate warning sign and speed limit regulation sign are installed to restrict and regulate the
SY

speed of the vehicles at such curves

4. A major district road with thin bituminous surface in low rainfall area has a horizontal curve of
radius 1400 m. If the design speed is 65 kmph. What should be the Superelevation provided?
U

Step 1: Find e for 75 percent of design speed, neglecting f, i.e..

V2
e=
VT

225 R
652
e=
225 × 1400
e = 0.0134 = 1.34 %
But the recommended camber for drainage for thin bituminous surface in light rainfall area is 2 %
or 0.02. Hence Superelevation to be provided should be equal to camber for drainage = 2 % = 0.02.

5. The radius of a horizontal curve is 100 m. The design speed is 50 kmph and the design co -
efficient of lateral friction is 0.15.
a) Calculate the Superelevation required if full lateral friction is assumed to develop.
b) Calculate the co-efficient of friction needed if no Superelevation is provided.
c)Calculate the equilibrium Superelevation.
Solution
a) If f = 0.15.

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TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING Module - 1

V2
e= − f
127R
502
e= − 0.15
127 × 100
e = 0.047
b) If e=0
V2
f= − e
127R
502
f= − 0
127 × 100
f = 0.197
c) If f = 0 for equilibrium Super elevation
V2
e= − f
127R
502

.IN
e= − 0
127 × 100
e = 0.197
Extra widening of pavement on curve
C
On horizontal curve especially when they are not of vary large radii, it is common to widen the pavement
slightly more than the normal width. Widening of pavement is needed on horizontal curve for the
N
following reasons.
SY
U
VT

1. An automobile has a rigid wheel base and only the front wheels can be turned therefore
when a vehicle takes a turn to negotiate a horizontal curve, the rear wheels do not follow the
same path as that of front wheels. This phenomenon is called as "off tracking". Due to this
the extra width of pavement is provided on curves. The widening provided for this purpose
is called "mechanical widening"(W m).
2. At speeds higher than the design speeds transverse skidding of vehicles occur due to the
centrifugal force and hence extra widening is required.
3. While two vehicles cross or overtake at a horizontal curve, there is a psychological tendency
to maintain a greater clearance between the vehicles for increased safety. The widening
provided for this purpose is called "psychological widening" (W ps)
Equation for extra widening
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TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING Module - 1

The total extra widening on horizontal curve (We) is given by

We = Wm + Wps
nl2 V
We = +
2R 9.5√R
Where W m = Mechanical widening
The widening required for the account of off - tracking due the rigidity of the wheel base of the
vehicle is called as Mechanical widening.
Wps = Psychological widening
While two vehicles cross or overtake at a horizontal curve. there is a psychological tendency to
maintain a greater clearance between the vehicles for increased safety, The widening provided for
this purpose is called "psychological widening"
l = Length of wheel base between the front and rear wheels, m (As per IRC 6m)
n = Number of lanes,
R = Radius of curve, m
V = Design speed, kmph,

.IN
Note: as per IRC extra widening is not required on curves with radius greater than 300 m
Problems
1. Calculate extra widening imparted for a pavement of width 7m on a horizontal curve of radius
C
250 m. If the longest wheel base of the vehicle expected on the road is 6 m. Design speed is 65
kmph.
N
Data given: W = 7 m, R = 250 m and V= 65 kmph
Solution
SY

Assume l = 6 m (as per IRC) and n = 2 (for W = 7 m)

nl2 V
We = +
2R 9.5√R
2
U

2×6 65
We = +
2 × 250 9.5√250
VT

∴ We = 0.576 m
2. Calculate the total width of pavement for a horizontal curve on a new N.H. to be aligned on a
rolling terrain with ruling minimum radius and assume necessary data.
Solution
Assume l = 6 m (as per IRC) , W = 7m (for 2 lane NH), n = 2 (for W = 7 m),e = 0.07, f = 0.15 and
V= 80 kmph (for ruling minimum radius
V2 80
R= = = 229.06 m
127(e + f) 127(0.07 + 0.15)

Say R = 230 m
nl2 V
We = +
2R 9.5√R
2
2×6 80
We = +
2 × 230 9.5√230

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TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING Module - 1

We = 0.712 m
∴ Total width of pavement = W + W = 7 + 0.712 = 7.712 m
3 A horizontal highway curve of radius 300 m has been provided with superelvation of 1 in 15
and a total pavement width of 7.5m, Check whether these geometric elements are adequate for
the two lane highway with design speed of 100kmph.
Data given: R = 300 m e = 1/15 = 0.07, B = 7.5 m and V= 100 kmph
Solution
Assume l = 6 m (as per IRC) , W = 7m (for 2 lane NH), n = 2 for W = 7 m,
Step 1: Find e for 75 percent of design speed, neglecting f, i.e..
V2
e=
225 R
1002
e=
225 × 300

.IN
e = 0.142 > 0.07
Hence provide e = 0.07 and check for f
Step 2: Find ‘f’ for the design speed and max e, i.e.
C
V2
f= − 0.07
127R
N
1002
f= − 0.07
SY

127 × 300
f = 0.192 > 0.15
Hence the design speed of 100 kmph is not safe on the Superelevation of e = 0.07 and speed is to
U

be restricted
Step 3: Find the allowable speed’ Va ‘for the maximum e = 0:07 and f = 0:15,
VT

𝑉𝑎 = √127 𝑅(𝑒 + 𝑓)
𝑉𝑎 = √127 × 300(0.07 + 0.15)
𝑉𝑎 = 91.75 kmph
Say Va = 90 kmph
From this is evident that the superelevation design is inadequate for design speed of 100 kmph. It
should be 90 kmph.
Note: Appropriate warning sign and speed limit regulation sign are installed to restrict and regulate the speed
of the vehicles at such curves
nl2 V
We = +
2R 9.5√R
2
2×6 100
We = +
2 × 300 9.5√300
∴ We = 0.66 m
∴ Total width of pavement, B = W + W = 7 + 0.66 = 7.66 m > 7.5 m
From this is evident that the pavement width of 7.5m is inadequate it should be 7.66 m.
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TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING Module - 1

Transition curves
A transition curve is a curve of varying radii provided between the straight and circular curve of the
road. The transition curve has a radius, which decreases from ∞ at the tangent point to a designed
radius of the circular curve. The functions or objectives of transition curve in the horizontal
alignment are,
1. To introduce gradually the centrifugal force between the tangent point and the beginning of
circular curve, to avoiding a sudden jerk on the vehicle.
2. To enable the gradual introduction of the designed superelevation and extra widening of the
pavement.
3. To enable the driver, turn the steering gradually for his own comfort and safety.
4. To improve aesthetic appearance of the road.
Requirements of an ideal transition curve
The requirements of an ideal transition curve in the horizontal alignment are,
1. The rate of introduction of centrifugal force or the rate of change of centrifugal acceleration should be

.IN
uniform throughout the length of the curve.
2. Length of the transition curve should be inversely proportional to the radius.
There are 3 types of transition curves namely "spiral", "cubic parabola" and "lemniscate". IRC has
C
recommended "spiral shape" as transition curve because,
i) The spiral curve satisfies the requirement of an ideal transition curve.
N
ii) The geometric properties of spiral are such that the calculation and setting out of spiral curve is simple
SY

and easy.
Length of transition curve
The length of transition curve Ls is calculated by the following 3 - methods and the highest among them is
adopted.
U

Method 1: Based on "rate of change of radial or centrifugal acceleration" is given by,

V3
VT

Ls1 =
46.5 C R
Where Ls = length of transition curve, m
V = Design speed, kmph
R = Radius of curve, m
C = Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration, m / sec 3 and is given by,
80
C= [0.5 < C < 0.8] i. e. , the min. and max. values of C are limited to 0.5 and 0.8 respectively
75 + V
Method 2: Based on "rate of introduction of superelevation" is given by,
Ls2 = NE if the pavement being rotated about the inner edge.
NE
𝑜𝑟 Ls2 = if the pavement being rotated about the centre line
2
N = Rate of introduction of superelevation (1 in N)
= 150 in plain and rolling terrain
= 100 inbuilt up areas
= 60 in hilly terrain
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TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING Module - 1

E = Amount of super elevation, m

E = e (W + We)
Where W = Width of pavement on straights, m and We = Extra widening on curves, m
Method 3: Based on "Indian Road Congress" is given by,
2.7 V2
Ls3 = for plain and rolling terrain
R
V2
or Ls3 = for hilly terrain
R
Where V = Design speed. kmph
R = Radius of curve, m
From the above equations it is seen that the length of transition curve depends upon the following factors.
1. Design speed
2. Rate of change of radial acceleration.
3. Radius of curve.

.IN
4. Superelevation and its introduction.
5. Width of pavement on curves.
6. Type of terrain.
C
Shift: In order to fit the transition curves the main circular curve has to be moved inwards by a certain
N
(𝐿𝑠 )2
𝐿=
24𝑅
SY

[Link]
1. Calculate the length of transition curve and shift using following data
Design speed = 65 kmph
U

Radius of curve = 220 m

Allowable rate of introduction of superelevation = J in 150
VT

Pavement width including extra widening = 7.5 m

Type of terrain = Plain
Pavement rotation = About the center line.
Solution
Method 1: Based on "rate of change of radial or centrifugal acceleration",

80
C= = 0.57 m/sec3 [0.5 < C < 0.8]
75 + 65
Hence adopt C = 0.57 m/sec 3
V3
Ls1 =
46.5 C R
653
Ls1 = = 47.10 m
46.5 × 0.57 × 220

Method 2: Based on "rate of introduction of superelevation"

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TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING Module - 1

V2
e=
225 R
652
e=
225 × 220
e = 0.085 > 0.07
Hence provide e = 0.07 and check for f
2
V 652
f= − 0.07 = − 0.07 = 0.08 < 0.15
127R 127 × 220
1002
f= − 0.07
127 × 300
Hence the design speed of 65kmph is safe on the Superelevation of e = 0.07
E = eB = 0.07 × 7.5 = 0.525

.IN
NE
Ls2 = if the pavement being rotated about the centre line
2
150 × 0.525
Ls2 = = 39.40 m
2
C
Method 3: Based on "Indian Road Congress"
N
2.7V 2
Ls3 = for plain terrain
R
SY

2.7 × 652
Ls3 = = 51.90 m
220
Adopt the highest value of the three i.e., L s = 51.90 m
Say Ls = 52 m
U

(𝐿𝑠 )2 (52)2
𝑆ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡, 𝑆 = = 0.51 𝑚
24 𝑅 24 × 220
VT

2. A notional highway passing through a rolling terrain in heavy rainfall area has a horizontal curve of radius
500 m. Design the length of transition curve assuming suitable data.
Data given : R = 500 m
Solution
Assume V = 80 kmph (for NH in rolling terrain)
W = 7 m for NH 2 – lane road
l = 6 m (as per IRC) , and n = 2 for 2 lane NH
Method 1: Based on "rate of change of radial or centrifugal acceleration",
80
C= = 0.52 m/sec3 [0.5 < C < 0.8]
75 + 80
Hence adopt C = 0.52 m/sec 3
V3
Ls1 =
46.5 C R
803
Ls1 = = 42.30 m
46.5 × 0.52 × 500
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TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING Module - 1

Method 2: Based on "rate of introduction of superelevation"

V2 802
e= = = 0.057 < 0.07 OK
225 R 225 × 500
nl2 V 2 × 62 80
We = + = + = 0.45 𝑚
2R 9.5√R 2 × 500 9.5√500
∴ Total width of pavement, B = W + W = 7 + 0.45 = 7.45 m
E = eB = 0.057 × 7.45 = 0.425
Ls2 = NE if the pavement being rotated about the inner edge
Ls2 = 150 × 0.425 = 63.70 m
Method 3: Based on "Indian Road Congress"
2.7V 2
Ls3 = for rolling terrain
R
2.7 × 802
Ls3 = = 34.6 m

.IN
500
Adopt the highest value of the three i.e., L s = 63.70 m
Say Ls = 64 m
C
Set back Distance (clearance)
N
The distance required from the centreline of a horizontal curve to an obstruction on the inner side of the curve
to provide adequate sight distance at a horizontal curve is called set back distance or clearance (m). Setback
SY

distance depends on:

1. Sight distance(SSD, ISD or OSD)
2. Radius of the curve (R).
3. Length of curve(L)
U
VT

Equation for setback distance

Case 1: When L > S
α
For single lane roads: m = R – R cos ( )
2
Where m = Setback distance, m
α
= Half the angle subtended by the arc length S
2
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TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING Module - 1

180 S
=
2ᴫR
S = Sight distance, m (SSD, ISD or OSD)
R = Radius of the curve, m
L = Length of curve, m
α
For multi − lane roads: m = R – (R − d)cos ( )
2
α
= Half the angle subtended by the arc length S
2
180 S
=
2ᴫ(R − d)
d = distance between the centre line of the road and the centre line of the inside lane, m
Case 2: When L < S
α ( S−L) α
For single lane roads: m = R – R cos ( ) + sin ( )
2 2 2
Where m = Setback distance, m
α

.IN
= Half the angle subtended by the arc length L
2
180 L
=
2ᴫR
C
S = Sight distance, m (SSD, ISD or OSD)
R = Radius of the curve, m
L = Length of curve, m
N
α ( S − L) α
For multi − lane roads: m = R – (R − d)cos ( ) + sin ( )
2 2 2
SY

α
= Half the angle subtended by the arc length L
2
180 L
=
2ᴫ(R − d)
U

d = distance between the centre line of the road and the centre line of the inside lane, m
VT

Problems
1. There is a horizontal highway curve of radius 400m and length 200m on this highway.
Compute the set – back distances required from the centre line on the inner side of curve so
to provide for SSD of 90m and OSD of 300m. The distance between the centre lines of the
road and the inner lane is 1.9m.
Solution
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TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING Module - 1

For SSD of 90m

Given: R = 400m, L = 200m, S = 90m and d = 1.9m
When L > S (200m > 90m)
α 180 S 180 × 90
= = = 6.48 ͦ
2 2ᴫ(R − d) 2ᴫ(400 − 1.9)
α
m = R – (R − d)cos ( )
2
m = 400 – 400 − 1.9 cos 6.48 ͦ ) = 4.4 m
( ) (
For OSD of 300m
Given: R = 400m, L = 200m, S = 300m and d = 1.9m
When L < S (200m > 300m)
α 180 L 180 × 200
= = = 14.39 ͦ
2 2ᴫ(R − d) 2ᴫ(400 − 1.9)
α ( S − L) α
m = R – (R − d)cos ( ) + sin ( )
2 2 2

.IN
( 300 − 200)
m = 400 – (400 − 1.9)cos (14.39 ͦ) + sin(14.39 ͦ) = 26.8 m
C 2
N
SY
U
VT

Design of vertical alignment

The vertical alignment is the elevation or profile of the centre line of the road. The vertical
alignment consists of grades and vertical curves and It Influences the vehicle speed, acceleration
and deceleration. stopping distance. Sight distance and comfort in vehicle moments at high speeds.

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TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING Module - 1

Gradient
Gradient is the rate of rise or fall along the length of the road with respect to the horizontal. It is
expressed as a ratio of 1 in x. Sometimes the gradient is also expressed as percentage, n i.e., n in
100. The angle that measures the change of direction at the intersection of two grades is called
the deviation angle N.

Gradient = 1 in x
.IN
C
= tan 
N
=n
SY

100
= percentage
𝑥
U

Note: +ve sign represents ascending gradients

VT

ve sign represents ascending gradients

N = Algebraic difference between the two grades.

Types of gradients
The different types of gradients are used in the design of highway are
l . Ruling gradient 2. Limiting gradient 3. Exceptional gradient. 4. Minimum gradient

Ruling gradient
Ruling gradient is the maximum gradient within which the vertical profile of a road is to be
designed. The ruling gradients are adopted as a normal course in design of vertical alignment
and the quantities of fill and cut are balanced accordingly. Hence ruling gradient is also known
as design gradient. The factors, which influence on the selection of ruling grade for the purpose
of design, are type of terrain, length of the grade, speed, pulling power of vehicles and presence
of horizontal curves. The following values are recommended by IRC.

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TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING Module - 1

Sl.
Type of Terrain Ruling gradient
No.

1 Plain and Rolling terrain 3.3 % (l in 30)

2 Mountainous and steep

terrain

i) 3000 m above MSL 5 % (1 in 20)

ii) Up to 3000 m above MSL 6 % (l in 16.7)

Limiting gradient
Limiting gradient is the gradient steeper than ruling gradient and this reduces cost of

.IN
gradients. However continuous grade line steeper than ruling gradient should be limited. The
following values are recommended by IRC.

Sl.
C
Type of Terrain Ruling gradient
No.
N
1 Plain and Rolling terrain 5 % (l in 20)
SY

2 Mountainous and steep terrain

i) 3000 m above MSL 6 % (1 in 16.7)

U

ii) Up to 3000 m above MSL 7 % (l in 14.3)

VT

Exceptional gradient
In some extraordinary situations it may be unavoidable to provide gradients steeper than
limiting gradients for short stretches. Such gradients are called exceptional gradients. However,
the exceptional gradient should be strictly limited only for short stretches not exceeding about
100 m at a stretch. The following values are recommended by IRC.

Sl.
Type of Terrain Ruling gradient
No.

1 Plain and Rolling terrain 6.7 % (l in 15)

2 Mountainous and steep terrain

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i) 3000 m above MSL 7 % (1 in 14.3)

ii) Up to 3000 m above MSL 8 % (l in 12.5)

Minimum gradient
The road can be leveled with little or no gradient. In such cases there will be problems
of drainage. Though the surface water can be drained off to the Side drains by camber a certain
longitudinal slope (minimum gradient) is essential to drain the water along the side drains
depending upon the surface of the drains. The following minimum gradient is generally adopted

Sl.
No Type of side drain Minimum gradient

1. Concrete Side drain 0.2% (l in 500)

2.

.IN
Inferior surface side drain 0.5%(1 in 200)

3. Kutcha open side drain (Soil drains)

C 1% (1 in 100)

Grade compensation on curves

At horizontal curves in order to tap the total resistances due to gradient and curvature
N
within allowable limits, the gradients is reduced. This reduction in gradient on curve is called
grade compensation. It is calculated by the following formula.
SY

30+𝑅 75
Grade compensation % = , subject to a maximum of
𝑅 𝑅

Where, R = Radius of the curve. m

U

Grade compensation is not necessary for gradients flatter than 4 %.

VT

Vertical curves
Due to change in grade in vertical alignment of highway, it is necessary to introduce
vertical curve at inter sections of different grades to smoothen out the vertical profile and thus
ease off the change in gradients for the fast-moving vehicles.

The vertical curves used in highway may be classified into types

l. Summit curves
2. Valley curves

Summit curves
Vertical curves with convexity upwards are called Summit curves. Summit curves are
provided in the following situations.

i) Upgrade meeting a downgrade (Fig. l)

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ii) Upgrade meeting a level road (Fig. 2)

iii) Upgrade meeting a flatter upgrade (Fig. 3)
iv) Downgrade meeting a steeper downgrade (Fig. 4)

.IN
C
N
Length of summit curve is governed by the choice of sight distance (SSD, ISD = 2 SSD,
OSD). Since there is no problem of discomfort to the passengers on summit curves. On summit
SY

curves centrifugal force acts against the gravity, releasing the pressure on tyres and springs.
Thus, the passengers in the vehicle moving on summit curve will feel no discomfort. IRC has
recommended “square parabola” shape for summit curve. The length of summit curve is
calculated from the following equations.
U

Equation for SSD Equation for OSR

VT

Case Basic Equation

H =1.2 m, h=0.15 m H =1.2 m, h =1.2 m

NS2 NS2 NS2

LS L= L= L=
(√2H+√2h)2 4.4 9.6

LS [√2H + √2h ]2 4.4 9.6

L= 2 S - L=2S- L = 2S -
N N N

Where L = Length of summit curve, m.

S = Required sight distance, m.
N = Total deviation angle, radians.
H = Height of drivers eye level above road surface, m.
h = Height of object above road surface, m.

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Problems
l. A vertical curve is formed at the intersection of two gradients of + 3% and – 4%. Design the
length of summit curve for
i) S S D of 120 m
ii) I S D of 240 m
Solution,
Total deviation angle = n1 + n2
3 4
= + = 0.07 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
100 100

i) Summit curve for S S D

Assume L > S,
𝑁𝑆 2
L=
4.4

.IN
0.07×1202
L= = 229.1 m > 120 m i.e., S S D
4.4

Hence provide L = 229.1 230 m

ii) Summit curve for I S D
C
Assume L > S,
N
𝑁𝑆 2
L=
9.6
SY

0.07×1202
L= = 420 m > 240 m i.e., S S D
9.6

Hence provide L = 420 m

U

2. An ascending gradient of 1 in 100 meets a descending gradient of I in 125. Find length of

summit curve for O S D of 470 m.
VT

Solution:
Total deviation angle= n1+n2
1 1
= + = 0.018 radians
100 125

Summit curve for I S D

Assume L > S,
𝑁𝑆 2
L=
9.6
0.018×4702
L= = 414.2 m < 470 m ( O S D )
9.6

Hence assumption is wrong.

 Assume L < S
9.6
L = 2S -
𝑁
9.6
L = 2 × 470 − = 406.67 m < 470 m ( O S D )
0.018
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Hence provide L = 406.67 m 407 m

Valley curves
Vertical curves with concavity upwards are called valley curves Valley curves are provided in
the following situations.

i) Downgrade meeting an upgrade (Fig. 1)

ii) Downgrade meeting a level road (Fig. 2)
iii) Downgrade meeting a flatter downgrade (Fig, 3)
iv) Upgrade meeting a steeper upgrade (Fig. 4)

.IN
C
The length of valley curve is governed by "Head light sight distance (HLSD = sight distance
N
available under the illumination of head lights of the vehicle and should be equal to SSD) and
comfort. On valley curves centrifugal force acts in the direction of gravity. This results in increase
SY

of pressure on tyres and springs causing discomfort for the passengers. Also, SD problem does not
exist during the day time. But during night time the SD available depends upon the illumination of
head lights. From safety point of view the HLSD should be equal to SSD. IRC has recommended a
U

" square parabola" shape for valley curves. The length of curve is calculated from the following
equations and the largest value is adopted.
VT

Case Basic Equation Modified Equation

1

Comfort 3
1 L = 0.38 [N V 3 ]2
NV 2
Condition L = 0.30 [ ] Putting C = 0.6 m / sec3
C

NS2
NS2
L=
1.5 h1+0.035 S
HLSD L > S L=
2 h1 +2 S tan α
Putting h1 = 0.75 m and  = 1⁰

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1.5 +0.035 S
2 h1+2 S tan α
L = 2𝑆 −
N
L<S L = 2𝑆 −
N Putting h1 = 0.75 m and  = 1⁰

Were,
L = Length of valley curve, m
N = Total deviation angle, radian
V = design speed, kmph
C = Rate of change of radial acceleration, m / sec
S = Head light sight distance, m

.IN
h1 = Height of head light above road surface, m

 = Beam angle of head light, degrees

C
N
SY

Problems
l. A valley curve is formed on a descending gradient of 1 in 40, which meets an ascending
gradient of 1 in30. Design the length of valley curve if design speed is 100 kmph. Also find the
U

position of lowest point on the valley curve.

VT

Solution,
i) Comfort condition
1
L = 0.38 [𝑁 𝑉 3 ]2
Were,

L = Length of valley curve, m

V = Design speed, kmph = 100

kmph

N = Total deviation angle, radians

1 1
= + = 0.0583 radians
40 30

1
L = 0.38 [0.0583 × 1003 ]2

L = 91.75 m
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ii) HLSD condition

𝑉2
HLSD = S = SSD = 0.278 V t + (Neglecting descending and ascending gradients)
254𝑓

Assumed t = 2.5 sec (for SSD as per IRC)

f = 0.35 for design speed of 100 kmph as per IRC

1002
 S = 0.278 × 100 × 2.5 + = 𝟏𝟖𝟐 𝒎
254×0.35
Assume L>S
N S2
L=
1.5+0.035 S
0.0583 ×1822
= = 245.4 m (> 182 m) ok.
1.5+0.035 ×182
 Provide L = 245.4 m (Largest of two values)

.IN
The position of lowest point on the valley curve X0 from the tangent point of the 1st
grade line is given by
𝑛1
C
X0 = 𝐿√
2𝑁
N
1⁄
40
X0 = 245.4 √
SY

= 113.6 m
2 ×0.0583

2. A valley curve is formed on a descending gradient of 4 % meets an ascending gradient of 3.3

U

%. Design the length of valley curve using the following data. Also find the position of
lowest point on the valley curve.
VT

Design speed = 80 kmph

Allowable rate of radial acceleration = 0.65 m / sec3
Height of head light = 0.7 m
Beam angle = 45 minutes
Solution,
i) Comfort condition
1
L = 0.38 [𝑁 𝑉 3 ]2
Where, L = Length of valley curve, m

V = Design speed, kmph = 100

kmph
N = Total deviation angle, radians
4 3
= + = 0.073 radians
100 100
1
L = 0.38 [0.073 × 803 ]2
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L = 71.9 m

ii) HLSD condition

V2
HLSD = S = SSD = 0.278 V t + (Neglecting descending and ascending gradients)
254f

Assume, t = 2.5 sec (for SSD as per IRC) and f = 0.35 for design speed of 100 kmph as per
IRC
802
 S = 0.278 × 80 × 2.5 + = 𝟏𝟐𝟕. 𝟔 𝒎
254×0.35
Assume L>S
N S2
L=
2h1 +2 S tan α

0.073×127.62

.IN
= = 268.9 m (> 127.6 m) ok.
2 ×0.7 + 2 ×127.6 tan(0.750)

 Provide L = 268.9 m (Largest of two values)

C
The position of lowest point on the valley curve X0 from the tangent point of the 1st
grade line is given by
N
SY

𝑛1
X0 = 𝐿√
2𝑁

4⁄
U

100
X0 = 245.4 √ = 140.6 m
2 ×0.073
VT

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