EDUCATIONAL
RESEARCH
Competencies for Analysis and Applications
T E N TH E D I TI O N
L. R. Gay
Late of Florida International University
Geoffrey E. Mills
Southern Oregon University
Peter Airasian
Boston College
Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle River
Amsterdam Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montreal Toronto
Delhi Mexico City São Paulo Sydney Hong Kong Seoul Singapore Taipei Tokyo
Brief Contents
Part I INTRODUCTION Part IV QUALITATIVE METHODS
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION CHAPTER 14 QUALITATIVE DATA
TO EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH 3 COLLECTION 381
CHAPTER 2 SELECTING AND DEFINING CHAPTER 15 NARRATIVE RESEARCH 399
A RESEARCH TOPIC 61 CHAPTER 16 ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH 421
CHAPTER 3 REVIEWING THE LITERATURE 79 CHAPTER 17 CASE STUDY RESEARCH 443
CHAPTER 4 PREPARING AND CHAPTER 18 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH:
EVALUATING A RESEARCH PLAN 111 DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION 465
CHAPTER 5 SELECTING A SAMPLE 129
Part V MIXED METHODS
CHAPTER 6 SELECTING MEASURING
INSTRUMENTS 149 CHAPTER 19 MIXED METHODS RESEARCH:
INTEGRATING QUALITATIVE AND
Part II QUANTITATIVE METHODS QUANTITATIVE METHODS 481
CHAPTER 7 SURVEY RESEARCH 183
Part VI ACTION RESEARCH
CHAPTER 8 CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH 203
CHAPTER 20 ACTION RESEARCH 507
CHAPTER 9 CAUSAL–COMPARATIVE
RESEARCH 227 Part VII REPORTING RESEARCH
CHAPTER 10 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH 249
CHAPTER 21 PREPARING A RESEARCH
CHAPTER 11 SINGLE-SUBJECT REPORT 531
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH 293
Part VIII CRITIQUING RESEARCH
Part III QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
CHAPTER 22 EVALUATING A RESEARCH
CHAPTER 12 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS 319 REPORT 555
CHAPTER 13 INFERENTIAL STATISTICS 341
ix
Contents
PART I INTRODUCTION Sources of Research Topics 62
Narrowing the Topic 65
Characteristics of Good Topics 65
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
Stating the Research Topic 66
TO EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH 3
Developing Research Questions 67
Tasks 1A, 1B 3 Formulating and Stating a Hypothesis 69
Task 1C 3 Definition and Purpose of Hypotheses
Welcome! 3 in Quantitative Studies 70
The Scientific Method 4 Types of Hypotheses 71
Limitations of the Scientific Method 5 Stating the Hypothesis 72
Application of the Scientific Method in Education 5 Testing the Hypothesis 73
Different Approaches to Educational Research 6 Definition and Purpose of Hypotheses
The Continuum of Research Philosophies 6 in Qualitative Studies 73
Quantitative Research 7 Summary 75
Qualitative Research 7
Classification of Research by Method 9 CHAPTER 3 REVIEWING THE LITERATURE 79
Quantitative Approaches 9
Task 2A 79
Qualitative Approaches 12
Task 2B 79
The Qualitative Research Process 15
Review of Related Literature: Purpose
Characteristics of Qualitative Research 16 and Scope 79
Classification of Research by Purpose 16 Qualitative Research and the Review
Basic and Applied Research 16 of Related Literature 81
Evaluation Research 17 Identifying Keywords, and Identifying, Evaluating,
Research and Development (R&D) 17 and Annotating Sources 82
Action Research 18 Identifying Keywords 82
Guidelines for Classification 18 Identifying Your Sources 82
The Ethics of Educational Research 19 Evaluating Your Sources 93
Informed Consent and Protection from Harm 21 Annotating Your Sources 96
Deception 22 Analyzing, Organizing, and Reporting the Literature 99
Ethical Issues in Qualitative Research 22 Meta-Analysis 100
Ethical Guideposts 23 Summary 102
Gaining Entry to the Research Site 25 Performance Criteria Task 2 (A and B) 105
Summary 28 Task 2 Example 106
Performance Criteria Task 1 32
Tasks 1A and 1B 32
CHAPTER 4 PREPARING AND EVALUATING
Task 1C 32
A RESEARCH PLAN 111
Task 1A Quantitative Example 33
Task 1B Qualitative Example 51 Task 3A 111
Task 3B 111
Definition and Purpose of a Research Plan 111
CHAPTER 2 SELECTING AND DEFINING Components of the Quantitative Research Plan 112
A RESEARCH TOPIC 61 Introduction Section 113
The Research Topic 61 Method Section 113
Identifying a Research Topic 62 Data Analysis 115
xi
xii CONTENTS
Time Schedule 115 Test Selection, Construction, and Administration 169
Budget 116 Selecting a Test 169
Components of the Qualitative Research Plan 116 Sources of Test Information 170
Prior Fieldwork 116 Selecting from Alternatives 172
Title 116 Constructing Tests 173
Introduction Section 117 Test Administration 174
Research Procedures Section 118 Summary 176
Appendixes 121 Performance Criteria Task 5 179
Revising and Improving the Research Plan 121 Task 5 Example 180
Summary 122
Performance Criteria Task 3 124
Task 3 Example 125
PART II QUANTITATIVE METHODS
CHAPTER 5 SELECTING A SAMPLE 129 CHAPTER 7 SURVEY RESEARCH 183
Task 4A 129 Task 6A 184
Task 4B 129 Survey Research: Definition and Purpose 184
Sampling in Quantitative Research 130 Survey Research Design 184
Defining a Population 130 Cross-Sectional Surveys 184
Selecting a Random Sample 131 Longitudinal Surveys 185
Determining Sample Size 138 Conducting Survey Research 185
Avoiding Sampling Error and Bias 139 Conducting a Questionnaire Study 186
Selecting a Nonrandom Sample 140 Administering the Questionnaire 190
Sampling in Qualitative Research 142 Summary 196
Selecting Research Participants: Purposive Task 7A Quantitative Example 198
Sampling Approaches 142
Determining Sample Size 142
Summary 144
CHAPTER 8 CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH 203
Performance Criteria Task 4 146 Task 6B 203
Task 4A Example 147 Correlational Research: Definition and Purpose 204
The Correlational Research Process 205
CHAPTER 6 SELECTING MEASURING Problem Selection 205
INSTRUMENTS 149 Participant and Instrument Selection 205
Task 5 149 Design and Procedure 205
Vignette 150 Data Analysis and Interpretation 206
Constructs 150 Relationship Studies 209
Variables 150 Data Collection 209
Measurement Scales and Variables 151 Data Analysis and Interpretation 210
Quantitative and Qualitative Variables 152 Prediction Studies 212
Dependent and Independent Variables 152 Data Collection 213
Characteristics of Measuring Instruments 153 Data Analysis and Interpretation 213
Instrument Terminology 154 Other Correlation-Based Analyses 214
Quantitative and Qualitative Data Problems to Consider in Interpreting
Collection Methods 154 Correlation Coefficients 215
Interpreting Instrument Data 154 Summary 216
Types of Measuring Instruments 155 Task 8A Quantitative Example 219
Cognitive Tests 155
Affective Tests 156 CHAPTER 9 CAUSAL–COMPARATIVE
Projective Tests 159 RESEARCH 227
Criteria for Good Measuring Instruments 160 Task 6C 227
Validity of Measuring Instruments 160 Causal–Comparative Research: Definition
Reliability of Measuring Instruments 164 and Purpose 228
CONTENTS xiii
The Causal–Comparative Research Process 231 The Mean 323
Design and Procedure 231 The Median 323
Control Procedures 232 The Mode 324
Data Analysis and Interpretation 233 Deciding Among Mean, Median, and Mode 324
Summary 235 Measures of Variability 325
The Range 325
CHAPTER 10 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH 249 The Quartile Deviation 325
Variance 325
Task 6D 249
The Standard Deviation 326
Experimental Research: Definition and Purpose 250
The Normal Curve 326
The Experimental Process 251
Measures of Relative Position 329
Manipulation and Control 252
Measures of Relationship 332
Threats to Experimental Validity 253
Graphing Data 334
Threats to Internal Validity 254
Postscript 335
Threats to External Validity 257
Summary 336
Group Experimental Designs 262
Control of Extraneous Variables 262
Types of Group Designs 264
CHAPTER 13 INFERENTIAL STATISTICS 341
Single-Variable Designs 264
Factorial Designs 272 Task 7 341
Summary 275 Concepts Underlying Inferential Statistics 341
Standard Error 342
Hypothesis Testing 344
CHAPTER 11 SINGLE-SUBJECT Tests of Significance 344
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH 293 Two-Tailed and One-Tailed Tests 345
Task 6E 293 Type I and Type II Errors 347
Single-Subject Experimental Designs 294 Degrees of Freedom 349
Single-Subject Versus Group Designs 294 Selecting Among Tests of Significance 350
The Single-Variable Rule 295 The t Test 351
Types of Single-Subject Designs 295 Analysis of Variance 357
Data Analysis and Interpretation 300 Multiple Regression 361
Threats to Validity 300 Chi Square 364
External Validity 300 Other Investigative Techniques: Data Mining,
Internal Validity 301 Factor Analysis, and Structural Equation
Replication 302 Modeling 367
Summary 303 Types of Parametric and Nonparametric
Statistical Tests 368
Performance Criteria Task 6 305
Summary 370
Task 6 Examples 306
Performance Criteria Task 7 374
Task 7 Example 375
PART III QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
PART IV QUALITATIVE METHODS
CHAPTER 12 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS 319
The Word Is “Statistics,” not “Sadistics” 319
The Language of Statistics 320 CHAPTER 14 QUALITATIVE DATA
Preparing Data for Analysis 320 COLLECTION 381
Scoring Procedures 320 Data Collection Sources and Techniques 381
Tabulation and Coding Procedures 320 Observing 381
Types of Descriptive Statistics 322 Interviewing 386
Frequencies 322 Questionnaires 388
Measures of Central Tendency 323 Examining Records 389
xiv CONTENTS
Validity and Reliability in Qualitative Research 391 Characteristics of Case Study Research 445
Validity in Qualitative Research 391 Case Study Research Design 446
Reliability in Qualitative Research 395 Sample Selection in Case Study Research 448
Getting Started 395 Data Collection Techniques 448
Summary 396 Conducting and Analyzing Multiple Case Studies 449
Summary 452
Task 8-C Qualitative Example 454
CHAPTER 15 NARRATIVE RESEARCH 399
Task 8A 399
Narrative Research: Definition and Purpose 400 CHAPTER 18 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH:
Types of Narrative Research 401 DATA ANALYSIS
Narrative Analysis and the Analysis of Narrative 402 AND INTERPRETATION 465
The Narrative Research Process 402 Data Analysis and Interpretation: Definition
Key Characteristics of Narrative Research 404 and Purpose 465
Narrative Research Techniques 404 Data Analysis During Data Collection 466
Restorying 405 Data Analysis After Data Collection 466
Oral History 406 Steps in Analyzing Qualitative Research Data 467
Examining Photographs, Memory Boxes, Reading/Memoing 468
and Other Artifacts 406 Describing 468
Storytelling 406 Classifying 468
Letter Writing 406 Data Analysis Strategies 468
Autobiographical and Biographical Writing 407 Example of Coding an Interview 470
Other Narrative Data Sources 407 Developing a Concept Map 472
Writing the Narrative 407 Qualitative Data Analysis: An Example 473
Summary 408 Data Interpretation Strategies 476
Task 8-A Qualitative Example 410 Ensuring Credibility in Your Study 477
Summary 478
CHAPTER 16 ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH 421
Task 8B 421
Ethnographic Research: Definition and Purpose 423 PART V MIXED METHODS
The Ethnographic Research Process 423
Key Characteristics of Ethnographic Research 425 CHAPTER 19 MIXED METHODS RESEARCH:
Types of Ethnographic Research 426 INTEGRATING QUALITATIVE
Ethnographic Research Techniques 426 AND QUANTITATIVE
Triangulation 427 METHODS 481
Participant Observation 427
Task 8D 481
Field Notes 429
Mixed Methods Research: Definition and Purpose 483
Observing and Recording Everything
Types of Mixed Methods Research Designs 484
You Possibly Can 431
The QUAL–Quan Model 484
Looking for Nothing in Particular; Looking
for Bumps and Paradoxes 432 The QUAN–Qual Model 485
Summary 434 The QUAN–QUAL Model 486
Task 8B Qualitative Example 436 Data Analysis in Mixed Methods Designs 486
Identifying Studies Using Mixed Method Designs 488
Evaluating a Mixed Methods Study 489
CHAPTER 17 CASE STUDY RESEARCH 443 Summary 490
Task 8C 443 Performance Criteria Task 8 492
Case Study Research: Definition and Purpose 444 Task 8 Example 493
When to Use the Case Study Research Approach 445 Task 8D Mixed Methods Example 496
CONTENTS xv
PART VI ACTION RESEARCH Formatting Theses and Dissertations 534
Preliminary Pages 535
The Main Body 536
CHAPTER 20 ACTION RESEARCH 507
Writing for Journal Publication 538
Task 9 507 Summary 540
Action Research: Definition and Purpose 508 Performance Criteria Task 10 542
Key Characteristics of Action Research 508 Task 10 Example 543
Action Research Is Persuasive and Authoritative 509
Action Research Is Relevant 509
Action Research Is Accessible 509 PART VIII CRITIQUING RESEARCH
Action Research Challenges the Intractability
of Reform of the Educational System 509 CHAPTER 22 EVALUATING A RESEARCH
Action Research Is Not a Fad 510 REPORT 555
Types of Action Research 510
Tasks 11 555
Critical Action Research 510
General Evaluation Criteria 555
Practical Action Research 511
Introduction 556
Levels of Action Research 511
Method 557
The Action Research Process 512
Results 557
Identifying and Gaining Insight into an Area
of Focus 513 Discussion (Conclusions and Recommendations) 558
Collecting, Analyzing, and Interpreting Data 514 Abstract or Summary 558
Action Planning 515 Type-Specific Evaluation Criteria 558
Summary 516 Survey Research 558
Performance Criteria and Examples Task 9 518 Correlational Research 558
Write an Area-of-Focus Statement 518 Causal–Comparative Research 559
Define the Variables 518 Experimental Research 559
Develop Research Questions 518 Single-Subject Research 559
Describe the Intervention or Innovation 518 Qualitative Research (In General) 559
Describe the Membership of the Action Evaluating Validity and Reliability
Research Group 519 in Qualitative Studies 560
Describe Negotiations That Need Narrative Research 560
to Be Undertaken 519 Ethnographic Research 560
Develop a Timeline 519 Case Study Research 561
Develop a Statement of Resources 519 Mixed Methods Research 561
Develop Data Collection Ideas 519 Action Research 561
Task 9 Action Research Example 521 Summary 562
Performance Criteria Task 11 564
Task 11 Example 565
PART VII REPORTING RESEARCH Appendix A Reference Tables 577
Appendix B Statistical References 593
CHAPTER 21 PREPARING A RESEARCH Appendix C Suggested Responses 617
REPORT 531 Glossary 623
Task 10 531
Name Index 635
Guidelines for Writing a Research Report 532
Format and Style 533 Subject Index 637
