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CHAPTER 3

REST AND MOTION : KINEMATICS

3.1 REST AND MOTION particle with respect to that frame. Add a clock into
the frame of reference to measure the time. If all the
When do we say that a body is at rest and when three coordinates x, y and z of the particle remain
do we say that it is in motion ? You may say that if a unchanged as time passes, we say that the particle is
body does not change its position as time passes it is at rest with respect to this frame. If any one or more
at rest. If a body changes its position with time, it is coordinates change with time, we say that the body is
said to be moving. But when do we say that it is not moving with respect to this frame.
changing its position ? A book placed on the table There is no rule or restriction on the choice of a
remains on the table and we say that the book is at frame. We can choose a frame of reference according
rest. However, if we station ourselves on the moon (the to our convenience to describe the situation under
Appollo missions have made it possible), the whole study. Thus, when we are in a train it is convenient
earth is found to be changing its position and so the to choose a frame attached to our compartment. The
room, the table and the book are all continuously coordinates of a suitcase placed on the upper berth do
changing their positions. The book is at rest if it is not change with time (unless the train gives a jerk)
viewed from the room, it is moving if it is viewed from and we say that the suitcase is at rest in the train-
the moon. frame. The different stations, electric poles, trees etc.
Motion is a combined property of the object under change their coordinates and we say that they are
study and the observer. There is no meaning of rest moving in the train-frame. Thus, we say that “Bombay
or motion without the viewer. Nothing is in absolute is coming” and “Pune has already passed”.
rest or in absolute motion. The moon is moving with In the following sections we shall assume that the
respect to the book and the book moves with respect frame of reference is already chosen and we are
to the moon. Take another example. A robber enters describing the motion of the objects in the chosen
a train moving at great speed with respect to the frame. Sometimes the choice of the frame is clear from
ground, brings out his pistol and says “Don’t move, the context and we do not mention it. Thus, when one
stand still”. The passengers stand still. The passengers says the car is travelling and the rickshaw is not, it
are at rest with respect to the robber but are moving is clear that all positions are measured from a frame
with respect to the rail track. attached to the road.

3.2 DISTANCE AND DISPLACEMENT

Suppose a particle is at A at time t1 and at B at

time t2 with respect to a given frame (figure 3.2).
Y C
Figure 3.1
B
A
To locate the position of a particle we need a frame O X
of reference. A convenient way to fix up the frame of
reference is to choose three mutually perpendicular Z
axes and name them X-Y-Z axes. The coordinates, (x,
y, z) of the particle then specify the position of the Figure 3.2
32 Concepts of Physics

During the time interval t1 to t2 the particle moves IN D IA 2 1 0 /4

along the path ACB. The length of the path ACB is O v e rs 4 2
A v e ra g e R u n ra te 5 .0 0
called the distance travelled during the time interval R u n s in p r e v . o v e r :1 6
t1 to t2. If we connect the initial position A with the
final position B by a straight line, we get the
displacement of the particle. The magnitude of the
displacement is the length of the straight line joining
the initial and the final position. The direction is from
the initial to the final position. The displacement has
both the magnitude as well as the direction. Further Figure 3.3
the displacements add according to the triangle rule
of vector addition. Suppose a particle kept on a table increases the rate. We define the instantaneous speed
is displaced on the table and at the same time the at a time t as follows.
table is also displaced in the room. The net Let Δs be the distance travelled in the time interval
displacement of the particle in the room is obtained by t to t + Δt. The average speed in this time interval is
the vector sum of the two displacements. Thus, Δs
vav = ⋅
displacement is a vector quantity. In contrast the Δt
distance covered has only a magnitude and is thus, a
Now make Δt vanishingly small and look for the value
scalar quantity. Δs
of ⋅ Remember Δs is the distance travelled in the
Δt
Example 3.1
chosen time interval Δt. As Δt approaches 0, the
An old person moves on a semi-circular track of radius Δs
distance Δs also approaches zero but the ratio has
40.0 m during a morning walk. If he starts at one end Δt
of the track and reaches at the other end, find the a finite limit.
distance covered and the displacement of the person. The instantaneous speed at a time t is defined as
Solution : The distance covered by the person equals the Δs ds
v = lim = … (3.2)
length of the track. It is equal to πR = π × 40.0 m Δt → 0 Δt dt
= 126 m.
where s is the distance travelled in time t. The average
The displacement is equal to the diameter of the speed is defined for a time interval and the
semi-circular track joining the two ends. It is 2 R = 2 instantaneous speed is defined at a particular instant.
× 40.0 m = 80 m. The direction of this displacement is Instantaneous speed is also called “speed”.
from the initial point to the final point.
Example 3.2

The distance travelled by a particle in time t is given

by s = (2.5 m/s ) t . Find (a) the average speed of the
2 2
3.3 AVERAGE SPEED AND
INSTANTANEOUS SPEED particle during the time 0 to 5.0 s, and (b) the
instantaneous speed at t = 5.0 s.
The average speed of a particle in a time interval
Solution : (a) The distance travelled during time 0 to
is defined as the distance travelled by the particle
divided by the time interval. If the particle travels a 5.0 s is
distance s in time t1 to t2, the average speed is defined s = (2.5 m/s ) (5.0 s) = 62.5 m.
2 2

as The average speed during this time is

vav =
s
⋅ … (3.1) 62.5 m
vav = = 12.5 m/s.
t2 − t1 5s
s = (2.5 m/s ) t
2 2
The average speed gives the overall “rapidity” with which (b)
the particle moves in this interval. In a one-day cricket ds
= (2.5 m/s ) (2 t) = (5.0 m/s ) t.
2 2
or,
match, the average run rate is quoted as the total runs dt
divided by the total number of overs used to make these At t = 5.0 s the speed is
runs. Some of the overs may be expensive and some may ds
v= = (5.0 m/s ) (5.0 s) = 25 m/s.
2

be economical. Similarly, the average speed gives the dt

total effect in the given interval. The rapidity or slowness
may vary from instant to instant. When an athelete If we plot the distance s as a function of time
starts running, he or she runs slowly and gradually (figure 3.4), the speed at a time t equals the slope of
 Rest and Motion : Kinematics 33

the tangent to the curve at the time t. The average Example 3.3
speed in a time interval t to t + t equals the slope of
Figure (3.6) shows the speed versus time graph for a
the chord AB where A and B are the points on the
particle. Find the distance travelled by the particle
s during the time t = 0 to t  3 s.
B
v (in m/s)
6
s
4
A t
2

t
t 0 1 2 3 (in seconds)
t t+ t

Figure 3.6
Figure 3.4

Solution : The distance travelled by the particle in the

curve corresponding to the time t and t + t. As t time 0 to 3 s is equal to the area shaded in the figure.
approaches zero, the chord AB becomes the tangent at This is a right angled triangle with height  6 m/s and
s 1 1
A and the average speed becomes the slope of the the base  3 s. The area is base height   3 s
t 2 2
ds
tangent which is  6 m/s  9 m. Thus, the particle covered a distance of
dt
9 m during the time 0 to 3 s.
If the speed of the particle at time t is v, the
distance ds travelled by it in the short time interval
t to t  dt is v dt. Thus, ds  vdt. The total distance
3.4 AVERAGE VELOCITY AND
travelled by the particle in a finite time interval t1 to
INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY
t2 can be obtained by summing over these small
distances ds as time changes from t1 to t2. Thus, the The average velocity of a particle in a time interval
distance travelled by a particle in the time interval t1 to t2 is defined as its displacement divided by the
time interval. If the particle is at a point A (figure
v
3.7) at time t = t1 and at B at time t  t2, the

displacement in this time interval is the vector AB .
The average velocity in this time interval is then,

 AB
vav  
t1 t2 t t2  t1
Y
Figure 3.5 A

B
r1
t1 to t2 is
r2
t2 O X
s   v dt.  (3.3)
Z
t1
Figure 3.7
If we plot a graph of the speed v versus time t, the
distance travelled by the particle can be obtained by
finding the area under the curve. Figure (3.5) shows Like displacement, it is a vector quantity.
such a speed-time graph. To find the distance travelled Position vector : If we join the origin to the position
in the time interval t1 to t2 we draw ordinates from of the particle by a straight line and put an arrow
t  t1 and t  t2. The area bounded by the curve v  t, towards the position of the particle, we get the position
the X-axis and the two ordinates at t  t1 and t  t2 vector of the particle. Thus, the position vector of the

(shown shaded in the figure) gives the total distance particle shown in figure (3.7) at time t  t1 is OA and

covered. that at t  t2 is OB . The displacement of the particle
The dimension of speed is LT
–1
and its SI unit is in the time interval t1 to t2 is
      
metre/second abbreviated as m/s. AB  AO  OB  OB  OA  r2  r1 .
34 Concepts of Physics

The average velocity of a particle in the time interval ∆r equals the distance ∆s travelled in that interval. So
t1 to t2 can be written as the magnitude of the velocity is
→ → → →
→ r2 − r1  dr  |dr | ds
vav = ⋅ … (3.4) v=  = = … (3.6)
t2 − t1  dt  dt dt
Note that only the positions of the particle at time which is the instantaneous speed at time t.
t = t1 and t = t2 are used in calculating the average Instantaneous velocity is also called the “velocity”.
velocity. The positions in between t1 and t2 are not
needed, hence the actual path taken in going from A 3.5 AVERAGE ACCELERATION AND
to B is not important in calculating the average INSTANTANEOUS ACCELERATION
velocity. If the velocity of a particle remains constant as
Example 3.4 time passes, we say that it is moving with uniform
velocity. If the velocity changes with time, it is said to
A table clock has its minute hand 4.0 cm long. Find the be accelerated. The acceleration is the rate of change
average velocity of the tip of the minute hand (a) between of velocity. Velocity is a vector quantity hence a change
6.00 a.m. to 6.30 a.m. and (b) between 6.00 a.m. to in its magnitude or direction or both will change the
6.30 p.m. velocity.
→
Solution : At 6.00 a.m. the tip of the minute hand is at Suppose the velocity of a particle at time t1 is v1
→
12 mark and at 6.30 a.m. or 6.30 p.m. it is 180° away. and at time t2 it is v2. The change produced in time
Thus, the straight line distance between the initial and → →
interval t1 to t2 is v2 − v1. We define the average
final position of the tip is equal to the diameter of the →
clock. acceleration aav as the change in velocity divided by
Displacement = 2 R = 2 × 4.0 cm = 8.0 cm. the time interval. Thus,
→ →
The displacement is from the 12 mark to the 6 mark on → v2 − v1
aav = ⋅ … (3.7)
the clock panel. This is also the direction of the average t2 − t1
velocity in both cases.
Again the average acceleration depends only on the
(a) The time taken from 6.00 a.m. to 6.30 a.m. is 30 velocities at time t1 and t2 . How the velocity changed
minutes = 1800 s. The average velocity is in between t1 and t2 is not important in defining the
Displacement 8.0 cm average acceleration.
= 4.4 × 10 cm/s.
−3
vav = =
time 1800 s Instantaneous acceleration of a particle at time t
(b) The time taken from 6.00 a.m. to 6.30 p.m. is 12 is defined as
→ →
hours and 30 minutes = 45000 s. The average velocity → ∆v dv
a = lim = … (3.8)
is ∆t → 0 ∆t dt
→
Displacement 8.0 cm where ∆v is the change in velocity between the time t
= 1.8 × 10 cm/s.
−4
vav = = →
time 45000 s and t + ∆t. At time t the velocity is v and at time
→
→ → ∆v
The instantaneous velocity of a particle at a time t + ∆t it becomes v + ∆v. is the average acceleration
∆t
t is defined as follows. Let the average velocity of the of the particle in the interval ∆t. As ∆t approaches zero,
→
particle in a short time interval t to t + ∆t be vav. This this average acceleration becomes the instantaneous
average velocity can be written as acceleration. Instantaneous acceleration is also called
→
→ ∆r “acceleration”.
vav = –2
∆t The dimension of acceleration is LT and its SI
→ 2
unit is metre/second abbreviated as m/s .
2
where ∆r is the displacement in the time interval ∆t.
We now make ∆t vanishingly small and find the
→ 3.6 MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE
limiting value of ∆r ⋅ This value is instantaneous
→ ∆t When a particle is constrained to move on a
velocity v of the particle at time t. straight line, the description becomes fairly simple. We
→ → choose the line as the X-axis and a suitable time
→ ∆r dr
v = lim = ⋅ … (3.5) instant as t = 0. Generally the origin is taken at the
∆t → 0 ∆t dt
→ point where the particle is situated at t = 0. The
For very small intervals the displacement ∆r is along position of the particle at time t is given by its
the line of motion of the particle. Thus, the length coordinate x at that time. The velocity is
 Rest and Motion : Kinematics 35

dx 0 to x whereas on the right hand side the summation

v= … (3.9) is made on time from 0 to t. Evaluating the integrals,
dt
the above equation becomes
dv
and the acceleration is a = … (3.10) t t
dt
[x] 0 = ∫ u dt + ∫ at dt
x

d  dx  d x
2

=  = ⋅ … (3.11) 0 0
dt  dt  dt 2 t t

If
dx
is positive, the direction of the velocity is or, x = u∫ dt + a∫ t dt
dt 0 0
dx
along the positive X-axis and if is negative, the t
dt t 2
t
direction, is along the negative X-axis. Similarly if
dv = u[t] 0 + a 
dt  2 0
is positive, the acceleration is along the positive X-axis
1 2
and if
dv
is negative, the acceleration is along the or, x = ut + at ⋅ … (3.13)
dt 2
negative X-axis. The magnitude of v is speed. If the From equation (3.12),
velocity and the acceleration are both positive, the 2 2
v = (u + at)
speed increases. If both of them are negative then also
2 2 2
the speed increases but if they have opposite signs, the or, = u + 2 uat + a t
speed decreases. When the speed decreases, we say 2  1 2
that the particle is decelerating. Deceleration is or, = u + 2aut + at 
equivalent to negative acceleration. An acceleration of  2 
2
2.0 m/s towards east is same as a deceleration of
2
or, = u + 2ax. ... (3.14)
2.0 m/s towards west.
2
The three equations (3.12) to (3.14) are collected
below in table 3.1. They are very useful in solving the
Motion with Constant Acceleration
problems of motion in a straight line with constant
Suppose the acceleration of a particle is a and acceleration.
remains constant. Let the velocity at time 0 be u and
the velocity at time t be v. Thus, Table 3.1
dv
= a, or, dv = a dt
dt v = u + at
v t 1 2
x = ut + at
or, ∫ dv = ∫ a dt. 2 2
2
u 0 v = u + 2ax
As time changes from 0 to t the velocity changes from
u to v. So on the left hand side the summation is made Remember that x represents the position of the
over v from u to v whereas on the right hand side the particle at time t and not (in general) the distance
summation is made on time from 0 to t. Evaluating travelled by it in time 0 to t. For example, if the
the integrals we get, particle starts from the origin and goes upto x = 4 m,
v t then turns and is at x = 2 m at time t, the distance
[v] u = a[t] 0
travelled is 6 m but the position is still given by
or, v − u = at x = 2 m.
or, v = u + at. … (3.12) The quantities u, v and a may take positive or
Equation (3.12) may be written as negative values depending on whether they are
directed along the positive or negative direction.
dx
= u + at Similarly x may be positive or negative.
dt
or, dx = (u + at)dt Example 3.5
x t
A particle starts with an initial velocity 2.5 m/s along
or, ∫ dx = ∫ (u + at)dt. the positive x direction and it accelerates uniformly at
the rate 0.50 m/s . (a) Find the distance travelled by it
2
0 0

At t = 0 the particle is at x = 0. As time changes in the first two seconds. (b) How much time does it take
from 0 to t the position changes from 0 to x. So on the to reach the velocity 7.5 m/s ? (c) How much distance will
left hand side the summation is made on position from it cover in reaching the velocity 7.5 m/s ?
36 Concepts of Physics

Solution : (a) We have, a

st = u + (2 t − 1) .
1 2
x = ut + at
2

2 This equation is often used to calculate the displacement

1
= (2.5 m/s) (2 s) + (0.50 m/s ) (2 s) in the “tth second”. However, as you can verify, different
2 2

2
terms in this equation have different dimensions and
= 5.0 m + 1.0 m = 6.0 m. hence the above equation is dimensionally incorrect.
Since the particle does not turn back it is also the Equation (i) is the correct form which was used to solve
distance travelled. part (b).
(b) We have, Also note that this equation gives the displacement of
the particle in the last 1 second and not necessarily the
v = u + at
distance covered in that second.
7.5 m/s = 2.5 m/s + (0.50 m/s ) t
2
or,

7.5 m/s − 2.5 m/s

or, t= = 10 s Freely Falling Bodies
0.50 m/s
2

(c) We have, A common example of motion in a straight line

v = u + 2ax
2 2 with constant acceleration is free fall of a body near
the earth’s surface. If air resistance is neglected and
(7.5 m/s) = (2.5 m/s) + 2(0.50 m/s )x
2 2 2
or, a body is dropped near the surface of the earth, it falls
(7.5 m/s) − (2.5 m/s)
2 2 along a vertical straight line. The acceleration is in the
or, x= . = 50 m. vertically downward direction and its magnitude is
2 × 0 50 m/s
2

almost constant if the height is small as compared with

the radius of the earth (6400 km). This magnitude is
approximately equal to 9.8 m/s or 32 ft/s and is
2 2

Example 3.6
denoted by the letter g.
A particle having initial velocity u moves with a constant If we take vertically upward as the positive Y-axis,
acceleration a for a time t. (a) Find the displacement of acceleration is along the negative Y-axis and we write
the particle in the last 1 second. (b) Evaluate it for a = – g. The equation (3.12) to (3.14) may be written
u = 5 m/s, a = 2 m/s and t = 10 s.
2
in this case as
Solution : (a) The position at time t is v = u − gt
1 1 2
s = ut +
2
at y = ut − gt
2 2
The position at time (t − 1 s) is 2 2
v = u − 2gy.
1
s′ = u(t − 1 s) + a(t − 1 s)
2

2
Here y is the y-coordinate (that is the height above
the origin) at time t, u is the velocity in y direction at
1 1
= ut − u(1 s) + at − at(1 s) + a(1 s) t = 0 and v is the velocity in y direction at time t. The
2 2

2 2
position of the particle at t = 0 is y = 0.
Thus, the displacement in the last 1 s is
Sometimes it is convenient to choose vertically
st = s − s′
downward as the positive Y-axis. Then a = g and the
1
= u(1 s) + at(1 s) − a (1 s) equations (3.12) to (3.14) become
2

2
v = u + gt
a
or, st = u(1 s) +
(2 t − 1 s) (1 s). … (i) 1 2
2 y = ut + gt
(b) Putting the given values in (i) 2
2 2
 m 1  m v = u + 2gy.
st = 5  (1 s) + 2 2  (2 × 10 s − 1 s) (1 s)
 s 2 s 
Example 3.7
 m
= 5 m + 1 2  (19 s) (1 s)
 s  A ball is thrown up at a speed of 4.0 m/s. Find the
maximum height reached by the ball. Take g = 10 m/s .
2
= 5 m + 19 m = 24 m.
Sometimes, we are not careful in writing the units Solution : Let us take vertically upward direction as the
positive Y-axis. We have u = 4.0 m/s and a = –10 m/s .
2
appearing with the numerical values of physical
quantities. If we forget to write the unit of second in At the highest point the velocity becomes zero. Using
equation (i), we get, the formula.
 Rest and Motion : Kinematics 37

v = u + 2ay,
2 2
dvy
and ay = ⋅ … (3.19)
0 = (4.0 m/s) + 2(− 10 m/s )y dt
2 2

16 m /s
2 2
. We see that the x-coordinate, the x-component of
or, y= 2 = 0 80 m.
20 m/s velocity vx and the x-component of acceleration ax are
related by
dx dvx
vx = and ax = ⋅
3.7 MOTION IN A PLANE dt dt
These equations are identical to equations (3.9)
If a particle is free to move in a plane, its position
and (3.10). Thus, if ax is constant, integrating these
can be located with two coordinates. We choose the
equations we get
plane of motion as the X-Y plane. We choose a suitable
instant as t = 0 and choose the origin at the place vx = ux + ax t 

where the particle is situated at t = 0. Any two x = uxt +
1
axt
2
 … (3.20)
2
convenient mutually perpendicular directions in the 2 2 
X-Y plane are chosen as the X and Y-axes. vx = ux + 2axx 
The position of the particle at a time t is completely where ux is the x-component of the velocity at t = 0.
specified by its coordinates (x, y). The coordinates at Similarly we have
time t + ∆t are (x + ∆x, y + ∆y). Figure (3.8) shows the
dy dvy
positions at t and t + ∆t as A and B respectively. The vy = and ay =
displacement during the time interval t to t + ∆t is dt dt
→ → → → and if ay is constant,
∆r = AB = AC + CB
→ → vy = uy + ayt 
= ∆x i + ∆y j 1 2 
→ y = uyt + ayt  … (3.21)
∆r ∆x → ∆y → 2
or, = i+ j. 2 2 
∆t ∆t ∆t vy = uy + 2ayy 
Y B The general scheme for the discussion of motion in
y+ y
A y a plane is therefore simple. The x-coordinate, the
y C
x x-component of velocity and the x-component of
acceleration are related by equations of straight line
motion along the X-axis. Similarly the y-coordinate, the
x x+ x X y-component of velocity and the y-component of
acceleration are related by the equations of straight
Figure 3.8 line motion along the Y-axis. The problem of motion
in a plane is thus, broken up into two independent
problems of straight line motion, one along the X-axis
Taking limits as ∆t → 0
and the other along the Y-axis.
→ dx → dy →
v= i+ j. … (3.15)
dt dt Example 3.8
Thus, we see that the x-component of the velocity is
A particle moves in the X-Y plane with a constant
dx
vx = … (3.16) acceleration of 1.5 m/s in the direction making an angle
2

dt
of 37° with the X-axis. At t = 0 the particle is at the
and the y-component is origin and its velocity is 8.0 m/s along the X-axis. Find
dy the velocity and the position of the particle at t = 4.0 s.
vy = ⋅ … (3.17)
dt
Y
Differentiating (3.15) with respect to time,
→
→ dv dvx → dvy →
a= = i+ j a = 1.5 m/s 2
dt dt dt
Thus, the acceleration has components 37°
X
u = 8.0 m/s
dvx
ax = … (3.18)
dt Figure 3.9