International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (IJTSRD)

Volume 9 Issue 2, Mar-Apr 2025 Available Online: [Link] e-ISSN: 2456 – 6470

Public Transportation in Developing Countries

Paul A. Adekunte1, Matthew N. O. Sadiku2, Janet O. Sadiku3
1
International Institute of Professional Security, Lagos, Nigeria
2
Roy G. Perry College of Engineering, Prairie View A&M University, Prairie View, TX, USA
3
Juliana King University, Houston, TX, USA

ABSTRACT How to cite this paper: Paul A.

Public transportation in developing countries is faced with myriad of Adekunte | Matthew N. O. Sadiku | Janet
problems and challenges such as low quality services, high costs, and O. Sadiku "Public Transportation in
insufficient coverage; but is very crucial for mobility, accessibility, Developing Countries" Published in
International Journal
and sustainability, most especially with increasing urbanization,
of Trend in
population, and environmental concerns. Transportation is crucial for Scientific Research
both economic and social development of nations. It is also a major and Development
contributor to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, for which there is (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-
the urgent need for a paradigm shift towards a holistic approach that 6470, Volume-9 |
integrates transport with economic and social considerations, Issue-2, April 2025, IJTSRD76344
particularly for low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). pp.376-385, URL:
Developing countries must support the pursuit of green and resilient [Link]/papers/[Link]
transport by starting with the importance of setting climate goals, and
develop their own path to Paris Align transport. The paper looks into Copyright © 2025 by author (s) and
International Journal of Trend in
the challenges to public transportation in developing countries faced
Scientific Research and Development
by commuters, government, and private investors, with an attempt to Journal. This is an
proffer viable solutions. Open Access article
KEYWORDS: Public transport, developing countries, greenhouse gas distributed under the
terms of the Creative Commons
(GHG) emissions, climate goals, bus rapid transit (BRT),
Attribution License (CC BY 4.0)
mobile/digital ticketing, intelligent transport system (ITS), corruption, ([Link]
infrastructure
INTRODUCTION
Public transportation in developing countries faces centerpiece. Efficient public transportation is crucial
unique challenges like low quality, high costs, for economic growth and social mobility, requiring
insufficient coverage, poor integration, and lack of innovative solutions and tailored strategies for
safety and reliability, but also offers opportunities for improvement.
sustainable and equitable urban development. It is
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
known to play a crucial role in the economic growth,
The fascinating history of transportation spans from
social development/inclusion, and improving the 4000 BC to the present day, when man makes use of
quality of life of the people in a nation. In developing
animals for transport and the invention of the wheel
nations, efficient public transportation systems are
to the first roads, trains and aeroplanes. The use of
essential for improving mobility, reducing
horses to the earliest invention of the wheel, to the
congestion, and fostering economic growth, creating first flight of the space shuttle, transport has a 5,000-
jobs and connecting people to essential services like year history as follows [2]:
healthcare and education. In many developing
countries, these benefits are not being realized, as one  4000 BC – Horses and camels were domesticated
billion people still live more than 2km away from an and used for transport.
all-weather road, where lack of access is inextricably  3500 BC – Fixed wheels on carts were invented.
linked to poverty [1]. Due to fear of harassment in
transit, one out of six women globally do not seek for  3500 BC – River boats were invented.
jobs. Furthermore, road crashes claim over 1.19  2000 BC – First chariots were built.
million lives every year, 93% of them in developing
countries [1]. This is coupled with some significant  312 BC – Paved roads were built by the Romans.
challenges in maintaining and expanding their  1044 AD – The compass was invented in China.
transportation networks – with corruption at the

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 1662 – The first horse-drawn public bus was typically comes with some additional expenses
invented. that go beyond the initial purchase, such as the
costs of fuel which fluctuate depending on oil
 1783 – First hot air balloon launched.
prices and distance traveled, can take a significant
 1801 – First steam “road locomotive” was run. toll on any household budget. In addition is car
 1814 – First steam-powered railway train was insurance premiums, which could be substantial,
built by George Stephenson. as well as congestion charges and regular check-
ups, making commuting by car a rather costly
 1816 – The earliest bicycle was made. choice. On the other hand, public transportation
 1900 – First successful airship was built by absolves passengers of the responsibilities
Ferdinand von Zeppelin. associated with fuel costs, vehicle purchase, and
maintenance while riders or commuters can use
 1904 – Wright Brothers fly the first motor-driven the services they require for a fixed fare, based on
aeroplane. travel distance or zone. This helps in cost savings
 1908 – First Ford cars were manufactured. for citizens, making public transit an even more
cost-effective option and affordable, most
 1942 – V2 rocket travelled 200 km.
especially for the elderly, students, and low-
 1947 – First supersonic flight took place. income residents, as shown in Figures 2 and 3.
 1957 – First man-made satellite, Sputnik 1, was 2. Reduces traffic congestion: City traffic and
launched into orbit. congestion have a far reaching impact than most
 1981 – First flight of the space shuttle lifts off, 20 people realize as just mere daily inconvenience in
years after the first manned space flight, the lives of citizens or commuters. This is actually
a global issue as the implications relate to
The three modes of transport: The three main environmental, economical, health and the well-
modes of transport are – air, land and water. The being of populations. It was reported that for
majority of transport fit into these three categories, 2022, the typical U. S. driver spent over 51 hours
and all experienced significant changes throughout in congestion, which is about an hour each week.
the history of transportation, as shown in Figure 1. This was 15 more hours lost to congestion than in
First form of transport: The earliest and first form 2021, and the time wasted in traffic jams costs
of transport was walking. Before humans learnt how Americans over $869 in lost time as well as
to domesticate animals like horses and donkeys, the increased levels of pollution, according to the
only mode of travel by man was by walking [2]. In 2022 Global Traffic Scorecard by the mobility
cities in developing countries, most people walk, analytics firm Inrix. Moreover, drivers paid
bike, or take public transport – formal or informal – around $134 more for fuel in 2022 than they did
and only a minority travel by car. Motorization levels in 2021. The overall costs associated with delays
– private cars per 1,000 residents – are still moderate and traffic congestion for the U.S. economy
or low, and motorization by motorcycle is often the amount to over $120 billion annually.
first step towards private vehicle travel. Developing The pollutants from cars are linked to a variety of
countries have at least four to eight times lower health conditions, from allergies and skin
motorization rates than developed countries, which irritation to heart disease and respiratory problems
leads to the essential role of public transport – a low- such as asthma. Other atmospheric pollutants
carbon mode. However, public transport coverage and apart from exhaust fumes, are also fragments of
quality of service are often inadequate, resulting in particulate matter such as dust released into the
many people walking long distances to access air from brake and tire wear, as well as from the
opportunities, abstaining altogether from participating surface of roads, causing a damaging effect on
in the labor market, accessing education or health people’s health. Therefore, the use of public
care services, or sharing in other activities [3]. transportation not only reduces the number of cars
A critical look at public transportation versus private on the road but also contributes to less pollution
vehicles ownership shows that public transportation is in cities, as shown in Figures 4 and 5.
much better than owning private vehicles considering 3. More energy efficient compared to private
the following factors that it is [4]: vehicles: Public transport systems are designed to
1. More cost effective than driving: The cost of operate in a more efficient and planned manner,
commuting by cars are much higher than that of reducing the overall use of fuel and emissions
using public transportation, since driving a car produced. Since public vehicles travel along

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designated routes, this limits the amount of fuel congestions) – as it Is estimated that over 100
needed to transport a large number of passengers people die every day on U.S. roads and
which is why it is effective in reducing air motorways, hence the need for improving safety
pollution. Current estimate showed that about for everyone on the roads.
85% of greenhouse gas emissions from the
7. Reduces pollution in cities: The excessive
transportation sector are related to the surface
number of cars on the road every day portends
transportation system. The use of public
serious and harmful effect on the environment as
transportation is the most effective option
well as human health, due to emission of harmful
individuals can take to reduce or conserve energy,
particles into the atmosphere. According to the
and as well as the saving of over 37 million
World Health Organization, air pollution is one of
metric tons of carbon dioxide, for example as in
the greatest environmental risks to health, and
the U.S., as shown in Figures 6, 7, and 8.
caused over 4.2 million premature deaths
4. Reduction of CO2 emissions: Personal vehicles worldwide in 2019. This has caused governments
are said to be among the largest contributors of around the world to introduce various initiatives
carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions in a typical to encourage the frequent use of public transport
American household. An average household with by citizens so as to improve air quality in cities
two cars is estimated to consist of three main and mitigate the effects of climate change, i. e. by
areas of CO2 emissions: electricity, natural gas way of promoting greener, more eco-friendly
and private vehicles. Electricity accounts for mode of transport such as walking, cycling, and
around 25% of the total emissions, natural gas for the development of more efficient and sustainable
about 20%, and the remaining 55% is all public transport systems, as shown in Figure 9.
contributed by cars. Public transportation is part Less burning of fuel means better air quality for
of the solution to mitigating the effects of climate cities as about 85% of greenhouse gas emissions
change, improving the quality of air in cities, and are from daily transport commuting. In addition,
reducing the CO2 emission levels generated by modern public transport vehicles e. g. buses and
the sector. trains now use alternative fuel sources like
5. Enhances accessibility and community electricity and hydrogen to further reduce
mobility: Inasmuch as public transportation emissions.
creates social and economic opportunities for 8. Makes communities healthier: Walking from
members of communities, it remains a vital part our houses to nearby transit stop and back,
of the society. The lack of public transportation increases physical activity and helps to address
systems in any community, will lead to no modern obesity epidermic. The regular use of
mobility and therefore high dependence on cars public transit by people has been proved to help
which may either create a financial burden on achieve the 30 minutes of daily activity
families and individuals or exclude disadvantaged recommended by physicians as this allows them
community members from being able to access to walk more. One can bike or walk to work, or
essential services. The most affected groups even combine public transit with biking or
would be children, people with disabilities, walking to get those extra steps.
elderly citizens, low-income residents, and high-
CHALLENGES FACING PUBLIC
risk people/drivers going out to parties. Unlike
TRANSPORTATION
cars, public transit systems are designed to work
There are challenges facing public transportation
for all residents regardless of their race, income,
systems in developing countries, some of which are
social status, or where they live, functioning as an
[5 - 9]:
important tool for promoting equity.
1. Environmental impact/concerns: Many
6. Safer than driving a car: It has been proved that traditional and historic public transport systems
riding public transportation contributes to the are still using old technology, and this is a high
reduction of traffic-related fatalities and other contributor to worldwide contamination.
road incidents since it limits the number of cars According to the United Nations (UN), the
on the road. Buses and subways are used to transport system (which includes public transport,
transport larger groups or number of people as individual cars, and more) is responsible for
more passengers can travel per public transit approximately a quarter of all greenhouse gas
vehicle compared to a single car, leading to less emissions.
chance of accidents, takes high-risk drivers off the
The solution is the adoption of more sustainable
road, aside reducing traffic in cities (i. e. traffic
transport options to reduce the environmental

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impact caused via carbon and air quality Robust cybersecurity measures must be
emissions, noise levels, and climate change. The implemented, such as encryption and firewalls,
changes should be implemented, as some cities and investing in cybersecurity training for staff
are already making a move. For example, are crucial to protect public transport systems
Edinburgh is already making transport more from cyber threats.
sustainable by increasing the number of electric,
5. Infrastructure development and maintenance:
hybrid, and lower emissions buses. Locals are
The reliance of many public transport systems on
also encouraged to walk and cycle more, with the
aging or archaic infrastructure that requires
city council investing 10% of their transport
significant investment for maintenance and
budget towards cycling provisions.
upgrades. This is also coupled with inadequate
Germany has rolled out its world’s first zero infrastructure, poor road conditions, insufficient
emission trains in the cities of Cuxhaven, bus fleets, and limited rail networks. The impacts
Bremerhaven, Bremervoerde, and Buxtehude, of this are delays, breakdowns, and decline in the
which are entirely powered by hydrogen and are overall quality of service delivery. Required is the
to serve about 2 million people. massive investment in new infrastructure, like the
2. Urbanization, traffic congestion and delays: bus rapid transit (BRT) systems and light rail
Rapid urbanization in developing countries is the lines, while maintaining existing infrastructure are
cause of an explosion in the demand for public also essential for ensuring the reliability and
transportation. Increase in urban population often efficiency of public transport. To keep up with
outpaces the development of adequate public this, engineers are developing tougher materials
transport infrastructure, leading to severe traffic that can withstand heavy use and hash weather.
congestion and longer travel times. The increase Smart sensors are being deployed to catch
of traffic on roads reduces the efficiency of public problems early before they become major issues.
transport services, leading to delays and 6. Technological advancements/innovation and
decreased reliability. As a result of this, public integration: The integration of different modes of
transport can become less attractive to public transport and incorporation of new
commuters, which may lead to people relaying technologies are challenging. The lack of
more on private vehicles, thereby exacerbating integration can lead to inefficiencies, reduced
congestion. In order to solve this problem, there convenience, and a fragmented user experience.
would be the urgent need for smart traffic The solution is by developing interoperable
management systems, prioritizing public transport ticketing systems (mobile ticketing),
routes, and investing massively in infrastructure implementing real-time information
development and upgrades systems/analysis, bike sharing, and promoting the
3. Financial constraints: Funding challenges has use of mobile apps. New tech is now transforming
always faced public transport systems, making it the transportation and logistics industry. More
hard and difficult to invest in upgrade of common now are electric vehicles on our roads.
infrastructure, maintain vehicles, purchase new Smart logistics systems are also making shipping
vehicles, hire qualified staff, and implement new faster and more efficient.
technologies. The impact leads to aging 7. Customer experience and customer
infrastructure, unreliable services, decline in the satisfaction: The need to focus on improving the
overall quality of public transport, and customer experience to attract and retain riders.
insufficient coverage in urban and rural areas. The impact of this is poor customer service, long
Solving this problem would require the creation wait times, and unreliable service which can
of financial models like public-private result to dissatisfaction and a decline in ridership.
partnerships, and as well as the increased The solution is in providing comfortable and
government investment needed in order to ensure clean vehicles, offering reliable and frequent
the long-term sustainability of public transport. services, and ensuring good customer service.
4. Cybersecurity concerns: The increasing reliance 8. Declining performance of urban
on technology by public transport systems, now transportation: Urbanization and increasing
makes the systems more vulnerable to reliance on private vehicles can lead to a decline
cyberattacks. In this case, hackers could in the performance of public transport systems.
potentially disrupt traffic systems, compromise The impact is that it will lead to congestion,
passenger data, or even hijack and take control of pollution, and reduced quality of life. The
vehicles endangering the lives of commuters. solution lies in promoting public transport,

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investing in infrastructure, and implementing 3. Innovative and smart transport technologies:
policies that discourage private vehicle use to Innovative technologies, such as mobile apps and
help improve urban transportation performance. intelligent transportation systems (ITS), real-time
9. Citizen engagement in transport planning: The tracking, digital ticketing can improve public
non-engagement of citizens in transport planning transportation services, thereby making them
could lead to policies and measures that are not more efficient, reliable, safer, and user-friendly –
well-suited to the needs of the community. To for example, as used in Nairobi, Kenya where
ensure that transport plans are responsive to apps provide live bus tracking and real-time
community needs, citizens must be involved in information about routes have helped reduce
decision-making processes, and the soliciting for waiting times and improve the reliability of
feedback. services. These technologies also help transit
authorities optimize routes and schedules based
10. Inefficient operators: The operators of public on demand.
transportation in developing countries are often
inefficient, and with routes and schedules that are 4. Capacity building: Capacity building programs
not well planned, leading to delays, can assist public transportation agencies in
overcrowding, and cancellations. developing countries develop needed skills and
expertise to manage and operate efficient and
11. Informal transport systems: This is very effective public transportation systems.
common in many urban areas of developing
countries e. g. minivans, shared taxis, or “boda- 5. International cooperation: International
bodas” (motorcycle taxis) playing significant role. cooperation and knowledge sharing can provide
Since they often operate without regulation, these the needed valuable lessons and best practices for
leads to safety issues and unfair pricing practices improving public transportation in developing
(compounded by touts on the roads). While these countries.
systems can be more flexible and accessible, they 6. Integration of informal and formal transport:
can be chaotic and lack the reliability and Rather than banning or ignoring informal
consistency required for effective urban transport transportation, they should be integrated into the
[10]. formal public transportation network. This will
12. Accidents and safety: The growth in the involve improving safety standards, regulating
intensity of circulation in urban areas is linked to fares, and providing better routes for informal
a growing number of accidents and fatalities, transport providers. This line of approach will
especially in developing countries. It accounts for help to increase the overall coverage of the public
a significant share of recurring delays from transport system and provides a safer environment
congestion. Portable devices cause distractions for commuters.
which can be linked with rise in accidents for 7. Policy reform and public awareness: Stronger
drivers, commuters, and pedestrians alike [11, regulation, improved safety standards, with better
12]. enforcement of laws can help enhance the safety
OPPORTUNITIES FOR IMPROVING PUBLIC and efficiency of public transport systems.
TRANSPORTATION Governments should also focus on public
Some of the opportunities/solutions for improving awareness campaigns that educate the
public transportation in developing countries are as public/passengers about the importance of
follows [13]: maintaining order and safety on public transport.
1. Sustainable transportation: Developing Need for comprehensive planning that integrates
countries can adopt sustainable transportation transportation policies with urban development
solutions, such as electric or hybrid buses – as plans is also essential to create a transportation
shown in Figures 10 and 11, the promoting of network that will meet the needs of growing
non-motorized transportation, like cycling and populations.
walking. Some developing countries as examples of successful
2. Public-private partnership: Public-private public transportation include:
partnerships can provide the needed financing and 1. Medellin, Colombia: The Medellin’s Metrocable
expertise for public transportation project such as system is said to provide affordable and efficient
the bus rapid transit (BRT) systems and rail transportation to hillside communities, hence
networks. reducing travel times and improving access to
employment and education.

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developing countries,” Earthscan. JH5gl1se1kQbnLAmmQ&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiz
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Figure 1. Main transport domains

Source:[Link]
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nt=img#vhid=v91g9FS-xCtOvM&vssid=mosaic Figure 3. Land transport
Source:[Link]
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Figure 4. Sustainable transport

Source:[Link]
cbb193bcbd8d96&sxsrf=AHTn8zqx4xIStJfZl_DvF Figure 6 Energy Efficiency of different
XjrMVCfvU8gYg:1741781671971&q=images+on Transport
+public+transportation+in+developing+countries+b Source:[Link]
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Figure 5. The Big Green Bus

Source:[Link]
esv=e6cbb193bcbd8d96&udm=2&cs=0&sxsrf=AH

@ IJTSRD | Unique Paper ID – IJTSRD76344 | Volume – 9 | Issue – 2 | Mar-Apr 2025 Page 383
 International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development @ [Link] eISSN: 2456-6470
AoAfvAw&sclient=img#vhid=BDrmyXcvAyOX_
M&vssid=mosaic

Figure 9. Sustainable transport

Figure 7. Environmental impact of aviation
Source:
Source:[Link]
[Link]
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Figure 10. Hybrid Electric bus

Source:[Link]
Figure 8. Aviation biofuel of+smart+or+hybrid+buses+by+wikipedia&sca_es
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@ IJTSRD | Unique Paper ID – IJTSRD76344 | Volume – 9 | Issue – 2 | Mar-Apr 2025 Page 384
 International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development @ [Link] eISSN: 2456-6470
v=ee3395f8cbb9de9c&udm=2&biw=1036&bih=53
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Figure 11. SmartBus
Source:[Link]
of+smart+or+hybrid+buses+by+wikipedia&sca_es

@ IJTSRD | Unique Paper ID – IJTSRD76344 | Volume – 9 | Issue – 2 | Mar-Apr 2025 Page 385