CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction to Master and Slave Modbus Communication

Modbus is a serial communication protocol developed by Modicon published by Modicon

in 1979 for use with its programmable logic controllers (PLCs). In simple terms, it
is a method used for transmitting information over serial lines between electronic
devices. The device requesting the information is called the Modbus Client and the
devices supplying information are Modbus Servers.

Modbus is an open protocol, meaning that it’s free for manufacturers to build into
their equipment without having to pay royalties. It has become a standard
communications protocol in industry, and is now the most commonly available means
of connecting industrial electronic devices. It is used widely by many
manufacturers throughout many industries. Modbus is typically used to transmit
signals from instrumentation and control devices back to a main controller or data
gathering system, for example a system that measures distance and speed then
communicates the results to a computer. Modbus is often used to connect a
supervisory computer with a remote terminal unit (RTU) in supervisory control and
data acquisition (SCADA) systems and human machine interface (HMI) unit. Versions
of the Modbus protocol exits for serial lines (Modbus RTU and Modbus ASCII) and for
Ethernet (Modbus TCP).

Remote Terminal Unit is a Modbus serial communication protocol that allows devices
to exchange data. It’s the most common implementation of Modbus and is used in
industrial automation systems, building automation, and remote monitoring. Modbus
ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) is an implementation of
the Modbus protocol. It is less efficient than Modbus RTU, but it is easier to use
and debug because it uses human-readable characters. Modbus ASCII uses which can
have implications for the communication speed, error checking, and ease of
debugging.

Modbus is transmitted over serial lines between devices. The simplest setup would
be a serial cable connecting the serial ports on two devices, a Client and a
Server. The data is sent as series of ones and zeroes called bits. Each bit is sent
as a voltage. Zeroes are sent as positive voltages and a one as negative. The bits
are sent very quickly. A typical transmission speed is 9600 baud rate (bits per
second) but it can use other rating (4800, 19200, 38400) as industrial requirement.
In the realm of industrial automation, Modbus protocol revolutionizes how we
control and monitor Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs). Traditionally, PLCs
(Programmable Logic Controllers) managed VFDs using complex, multi-wire systems for
discrete commands and analog signals. Modbus simplifies this by using a single two-
conductor cable to facilitate communication between PLC (acting as the Modbus
master) and the VFD (acting as the Modbus slave). This streamlined setup enables
the PLC to issue commands, such as adjusting motor speed or direction, and to read
critical data, like fault codes, from the VFD-all through a single network
connection.

1.2. Introduction of This Proposed System

In the past few years, automation has become a key component of industrial
development. The management, control, and monitoring of electrical and mechanical
systems in businesses has been completely transformed by the combination of human-
machine interfaces (HMIs), variable frequency drives (VFDs), and programmable logic
controllers (PLCs). The need for effective, dependable, and user-friendly
automation systems has increased as technology advances more quickly. In addition
to lowering labor expenses and human error, modern automation solutions improve
industrial operations' accuracy, safety, and flexibility. Among the many different
automation components, PLCs are the brains of control systems since they can
communicate with many devices, like VFDs that regulate motor speed and torque, and
execute complicated logic. While these devices provide the operational backbone,
HMIs serve as the user interface, connecting human operators to complicated
industrial logic.

This study is significant because it improves a lab-scale automation system by

combining Mitsubishi's FX3U PLC with four slave VFDs. More significantly, it adds
the Delta DOP-107BV HMI, which is a cutting-edge, reliable, and user-friendly
interface. HMIs, as opposed to conventional laptop interfaces used in classrooms,
are designed for demanding industrial settings. They can offer customizable control
interfaces, alarm management, and real-time feedback. By adding such an HMI to an
already-existing PLC-VFD module, this thesis aims to create a workplace-ready
system that not only functions as a useful teaching tool but also replicates the
architecture and control logic seen in industrial settings.

1.3 Aim and Objectives

The aim of this thesis is to design and implement a modified automation control
module that uses a Mitsubishi FX3U PLC as the master controller, connects to four
slave VFDs for motor control, and incorporates a Delta DOP-107BV HMI as a touch-
screen interface.

The objectives of this thesis are as follows;

To learn and implement ladder logic programming in the Mitsubishi FX3U PLC.

To configure four VFDs as slave devices via Modbus RTU communication.

To create an interactive user interface with DOPSoft and Delta DOP-107BV.

To use HMI screens to integrate features for real-time monitoring and alarms.

To reduce the operating time span and complexity of industrial operation.

1.4 Statement of The Problem

Despite being operational, the current setup—which consists of four VFDs and a
Mitsubishi FX3U Master PLC—lacks a suitable human-machine interface. A laptop is
used to execute and monitor control, which is helpful in a lab setting but not in
industrial settings where dust, vibration, and the requirement for continuous
uptime present challenges. More significantly, the lack of a specialized HMI limits
the system's ability to provide operator feedback, real-time control, and interface
customization. Operators are cut off from the physical process in the absence of an
HMI and are forced to rely on software that runs on external devices, which
frequently needs to be reprogrammed for even small alterations. Furthermore,
Mitsubishi FX series PLCs might be prohibitively expensive, particularly in
educational institutions where cost effectiveness is crucial.

1.5 Scope of the Project

This study employs ladder logic and the Modbus RTU protocol to integrate a Delta
DOP-107BV HMI, four VFDs, and an FX3U PLC into a single control module. Cloud-based
monitoring, remote diagnostics, and SCADA system integration are not included in
the design. Furthermore, it can only be controlled locally and monitored through
the HMI interface.

1.6 Outline of the Project

This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one deals with the introduction
of the project. Chapter two describes background theories for hardware components
and chapter three describes fundamental concept of including components. Chapter
four is mentioned the tests and results of this system and chapter five is the
discussions and conclusion.

CHAPTER 2

MAIN COMPONENTS OF MASTER PLC AND FOUR SLAVE VFDs

2.1 Introduction to PLC

PIC is a device which is widely used in industry to automate event-based control,

interlocking of operations and sequencing of operations. PLC is used in almost all
process industries, where there is requirement of process safety and interlocks
example thermal power plant, steel industry, cement industry, pharmaceutical
industry, petrochemical industry etc. A PLC is a digitally operating electronic
device which uses a programmable memory for internal storage of instructions for
implementing specific functions, such as logic sequencing, timing, counting and
control through digital or analog input/output modules. Programmable controller is
a computer-type device that is used to control equipment that PLCs can control is
as varied as the industrial facilities themselves. Example: conveyor systems, food-
processing machinery, auto assembly lines. PLCs have been gaining popularity on the
factory on the floor and will probably remain predominant for some time to come.
Most of this is because of the advantages they offer.

Cost effectives for controlling complex systems.

Flexible and can be replied to control other systems quickly and easily.

Computation abilities allow more sophisticated control.

Trouble shooting aids make programming easier and reduce downtime.

Reliable components make these likely to operate for years before failure.

Originally these devices were designed to replace relay logic circuits and the
basic programming language, ladder diagram, resembles relay logic schematics PLCs
are real-time controllers with cyclic behavior. Each cycle consists of three steps.
The first step scans the inputs to the controller and maps a picture of the input
status into the controller memory. After that a program stared in the controller
memory is processed, taking into account the memory image of the inputs.

As a result, an image of the output is produced. In the third step the image of
the output variables is mapped to the actual outputs. The first languages used for
PLC programming were ladder diagram and instruction list. Ladder diagram has a
background that is historically connected with the relay logic used in control
before programmable logic controllers emerged. The basic structure of a ladder
diagram program therefore looks like an electrical scheme, with contacts and coils
connected between two power rails.

2.2 Parts of PLC

A typical PLC can be divided into many parts. These are the central processing unit
(CPU), the input/output (I/O) section, the power supply and the programming device.
The term architecture can refer to PLC hardware, to PLC software, or to a
combination of both. Although the principal concepts are the same in all methods of
programming, there might be slight differences in addressing, memory allocation,
retrieval and data handling for different models. Consequently, PLC programs cannot
be interchanged among different PLC manufacturers. There are two ways in which I/O
(Inputs/Outputs) are incorporated into the PLC: fixed and modular. Fixed I/O is
typical of small PLCs that come in one package with no separate, removable units.
The processor and I/O are packaged together, and the I/O terminals will have a
fixed number of connections built in for inputs and outputs. The main advantage of
this type of packaging is lower cost. The number of available I/O points varies and
usually can be expanded by buying additional units of fixed I/O. One disadvantage
of fixed I/O is its lack of flexibility.

PLC System

People can limit in the quantities and types dictated by the packaging. Also, for
some models, if any part in the unit fails, the whole unit has to be replaced.
Modular I/O is divided by compartments into which separate modules can be plugged.
This feature greatly increases options and the unit’s flexibility. The basic
modular controller consists of a rack, power supply, processor module (CPU),
input/output (I/O modules) and an operator interface for programming and
monitoring.

2.2.2 Operation of PLC

Programmable logic controllers are used for continuously monitoring the input
valves from sensor and produce the outputs for the operation of actuation based on
the program. There are three modules of every PLC system are CPU module, power
supply module and one or more I/O module.

A CPU module consists of central processor and its memory. The processor is
responsible for performing all the necessary computation and processing of data by
accepting the inputs and producing the appropriate outputs. This module supplies
the required power to the whole system by converting the available AC power
required for the CPU and I/O modules. The 5V DC output drives the computes
circuitry. It is typical of small PLCs. It comes in one package, with no separate
removable units. The processor and I/O are packaged together. Lower in cost-but
lacks flexibility. It divided by compartments into which separate modules can be
plugged. The worker can choose from all the modules available and mix them in any
desire. Where a module slides into the rack, it makes an electrical connection with
a series of contacts called the backplane. The backplane is located at the rear of
the rank.

Figure 2.8 Operation of PLC

Figure 2.9 PLC Architecture

2.3 Introduction To Modbus Communication

Modbus is a serial communication protocol used for communication with Programmable

Logic Controllers (PLCs). Because of its open protocol and simple deployment, it
has become a simple protocol widely used in the industry. It is one of the RS485
communication port protocols.

Figure 2.6 Block Diagram of Modbus Communication

2.3.1 Modbus Terminology

There are eight terminology of Modbus are as follows:

Master: Master station equipment

Slave: Slave device

Server: Server side

ADU: Application Data Unit

PDU: Protocol Data Unit

MSB: Most Significant Bit

LSB: Least Significant Bit

PLC: Programmable Logic Controller

A master station in Modbus communication is a device that initiates communication

and sends requests to slave devices.

A slave device in Modbus communication is a physical device that is controlled or

monitored by a master device. It typically represents a field device or a sensor
that collects data or performs actions.

The server-side of Modbus communication typically refers to the master device that
initiates and controls communication with slave devices on the networks (RTU).

ADU is the basic unit of data exchanged between master and slave. This field
indicates the type of operation to be performed, such as read coils, write coils,
read holding registers or write holding registers.

PDU is the fundamental unit of data exchanged between master and slave. It consists
of several fields that define the type of request or response, the address of the
slave device and the specific data being transmitted.

MSB is the most significant bit in Modbus terminology refers to leftmost bit in a
byte of data. This bit represents the highest value within the byte.

LSB is the least significant bit (LSB) in Modbus terminology refers to the
rightmost bit represents the lowest value within the byte.

PLC is a type of automation device that can be used as a Modbus master. PLC acting
as a master can send Modbus requests to other devices on the network.

2.3.2 Serial Link Protocol

The Modbus serial line protocol operates in a master-slave mode and uses half-
duplex data transmission (data transmission can occur in both directions, but not
simultaneously). The RS485 standard typically requires two lines, and at a specific
time, there is communication between one master and multiple slaves.

Master-slave mode: Typically, there is one master and multiple slaves on the bus.
Each slave has a unique ID, and the master identifies and communicates with the
slaves using their IDs for data transmission. Half-duplex transmission: In contrast
to half-duplex, full-duplex allows simultaneous transmission and reception of data.
Therefore, in half-duplex mode, data can only be sent or received at any given
time. Additionally, slaves cannot initiate communication with other slaves. Only
when the master sends data to a slave (sending a request), the slave receives the
data from the master and then responds with data.

2.2.3 Types of Communication in Modbus:

Modbus uses three types of variations for communication-RTU, ASCII and TCPIP.
Modbus RTU uses binary coding and CRC error checking. The basic difference between
RTU and TCPIP is the physical layer; RTU uses serial physical layer while TCPIP
uses Ethernet physical layer. ASCII uses ASCII characters to begin and end messages
whereas RTU uses time gaps (3.5character times) of silence for framing. Modbus
ASCII messages require twice as many bytes to transmit the same content as a Modbus
RTU message.

Modbus RTU uses three physical serial layers (electrical interfaces) to communicate
– RS232, RS422 and RS-485. RS-232 allows only single end-to-end communication (one
master and one slave). RS-422 and RS-485 allow point-to-multipoint communication
(one master with a maximum of 247 slave devices for RS-485 and 10 slave devices for
RS-422).

One thing to remember is that a standard RS-485 protocol communicates with only a
maximum of 32 slave devices and to extend it further. RS-232 allows for data
transfer at relatively slow speeds (up to 20K bits/sec) and short distances (up to
50 ft). RS-422 allows for higher speeds and relatively longer distances. But, it
had it’s disadvantages in not creating a true multipoint network; which is the
reason why RS-485 is the widely used interface nowadays. RS-485 can go up to 4000
ft. of distance and achieve speeds of 10 Mb/s.

2.2.3.1 Modbus-RTU protocol

Modbus-RTU is a compact format that represents data in hexadecimal. In the RTU

format, each command is followed by a cyclic redundancy check (CRC) checksum. For
example, if we need to send the number 10, in RTU mode, we would only need to send
0x0A. The data transmission on the bus would be represented as: 0000 1010.

2.2.3.2 Frame structure for Modbus messages

A message refers to a single frame of data, and a data frame represents a single
message. It refers to a complete set of instruction data and essentially represents
a sequence of data. A Modbus message refers to a frame of data that the master
sends to the slave. It includes the slave’s address, the operation the master wants
to perform, checksum, and other relevant information.

The message format for Modbus protocol on a serial link is as follows:

Slave Address: Each slave device has a unique address, occupying one byte, with a
range of 0-255. The valid range for slave addresses is 1-247 because 255 is
reserved for the broadcast address (broadcasting a message to all slave devices).

Function Code: Occupying one byte, the function code indicates the purpose of the
instruction. For example, you can use function codes to query data from a slave
device or modify data on a slave device. Different function codes correspond to
different functionalities.

Data: The data portion varies depending on the function code. For example, if the
function code is used to query data from a slave device, the data may include the
address to query and the number of bytes to read.

Checksum: During data transmission, errors may occur. The checksum, such as CRC, is
used to verify the correctness of the received data.

2.4 Working Principle of PLC in Modbus Communication

The working principles of a PLC in Modbus communication revolve around how the PLC,
acting as a Master device, communicates with Slave device’s VFDs using Modbus
protocol. Here’s a detailed breakdown of the key principles;

2.4.1 Master-Slave Architecture

Modbus operates in a master-slave architecture, where the PLC functions as the

Master and the connected devices (i.e VFDs) are the slaves. The Master PLC
initiates all communication, sending requests to the Slaves, and each Slave
responds only when requested. Slaves cannot communicate with each other or with the
Master unless instructed to do so by the Master.

2.4.2 Communication Protocol

Modbus is a simple communication protocol that uses a request-response model; The

Master PLC sends a request message to a specific Slave device or to multiple
devices on the network. The Slave processes the request and sends a response back
to the Master with the required data or acknowledgement of the action. The data is
sent as a series of ones and zeros called bits. Each bit is sent as a voltage.
Zeros are sent as positive voltages and ones as negatives. The bits are sent very
quickly. A typical transmission speed is 9600 baud (bits per second).

Figure 2.10 Voltage Characteristic of Bits

2.4.3 Hexadecimal in Modbus

Long strings of ones and zeros are difficult to read, so the bits are combined and
shown in hexadecimal. Each block of 4 bits is represented by one of the sixteen
characters from 0 to F. 8 bits are equal to 1 byte and 2 byte are equal to 1 word.

Table 2.1 Relationship of Binary and Hexadecimal

Figure 2.11 Sequence of Bit, Byte and Word

2.4.4 Data Sorting in Standard Modbus

Information is stored in the Server device in four different table. Table 2.3 is
described in example. Coil/Register Numbers can be thought of as location names
since they do not appear in the actual message. The Data Address are used as
desired. To Read/Write and ON/OFF output coil, the desired register number must be
specified as in manual.

Table2.2 Example Table for Data Sorting form in Standard Modbus

2.4.5 Server ID

Each server in a network is assigned a unique unit address from 1 to 247. When the
client requests data, the first byte it sent is the Server Address. By this way,
each server can know whether or not to ignore the message after the first byte.

2.4.6 Function Code

The second byte sent by the client is the function code. This number tells the
server which table to access and whether to read from or write to the table. The
table shown in following is for example.

Table 2.3 Example table for Function Code

2.5.7 Communication Protocol

The twelve communication protocol are as follows:

Modbus ASCII Mode, Protocol-7,N,1

Modbus ASCII Mode, Protocol-7,E,1

Modbus ASCII Mode, Protocol-7,O,1

Modbus ASCII Mode, Protocol-7,N,2

Modbus ASSCII Mode, Protocol-7,E,2

Modbus ASCII Mode, Protocol-7,O,2

Modbus RTU Mode, Protocol-8,N,1

Modbus RTU Mode, Protocol-8,E,1

Modbus RTU Mode, Protocol-8,O,1

Modbus RTU Mode, Protocol-8,N,2

Modbus RTU Mode, Protocol-8,E,2

Modbus RTU Mode, Protocol-8,O,2

2.5.8 Data Format

For Modbus ASCII Mode, Protocol -7,N,2

In this project, Modbus RTU Mode, Protocol-8,E,1 is used. The shown 11-bits
character frame of serial bits are transferring from Master PLC to Slave VFD vice
versa to Read/Write.

2.1 The Various Types of Variable Frequency Drive

A variable-frequency drive (VFD, or adjustable-frequency drive, adjustable-speed

drive, variable-speed drive, AC drive, micro drive, inverter drive, or drive) is a
type of AC motor drive (system incorporating a motor) that controls speed and
torque by varying the of the input electricity. Depending on its , it controls the
associated or variation.

VFDs are used in applications ranging from small appliances to large compressors.
VFD systems can be more efficient than , such as systems with pumps and damper
control for fans. Since the 1980s, technology has reduced VFD cost and size and
has improved performance through advances in semiconductor switching devices, drive
topologies, simulation and control techniques, and control hardware and software.
VFDs include low- and medium-voltage and topologies. The most common electrical
VFD used in industry is the AC variable frequency drive using Voltage Source
Inverter (VSI) typology and controlling asynchronous squirrel cage motors.

2.2 Components of Variable Frequency Drive

The components of variable frequency drive are explained as follow;

Ac input: The VFD has input of AC from the mains.

Rectification: It will convert the AC input to DC.

DC link: Here the DC voltage is stabilized using capacitors.

Inverter: The control system will instruct the inverter to convert the DC voltage
to AC with Variable Frequency.

AC output: The output of the Variable frequency is supplied to the motor.

Motor Speed Control: The speed of the motor is controlled by varying the frequency.
So, if the frequency is increased the speed is increased and if it is decreased,
then it is slow speed.

Figure 2.1 Operation of Variable Frequency Drive (VFD)

2.3 Working Principle of Variable Frequency Drive

The Variable Frequency Drive is a motor that can control a motor by changing its
frequency and the voltage that is supplied. It can be easily controlled the speed,
acceleration and torque of the motor. It will help to run the motor in more
efficient way and not harming the motor.

AC to DC conversions: By using a rectifier circuit, the AC power of fixed frequency

is converted into DC power by the VFD.

Making the DC smooth: As the DC voltage is not proper in the start, so the VFD will
use and inductors to smooth the DC which will help in next process.

DC to AC conversion: In VFD, transistor can be used as fast switching device to

make the DC smooth and convert them in pulses. By its way, it can create a sine
wave which is good for the motor.

Frequency Control: VFD can be controlled the frequency of the chopped up AC output,
as the motor’s speed is related to the frequency of the it receives. By changing
the output frequency, it can control the motor’s speed.

Operation of the Brain: The brain of the main drive is digital signal processor

(DSP). It will receive the user commands and then it will monitor the main
performance of the motor to get the required frequency.

Another way of explaining the working of Variable Frequency Drive is –

Input Power: The input power is used by connecting VFD to AC power source.

Rectification: In rectification, the power that is AC is converted into DC by

rectifier circuit.

DC bus: As the AC is converted into DC, it is stored in the DC bus capacitor bank.
By using a storage medium, the process is smoothened.

Inverter Section: In the section, the DC power from the bus is converted into AC
power that is of variable frequency.

Pulse Width Modulation (PWM): It is the most common method that used in VFD which
is used to generate variable frequency AC power. In the method, power electronic
devices like MOSFETS and IGBT’s are included in the process. As the width of the
pulses changes the voltage and frequency can be controlled.

Output to Motor: The AC power is supplied to the motor. It can be controlled the
speed of the motor by changing the frequency and voltage.
Control Interface: VFD can control the speed, acceleration and torque of the motor.
VFD also has communication protocols which is very helpful.

When VFD is operated from a constant frequency power source (typically 60Hz), AC
induction motors are fixed speed devices. A variable frequency drive controls the
speed of an AC motor by varying the frequency supplied to the motor.

The drive also regulates the output voltage in proportion to the output frequency
to provide a relatively constant ratio of voltage to frequency (V/Hz), as required
by the characteristics of the AC motor to produce adequate torque.

The first step in this process is to convert the AC supply voltage into DC by the
use of a rectifier. DC power contains voltage ripples which are smoothed using
filter capacitors.

The section of the VFD is often referred to as the DC link. The DC voltage is then
converted back into AC. The conversion is typically achieved through the use of
power electronic devices such as IGBT power transistors using a technique called
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM). The output voltage is turned on and off at a high
frequency, with the duration of on-time, or width of the pulse, controlled to
approximate a sinusoidal waveform.

Figure 2.2 Block Diagram of Variable Frequency Drive

2.3.1 Heat and Power Dissipation

The efficiency of most VFDs is between 93 to 98 percent and the balance of the
energy is lost as heat. The power dissipated is calculated by subtracting the
efficiency from 100 percent and multiplying the result by the power consumption of
the drive. In the heat loss of a 95 percent efficient, 100 horsepower drive can be
estimated as 5 percent of 100 horsepower which equals 5 horsepower or 3729 watts.
The enclosure heat load is established by adding the total heat dissipation of all
items of equipment.

Additionally, the calculation needs to take into the account heat transfer through
the enclosure walls as a result of the ambient temperature, local heat sources, and
solar radiation to establish the enclosure’s total heat load and associated cooling
capacity requirement.

A cabinet will dissipate most of its heat through exposed vertical surfaces due to
convection air currents; therefore, the vertical surface area of the cabinet
becomes the determining factor in sizing totally-enclosed cabinets for heat
dissipation. Horizontal surfaces do not dissipate heat well and therefore, are not
considered as a factor. Since the back of the cabinet is usually against a wall,
heat dissipation from the area should not be considered either. An alternative to
relying on heat dissipation solely through radiation and conduction in totally
enclosed cabinets is to cool the cabinet via air conditioning. Since air
conditioners are rated in terms of BTU/HR.

2.3.2 Total Harmonic Distortion and Mitigation Techniques

All non-sinusoidal waveforms contain harmonics. Fourier theorem shows that a non-
sinusoidal waveform consists of multiples of the fundamental frequency, which when
combined together create the resulting waveform, e.g. on a 50Hz supply, the 3rd
harmonic would be 3 x 50 = 150Hz. Any waveform may be represented by overlaying
multiple waveforms consisting of sine waves at harmonics of the base frequency. The
harmonic currents are created in the supply by any non-linear load – any load which
does not draw current from the supply in a sinusoidal fashion. It includes
equipment such as Switch Mode Power Supplies, Welders, UPS, Electronic Lighting and
VFDs. As the level of harmonics increases within the supply, it can be unwanted
side effects, such as conductor and transforming heating. In addition, the harmonic
current levels can cause voltage distortion on the supply, which may also cause
unwanted effects on other electrical equipment connected to the same mains supply.
For that reason, it is desirable to keep the total level of harmonics present as
low as possible, in order to minimize the effects. As the use of VFDs has become
more prevalent, it has been an increasing focus on supply quality, to ensure that
the level of harmonic distortion present on the supply does not become excessive
and cause unwanted side effects.

There are several measures that may be taken in order to reduce the harmonic
current levels. They are:

Increasing the supply source impedance by adding an AC line choke

Adding DC link chokes

Reducing the total level of DC link capacitance

Using higher pulse number rectifiers

Adding harmonic filtering

Using complex rectifier solutions, typically referred to as “Active Front End”

where the supply current may be controlled.

2.3.2.1 AC line choke

Adding an AC line choke in the main supply to a VFD provides a simple method of
adding additional supply impedance. The impedance increases with frequency, and so
is an effective step to reduce harmonic distortion and improve Real Power Factor.
AC line chokes in general can be easily added to existing installations. Typically,
AC line chokes are selected based on a % impedance – it is the % of voltage drop
across the choke when operating at rated load. For example, if a choke is designed
as 50A, 4% impedance, and is used with a 400 Volt supply, when the line current is
50A, the voltage drop across the choke will be 400V x 4% = 16 Volts.

AC line chokes, therefore, make sense where protection of the drive input takes
precedence over the drive system efficiency, or where it is desired to improve Real
Power Factor or reduce harmonic distortion for an existing drive installation.

2.3.2.2 DC link choke

DC link chokes provide similar benefits to AC line chokes, in terms of improving

real power factor and reducing harmonic distortion. The key reason why DC chokes
are used, as compared to AC chokes, is that by mounting the choke in the DC link of
the drive, effectively the choke can be “single phase” as opposed to a 3 phase AC
line choke, and the required inductance can be reduced, due to the choke being
after the input rectifier and so the effective supply frequency is increased by six
(each incoming AC supply phase has two peaks, and when all three phases are
rectified, the DC ripple frequency is therefore six times the AC line frequency).
This allows a reduction in size, weight and overall cost of the choke.

DC link chokes will have an overall negative impact on drive system efficiency. As
the inductance is typically lower than an AC choke, the increase in losses is
relatively lower, however there is still an overall drive system efficiency
reduction when a DC link choke is used, particularly with non-linear or saturated
chokes (sometimes referred to as “Swinging” chokes), where the inductance can
change with current.
2.3.2.3 Optidrive eco reduced DC link capacitance

It can be seen from the description earlier that the design of a VFD with large DC
link capacitance will always lead to high levels of harmonic currents.
Historically, the large capacitance was necessary to provide a stable DC power
supply inside the VFD which could be used to create three phase output for the
motor. The reduced DC link capacitance is achieved by using film capacitor
technology as opposed to the electrolytic capacitors used in conventional VFDs.
Additional benefits of the film capacitor technology include a longer capacitor
lifetime and removing the need for capacitor reforming. The benefit to reducing the
DC link capacitance is a significant reduction in supply current harmonics at full
and part load, which is of much more practical benefit since the majority of
operation will be at part load. In addition, there is no reduction in the
reliability of the design or resistance to mains voltage fluctuations, spikes or
notches compared to a drive designed with a DC link choke, since the DC choke is
not effective in these areas.

2.3.4.4 Harmonic mitigation methods comparison

It can be clearly seen that the reduced DC link capacitance significantly reduces
the total harmonic distortion at full load, and has a much greater benefit at part
load compared to a conventional DC choke or swinging choke.

2.4 Theory of Sine Pulse Width Modulation

Although the modulation technique can be used to encode information for

transmission, its main use is to allow the control of the power supplied to
electrical devices, especially to inertial loads such as motors. The average value
of voltage (and current) fed to the load is controlled by turning the switch
between supply and load on and off at a fast rate. The longer the switch is on
compared to the off periods, the higher the total power supplied to the load. For
example, PWM in an idealized inductor is driven by a voltage source modulated as a
series of pulses, resulting in a sine-like current in the inductor. The rectangular
voltage pulses nonetheless result in a more and more smooth current waveform, as
the switching frequency increases. Note that the current waveform is the integral
of the voltage waveform.

Low Frequency

Figure 2.3 Sine Pulse Width Modulation

Switching has to be done several times a minute in an electric stove; 120 Hz in a

lamp dimmer; between a few kilohertz (kHz) and tens of kHz for a motor drive; and
well into the tens or hundreds of kHz in audio amplifiers and computer power
supplies.

Control of the switches for the sinusoidal PWM output requires a reference signal
(modulating or control signal) which is a sinusoidal wave and a carrier signal
which a triangular wave that control the switching frequency. There are two types
of the switching for PWM, unipolar switching and bipolar switching. In a unipolar
switching scheme for PWM, the output is switched from either high to zero or low to
zero, rather than between high and low as in bipolar switching. The unipolar scheme
has switch control as follow:

S1 is on when Vsine > Vtri

S2 is on when –Vsine < Vtri

S3 is on when –Vsine > Vtri

S4 is on when Vsine < Vtri

Another unipolar switching scheme has only one pair of switches operating at the
carrier frequency while the other pair operates at reference frequency, thus having
two high- frequency switches and two low-frequency switches.

S1 is on when Vsine > Vtri (high frequency)

S4 is on when Vsine < Vtri (high frequency)

S2 is on when Vsine > 0 (low frequency)

S3 is on when Vsine < 0 (low frequency)

Theory of Induction Motors

An induction motor or asynchronous motor is an AC electric motor. In both induction

and synchronous motors, the AC power supplied to the motor's stator creates a
magnetic field that rotates in time with the AC oscillations. Whereas a synchronous
motor's rotor turns at the same rate as the stator field, an induction motor's
rotor rotates at a slower speed than the stator field.

Induction motors are also called as Asynchronous Motors, because an induction motor
always runs at a speed lower than synchronous speed. There are two types of AC
induction motors, namely squirrel-cage induction motors and wound rotor induction
motors which can be fully controlled by variable frequency drives.

Figure 2.4 Power Flow Diagram of 3-phase Induction Motor

2.5.1 Working Principles of Induction Motor

In a DC motor, supply is needed to be given for the stator winding as well as the
rotor winding. But in an induction motor, only the stator winding is fed with an AC
supply. Alternating flux is produced around the stator winding due to AC supply.
The alternating flux revolves with synchronous speed. The revolving flux is called
as "Rotating Magnetic Field" (RMF). The relative speed between stator RMF and rotor
conductors causes an induced emf in the rotor conductors, according to the
Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. The rotor conductors are short
circuited, and hence rotor current is produced due to induced emf. That is why such
motors are called as induction motors. (This action is same as that occurs in
transformers, hence induction motors can be called as rotating transformers.)

Now, induced current in rotor will also produce alternating flux around it. The
rotor flux lags behind the stator flux. The direction of induced rotor current,
according to Lenz's law, is such that it will tend to oppose the cause of its
production. As the cause of production of rotor current is the relative velocity
between rotating stator flux and the rotor, the rotor will try to catch up with the
stator RMF. Thus, the rotor rotates in the same direction as that of stator flux to
minimize the relative velocity. However, the rotor never succeeds in catching up
the synchronous speed. It is the basic working principle of induction motor of
either type, single-phase or three-phase.

2.5.2 Squirrel Cage Induction Motor

A three-phase squirrel cage induction motor is a type of three-phase induction

motor which functions based on the principle of electromagnetism. It is called a
‘squirrel cage’ motor because the rotor inside of it – known as a ‘squirrel cage
rotor’ – looks like a squirrel cage. The squirrel-cage rotor is the rotating part
of the common squirrel-cage induction motor. It consists of a cylinder of steel
laminations, with aluminum or copper conductors embedded in its surface. In
operation, the non-rotating stator winding is connected to an alternating current
power source; the alternating current in the stator produces a rotating magnetic
field. The rotor winding has current induced in it by the stator field, and
produces its own magnetic field. The interaction of the two sources of magnetic
field produces torque on the rotor. For example, by adjusting the shape of the bars
in the rotor, the speed-torque characteristics of the motor can be changed, to
minimize starting current or to maximize low-speed torque.

The motor rotor shape is a cylinder mounted on a shaft. Internally, it contains

longitudinal conductive bars (usually made of aluminum or copper) set into grooves
and connected at both ends by shorting rings forming a cage-like shape. The name is
derived from the similarity between this rings-and-bars winding and a squirrel
cage. The solid core of the rotor is built with stacks of electrical steel
laminations. The conductors are often skewed slightly along the length of the rotor
to reduce noise and smooth out torque fluctuations that might result at some speeds
due to interactions with the pole pieces of the stator. The number of bars on the
squirrel cage determines to what extent the induced currents are fed back to the
stator coils and hence the current through them. The constructions that offer the
least feedback employ prime numbers of bars.

2.5.3 Wound Rotor Induction Motor

A wound rotor induction motor has a stator like the squirrel cage induction motor,
but a rotor with insulated windings brought out via slip rings and brushes.
However, no power is applied to the slip rings. Their sole purpose is to allow
resistance to be placed in series with the rotor windings while starting. Its
resistance is shorted out once the motor is started to make the rotor look
electrically like the squirrel cage counterpart. The resistance decreases the
torque available at full running speed. But that resistance is shorted out by the
time the rotor is started. A shorted rotor operates like a squirrel cage rotor.
Heat generated during starting is mostly dissipated external to the motor in the
starting resistance. The complication and maintenance associated with brushes and
slip rings is a disadvantage of the wound rotor as compared to the simple squirrel
cage rotor.

Figure 2.5 Circuit Diagram of Wound Rotor Motor

2.5.4 Different Speed Control Methods for Induction Motors

The speed control of asynchronous motor (AM) or induction motor (IM) can be varied
by varying the slip ‘S’ or number of poles ‘p’ or frequency ‘f’ of the supply. The
ability of varying any one of the above three quantities will provide methods of
speed control of an induction motor.

Constant V/F method is commonly used for constant and variable speed control of
induction motor. The different methods of speed control of IM can be broadly
classified into scalar and vector control methods. The scalar methods of speed
control can be classified as follows.

Rotor resistance control

The method is applicable only to the wound rotor induction motors. Speed variation
can be obtained by inserting external resistance in the rotor circuit. External
resistances are placed in series with the rotor windings during starting to limit
the starting current.
Without the external resistances, the starting currents are many times the rated
currents. Depending on the size of the machine, it can draw 300% to over 900% of
full-load current. Once the motor is started, the external resistance can be cut
out to obtain high torque throughout the accelerating range.

Supply frequency control

By changing the supply frequency, the motor synchronous speed can be altered and
thus the torque-speed of a three- phase induction motor can be controlled. The
synchronous speed of the motor at rated conditions is known as the base speed. By
using variable frequency control, it is possible to adjust the speed of the motor
either above or below the base speed. Increasing the frequency increases torque-
speed relation and decreasing the frequency decreases torque-speed relation of the
motor.

Supply voltage control

The torque developed by an induction motor varies as square of the voltage applied
to its stator terminals. Thus, by varying the applied voltage, the electromagnetic
torque developed by the motor can be varied. The method is generally used for small
squirrel-cage motors where cost is an important criterion and efficiency is not.
However, the method has rather limited range of speed control.

Stator voltage and frequency control

The stator voltage and frequency control are to control the induction motor speed
and torque by varying the ratio of voltage to frequency. When low voltage and low
frequency are applied to the motor, the available maximum torque decreases at
reduced speeds. If the ratio of voltage to frequency is kept constant, the
technique allows the induction motor to deliver its rated torque at speeds up to
its rated speed. The reason is that the air gap flux is reduced due to the drop in
the stator impedance while motor operates at a low frequency. The stator voltage
can be varied in such a way that the flux remains constant by simultaneously
varying the supply frequency.

Pole changing control

The primary factor in determining the speed of an induction motor is the number of
poles. Pole changing in induction machine can be done using a Dahlander motor also
known as a pole changing motor. Pole changing can be used to achieve different
speeds in induction machine by switching the configuration of the electrical stator
windings in the ratio of 2:1, indirectly adding or removing poles and thus varying
the rotor speed. The number of stator poles can be changed by (a) multiple stator
winding, (b) method of consequent poles, (c) pole amplitude modulation.

2.5.5 Torque-slip/speed Characteristics of Induction Motors

The torque slip curve for an induction motor gives the information about the
variation of torque with the slip. The slip is defined as the ratio of difference
of synchronous speed and actual rotor speed to the synchronous speed of the
machine. The variation of slip can be obtained with the variation of speed that is
when speed varies, the slip will also vary and the torque corresponding to that
speed will also vary.

Figure 2.6 Torque-slip Curve in Three Operating Regions

In motoring mode of operation, supply is given to the stator sides and the motor
always rotates below the synchronous speed. The induction motor torque varies from
zero to full load torque as the slip varies. The slip varies from zero to one. It
is zero at no load and one at standstill. From the curve, it is seen that the
torque is directly proportional to the slip.

In generating mode of operation, induction motor runs above the synchronous speed
and it should be driven by a prime mover. The stator winding is connected to a

three phase supply in which it supplies electrical energy. Actually, in the case,
the torque and slip both are negative so the motor receives mechanical energy and
delivers electrical energy.

In the braking mode, the two leads or the polarity of the supply voltage is changed
so that the motor starts to rotate in the reverse direction and as a result the
motor stops. The kinetic energy stored in the revolving load is dissipated as heat.
Also, motor is still receiving power from the stator which is also dissipated as
heat, so as a result of which motor develops, enormous heat energy. The stator is
disconnected from the supply before motor enters the braking mode. If load which
the motor drives accelerates, the motor in the same direction as the motor is
rotating, the speed of the motor may increase more than synchronous speed.

Figure 2.7 Torque-slip/speed Curve of Induction Motor

When n=ns, and s=0, torque is zero. This is because at synchronous speed there is
no relative motion because rotor conductors and stator rotating field, so that emf
and current are zero.

The hatched area shows the normal operating range for motor action. In this region,
torque increases linearly with slip.

CD represents the torque at s=1, i.e. at standstill conditions. If load torque is

less than CD, the motor will accelerate till the torque developed by motor is equal
to load torque. This happens at a speed which is close to but less than synchronous
speed.

AB is the maximum or pull-out torque. If the load torque is more than this torque,
the motor will come to standstill. The region BD is the unstable region.

The maximum torque occurs at a low value of slip. This is typical of all induction
motors and is a desired feature, because the change in speed with load is small,
making it almost a constant speed motor.

The values of slip greater than 1 are also shown in Figure 2.6. To achieve a value
of slip more than 1, the rotor must be coupled to a prime mover driven in the
direction opposite to that of stator rotating field, the stator still being
connected to the three-phase supply. In this region the motor is receiving both
electrical and mechanical input, all the power being dissipated as loss. This mode
of operation is known as brake action.

The torque slip characteristics of both three-phase and single-phase induction

motors plays a crucial role in understanding their performance and applications.
For three phase motors, the curve typically exhibits a high starting torque and a
nearly constant torque at rated speed. Single phase motors are having low starting
torque and exhibit more valuable torque characteristics that used where three phase
power is unavailable.

2.6 Motor Control

Electric motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. Speed is directly
proportional to frequency.
Figure 2.8 Four quadrants of torque limits

2.6.1 Motor Control Methods in VFD

Figure 2.9 Motor Control Methods in VFD

2.6.2 Typical Applications

V/f: The limited starting torque is more than enough for most variable torque
applications. In fact, it is just about every variable torque fan and pump
applications. Similarly, constant-torque applications, such as conveyors, extruders
and hoists.

V/f (with encoder): If an application needs more precise speed regulation, along
with the ability to run at a higher reference frequency, an encoder can be added to
V/f control.

Open loop vector: Vector control without an encoder, often referred to as open-loop
vector control, avoids the need for a feedback device by using a mathematical model
of the motor operating parameters. Rather than using a shaft encoder to monitor
position, the controller monitors the current and voltage from the motor.

Closed loop vector: The key difference is that closed-loop vector uses an encoder.
Encoder feedback, paired with vector control, means 200% of the motor’s rated
torque is available at 0 rpm. It is a selling point for applications required to
hold a load without moving, such as elevator, cranes and hoists.

Starting Methods of VFD

Figure 2.10 Starting Methods of VFD

2.8. HMI (Human-Machine Interface)

A Human-Machine Interface (HMI) is a user interface or dashboard that connects a

person to a machine, system, or device. While the term can technically be applied
to any screen that allows a user to interact with a device, HMI is most commonly
used in the context of an industrial process. HMIs are similar in some ways to
Graphical User Interfaces (GUI) but they are not synonymous; GUIs are often
leveraged within HMIs for visualization capabilities. In industrial settings, HMIs
can be used to:

Visually display data

Track production time, trends, and tags

Oversee KPIs

Monitor machine inputs and outputs

Basic HMI examples include built-in screens on machines, computer monitors, and
tablets, but regardless of their format or which term you use to refer to them,
their purpose is to provide insight into mechanical performance and progress.
HMI technology is used by almost all industrial organizations, as well as a
wide range of other companies, to interact with their machines and optimize their
industrial processes. Industries using HMI include:

Energy

Food and beverage

Manufacturing

Oil and gas

Power

Recycling

Transportation

Water and waste water

The most common roles that interact with HMIs are operators, system integrators,
and engineers, particularly control system engineers. HMIs are essential resources
for these professionals, who use them to review and monitor processes, diagnose
problems, and visualize data. HMIs communicate with Programmable Logic Controllers
(PLCs) and input/output sensors to get and display information for users to view.
HMI screens can be used for a single function, like monitoring and tracking, or for
performing more sophisticated operations, like switching machines off or increasing
production speed, depending on how they are implemented.

HMIs are used to optimize an industrial process by digitizing and centralizing data
for a viewer. By leveraging HMI, operators can see important information displayed
in graphs, charts, or digital dashboards, view and manage alarms, and connect with
SCADA, ERP, and MES systems, all through one console.

Figure 2.11. HMI (Human-Machine Interface)

Previously, operators would need to walk the floor constantly to review mechanical
progress and record it on a piece of paper or a whiteboard. By allowing PLCs to
communicate real-time information straight to an HMI display, HMI technology
eliminates the need for this outdated practice and thereby reduces many costly
problems caused by lack of information or human error. A Human Machine Interface
(HMI) is a digital product that facilitates communication between operators and
automated equipment. The HMI provides a variety of communication ports for seamless
interaction with various devices. The touch panel allows intuitive parameter
configuration, while the LCD screen displays monitoring data related to the machine
equipment. Additionally, flexible editing software enables designers to create
customized interface screens tailored to the specific needs of different
applications.

2.9. Developing Trends in HMI Technology

In the past decade, changing operational and business needs have instigated
interesting developments in HMI technology. Now, it’s becoming more common to see
evolved forms of HMI. More advanced HMI examples include high-performance HMIs,
touch screens, and mobile devices, along with more traditional models. These
modernized interfaces are creating more opportunities for equipment interaction and
analysis.

2.9.1. High-Performance HMIs

Operators and users are increasingly moving toward high-performance HMI, a method
of HMI design that helps ensure fast, effective interaction. By only drawing
attention to the most necessary or critical indicators on the interface, this
design technique helps the viewer to see and respond to problems more efficiently,
as well as make better-informed decisions. Indicators on high-performance HMIs are
simple, clean, and purposely cleared of any extraneous graphics or controls. Other
design elements, like color, size, and placement, are used with discretion to
optimize the user experience. Learn tips to boost your speed when designing high-
performance HMIs here: "10 Pro HMI Design Tips: Build Screens Faster In Ignition."

2.9.2. Touch Screens and Mobile Devices

Touch screens and mobile devices are two HMI examples of technological advances
that have emerged with the advent of smartphones. Instead of buttons and switches,
modernized HMIs allow operators to tap or touch the physical screen to access
controls. Touch screens are especially important when used with mobile HMI, which
is either deployed through web-based HMI/SCADA or via an application. Mobile HMI
offers a variety of advantages to operators, including instant access to HMI
information and remote monitoring.

2.9.3. Remote Monitoring

Mobile-friendly remote monitoring allows greater flexibility and accessibility for

operators and managers alike. With this feature, an offsite control system engineer
can, for example, confirm the temperature of a warehouse on a portable device,
eliminating the need for onsite supervision after working hours. Soon, checking in
on a process on your factory floor while being miles away from the facility won’t
seem like anything out of the ordinary.

2.9.4. Edge-of-Network and Cloud HMIs

Edge-of-network HMIs are also in high demand because they allow operators to access
data and visualization from field devices. Additionally, it is becoming more common
to send data from local HMIs to the cloud, where it can be accessed and analyzed
remotely, while keeping control capabilities local.

2.9.5. Peering into the Future of HMI

On the horizon, leading engineers are even exploring ways to implement Augmented
Reality (AR) and Virtual Reality (VR) to visualize manufacturing functions. As data
takes on an increasingly essential role in manufacturing, the future looks very
bright for HMI. This technology may have come a long way, but its potential for
growth remains virtually limitless.

2.10. Uses of HMI

HMI sees use across a wide range of industries. It is common in manufacturing

various types of goods, from automobiles to food and beverage to pharmaceuticals.
Industries such as energy, water, wastewater, buildings and transportation may also
use HMIs. Roles such as system integrators, operators and engineers, especially
process control system engineers, frequently use HMIs. These professionals may use
HMIs to control machines, vehicles, plants or buildings.

The sophistication of the HMI varies according to the complexity of the machine or
system it's used for. It also varies according to how the user plan to use the HMI.
User might use an HMI for one function, such as monitoring a piece of machinery, or
for multiple purposes, including monitoring plant operations and controlling
equipment. When supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) system
communicates with Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs) and input/output sensors to
obtain information about equipment operation, that information is displayed on an
HMI. An HMI may display this information in a graph, chart or other visual
representation that makes it easy to read and understand. With an HMI, the user can
view all of the performance information for a facility's equipment in one place,
improving your visibility into the plant's operations. Operators can also view and
manage alarms using an HMI, helping to ensure they can handle them quickly.
Operators can also use HMIs to control equipment to increase productivity or adjust
to changing circumstances. They may make adjustments based on the data they view on
the HMI. Being able to make the relevant changes right from the screen makes this
process faster and easier. As the Internet of Things (IoT) continues to play a more
prominent role in industrial facilities, HMIs become even more useful. User can use
them to view data about and control the various connected devices within their
facility.

2.11. Benefits of Using HMI

HMIs provide a number of benefits to today's industrial organizations, including:

Enhanced visibility: A high-performance HMI gives you enhanced visibility into the
user’s operations at all times. It allows the user to see how your equipment or
facility is performing from a single dashboard. User can even view this dashboard
remotely. These capabilities help the user to improve productivity over time and
respond to alerts more quickly.

Increased efficiency: Because an HMI provides constant access to real-time data,

the user can use it to monitor production and adjust to changing demand in real
time. Data visualization, especially when combined with data analysis technologies,
can help the user identify areas where they can improve the efficiency of your
operations.

Decreased downtime: With alerts on a central dashboard, the user can respond to
problems more quickly, reducing downtime. Viewing and analyzing equipment
performance data can also help the user to identify signs of future mechanical
problems and address them before they escalate into issues that may cause
significant downtime.

Improved usability: HMIs make it easier for users to view and understand data and
control equipment. They present data using graphs, charts and other visualizations,
which makes it easy for users to interpret it quickly. With zenon, users can also
customize their dashboards to fit their needs and preferences.

Unified system: With zenon, the user can control all equipment using the same
platform, which makes it easier for operators to learn how to control equipment.
User can also view all of your data in one location, helping the user to get a
clear overview of their entire facility.

Technological advancements and evolving business needs have resulted in changes in

the functionality of HMI technology. Touchscreens, mobile devices, cloud-based HMIs
and high-performance HMIs are becoming more common.

The term high-performance HMIs refers to an HMI design method that aims to draw
user attention to only the most critical elements. This helps users to see and
respond to issues more quickly and more easily gather the information needed to
make decisions. The indicators on these types of HMIs are simple, and the
dashboards don't include non-essential graphics and controls. Other design elements
are used sparingly so as not to distract the user from the most important items.

In addition, advanced technologies like IoT and data analytics technologies are
beginning to have more impact on HMIs. As more connected devices come online, HMIs
can collect more data and become a part of the IoT network. Advanced data analytics
techniques applied alongside HMI/SCADA software can help companies make the most of
the data presented on their dashboards.

2.12. Working of HMI

HMI collects data from RTUs (Remote Terminal Units), PLCs (Programmable Logic
Controllers), and other control devices such as flow meters and temperature
controllers. This data is presented to an operator using a Human Machine Interface
(HMI). The HMI allows the operator to see what is going on in the plant in real
time, including custom mimic displays, alarms, trends, etc., to make decisions to
adjust any machine controls or settings.

HMI can also be connected to other technologies, such as a data historian to allow
for historical trending and other analysis. In fact, the foundation starts with
capturing industrial data, combining it with other meaningful data sources for
context and managing a historic record. It is data, turned into information, that
provides the basis for meaningful outcomes. Modern HMI, including data historian
and centralized visualization technologies, empower users to unlock the value of
their data. The outcome is a high-productivity development and visualization
environment that enables optimized plant operations, supported by faster
development, a democratization of tools and capabilities throughout a plant,
improved operational performance, lower costs, a changed mindset among employees,
and a culture of continuous improvement.

HMI is the bridge between humans and machines. It combines hardware and software,
allowing operators to interact directly with machines or systems through a visual
control and monitoring interface. Both touch screens and keyboard interfaces can be
part of an HMI. HMI is known by various technical names, such as:

Man-Machine Interface (MMI)

Local Operator Interface (LOI)

Operator Terminal (OT)

HMI can monitor the inputs and outputs of machines or systems in real-time, helping
operators understand production trends, time, and key performance indicators
(KPIs). Through HMI, operators can remotely check the status of equipment and
adjust settings via touch control when needed.

2.13. Delta DOP-107BV Human-Machine Interface (HMI)

The Delta DOP-107BV is a mid-range, industrial-grade touch screen HMI developed by

Delta Electronics, designed specifically for compact to medium-scale automation
systems. It provides a flexible, intuitive, and durable interface that bridges the
gap between human operators and programmable controllers such as PLCs. As
industries shift toward smart automation and streamlined control environments,
devices like the DOP-107BV play a pivotal role in creating interactive, real-time
monitoring platforms that enhance visibility, safety, and control.

This HMI is part of Delta’s DOP-B series, known for its high reliability and
performance in industrial settings. The DOP-107BV features a 7-inch widescreen TFT
LCD with vivid display resolution, offering high brightness and 65,536 color
capacity. This ensures clear visualization even in bright factory environments. The
touch screen interface provides operators with quick access to system data,
controls, and alarms through easily navigable graphical pages designed via Delta's
proprietary software, DOPSoft.

Figure 2.12. Delta DOP-107BV Human-Machine Interface (HMI)

Technical Specifications of Delta DOP-107BV