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Gas Well Deliquification
Third Edition

James F. Lea Jr
Consultant, PLTech LLC,
Lubbock, TX, United States

Lynn Rowlan
Engineer, Echometer,
Wichita Falls, TX, United States
Gulf Professional Publishing is an imprint of Elsevier
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford, OX5 1GB, United Kingdom

Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without
permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the
Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance
Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: [Link]/permissions.

This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher
(other than as may be noted herein).

Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden
our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become
necessary.

Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and
using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or
methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom
they have a professional responsibility.

To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any
liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or
otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the
material herein.

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

ISBN: 978-0-12-815897-5

For Information on all Gulf Professional Publishing publications

visit our website at [Link]

Publisher: Brian Romer

Senior Acquisition Editor: Katie Hammon
Editorial Project Manager: Mariana L. Kuhl
Production Project Manager: Bharatwaj Varatharajan
Cover Designer: Christian J. Bilbow

Typeset by MPS Limited, Chennai, India

Contents

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Multiphase flow in a gas well 2
1.3 Liquid loading 4
1.4 Deliquification techniques 4
1.5 Most used systems for deliquification 5
Reference 6
Further reading 6

2 Recognizing symptoms of liquid loading in gas wells 7

2.1 Introduction 7
2.2 Predictive indications of liquid loading 8
2.2.1 Predict or verify liquid loading using critical
velocity correlations, Nodal Analysis, and multiphase
flow regimes 8
2.3 Field symptoms of liquid loading 12
2.3.1 Increase in difference between surface values of casing
and tubing pressures 13
2.3.2 Pressure survey showing liquid level 14
2.3.3 Appearance of slug flow at surface of well 15
2.3.4 Acoustic fluid level measurements in gas wells
(Echometer) 16
2.3.5 Determining well performance from a fluid shot 20
2.4 Summary 22
Further reading 23

3 Critical velocity 25
3.1 Introduction 25
3.2 Critical flow concepts 25
3.2.1 Turner droplet model 26
3.3 Critical velocity at depth 27
3.4 Critical velocity with deviation 34
References 35
Further reading 35

4 Nodal Analysis 37
4.1 Introduction 37
vi Contents

4.2 Nodal example showing liquid loading and solutions 38

4.2.1 Liquid-loaded well 38
4.2.2 Solutions to the loading situation 39
4.3 Summary 44
Further reading 45

5 Compression 47
5.1 Introduction 47
5.2 Compression horsepower and critical velocity 48
5.3 Systems Nodal Analysis and compression 49
5.4 The effect of permeability on compression 53
5.5 Pressure drop in compression suction 54
5.6 Wellhead versus centralized compression 55
5.7 Developing a compression strategy using Integrated Production
Modeling 55
5.8 Downstream gathering and compression’s effect on uplift from
deliquifying individual gas wells 56
5.9 Compression alone as a form of artificial lift 57
5.10 Compression with foamers 58
5.11 Compression and gas lift 58
5.12 Compression with plunger lift systems 59
5.13 Compression with beam pumping systems 60
5.14 Compression with electric submersible pump systems 61
5.15 Types of compressors 62
5.15.1 Liquid injected rotary screw compressor 62
5.15.2 Reciprocating compressor 63
5.16 Gas jet compressors or ejectors 64
5.17 Other compressors 66
5.18 Centrifugal compressors 66
5.19 Natural gas engine versus electric compressor drivers 66
5.20 Optimizing compressor operations 67
5.21 Unconventional wells 68
5.22 Summary 68
References 68
Further reading 69

6 Plunger lift 71
6.1 Introduction 71
6.2 Plunger cycles 73
6.2.1 The continuous plunger cycle 73
6.2.2 The conventional plunger cycle 76
6.2.3 When to use the continuous/conventional plunger cycle 78
6.2.4 Additional plunger types 78
6.3 Plunger lift feasibility 81
6.3.1 Gas/liquid ratio rule of thumb 81
Contents vii

6.3.2 Feasibility charts 82

6.3.3 Maximum liquid production with plunger lift 85
6.4 Plunger system line-out procedure 86
6.4.1 Considerations before kickoff 87
6.5 Optimization 90
6.5.1 Oil well optimization 91
6.5.2 Gas well optimization 91
6.5.3 Optimizing cycle time 91
6.6 Monitoring and troubleshooting 92
6.6.1 Decline curve 92
6.6.2 Supervisory control and data acquisition data 92
6.6.3 Some common monitoring rules 94
6.6.4 Tracking plunger fall and rise velocities in well 94
6.7 Controllers 116
6.8 Problem analysis 120
6.9 Operation with weak wells 120
6.9.1 Progressive/staged plunger system 120
6.9.2 Casing plunger for weak wells 122
6.9.3 Gas-assisted plunger 123
6.9.4 Plunger with side string: low-pressure well production 124
6.10 Summary 124
References 125
Further reading 126

7 Hydraulic pumping 127

7.1 Introduction 127
7.2 Application to well deliquification—gas, coal bed methane,
and frac fluid removal 130
7.3 Jet pumps 131
7.4 Piston pumps 135
7.5 Summary 138
Further reading 138

8 Liquid unloading using chemicals for wells and pipelines 139

8.1 Introduction 139
8.2 Chemical effects aiding foam formation 140
8.2.1 Surface tension 140
8.2.2 Foam formation and foam density measurement 141
8.3 Flow regime modification and candidate identification 141
8.4 Application of surfactants in field systems 143
8.5 Surfactant application for increased ultimate recovery 146
8.6 Summary and conclusion 146
References 147

9 Progressing cavity pumps 151

9.1 Introduction 151
9.2 The progressing cavity pumping system 152
viii Contents

9.3 Water production 154

9.4 Gas production 155
9.5 Handling of sand/solids/fines 157
9.6 Critical flow velocity 160
9.7 Design and operational considerations 160
9.8 Implications of pump setting depth 161
9.8.1 Open-hole completion 161
9.8.2 Cased-hole completion 161
9.8.3 Presence of CO2 and its effects 162
9.9 Selection of progressing cavity pumps 162
9.10 Elastomer selection 163
Further reading 165

10 Use of beam pumps to deliquefy gas wells 167

10.1 Introduction 167
10.1.1 The surface unit 168
10.1.2 Wellhead 169
10.1.3 Polish rods 170
10.1.4 Sucker rods and sinker rods 170
10.1.5 Sinker bars 170
10.1.6 Pumps 173
10.1.7 Pump-off controls 173
10.2 Beam system components and basics of operations 175
10.2.1 Prime movers 176
10.2.2 Belts and sheaves 177
10.2.3 The gearbox 177
10.3 Design basics for SRP pumping 177
10.3.1 Example designs 179
10.3.2 Rod designs with dog leg severity present 183
10.3.3 Sinker bars 185
10.3.4 Design with pump-off control 185
10.4 Handling gas through the pump 187
10.4.1 Gas lock or loss of valve action: summary 190
10.5 Gas separation 191
10.5.1 Principle of gas separation 191
10.5.2 Casing separator with dip tube: for use in horizontal
wells 197
10.5.3 Compression ratio 198
10.5.4 Variable slippage pump to prevent gas lock 202
10.5.5 Pump compression with dual chambers 202
10.5.6 Pumps that open the traveling valve mechanically 204
10.5.7 Pumps to take the fluid load off the traveling valve 204
10.5.8 Gas Vent Pump to separate gas and prevent gas lock
(Source: B. Williams, HF Pumps.) 205
10.6 Inject liquids below a packer 206
Contents ix

10.7 Summary 207

References 208
Further reading 208

11 Gas lift 209

11.1 Introduction 209
11.2 Continuous gas lift 211
11.3 Intermittent gas lift 212
11.4 Gas lift system components 213
11.5 Continuous gas lift design objectives 214
11.6 Gas lift valves 215
11.6.1 Orifice valves 216
11.6.2 Injection pressure operated valves 216
11.6.3 Production pressure operated valves 217
11.7 Gas lift completions 218
11.7.1 Conventional gas lift design 218
11.7.2 Chamber lift installations 220
11.7.3 Intermittent lift and/or gas-assisted plunger lift 223
11.7.4 Horizontal or unconventional wells 224
11.7.5 Examples of using gas lift to deliquefy gas wells 225
11.7.6 Horizontal unconventional well 230
11.8 Single-point/high-pressure gas lift 234
11.9 Gas lift summary 236
References 236
Further reading 236

12 Electrical submersible pumps 237

12.1 Introduction 237
12.2 The electric submersible pump motor 240
12.2.1 Electric submersible pump induction and permanent
magnet motor RPM 242
12.2.2 Electric submersible pump motor voltage variation
effects 244
12.2.3 Defining electric submersible pump motor frame sizes 246
12.2.4 Electric submersible pump motor, or frame, winding
temperature 247
12.2.5 Electric submersible pump motor insulation life 249
12.2.6 Applying the National Electrical Manufactures
Association method to the electric submersible
pump motor’s class N insulation 250
12.2.7 Electric submersible pump motor insulation
life—sensitivities 252
12.3 Electric submersible pump seals 253
12.3.1 The labyrinth seal 253
12.3.2 Positive barrier or bag seal 256
x Contents

12.3.3 Seal thrust bearing 257

12.3.4 Seal horsepower requirement 257
12.4 Electricsubmersible pump intakes 261
12.4.1 Standard intake 261
12.4.2 Determining the gas volume fraction 262
12.4.3 Estimating natural separation efficiency 263
12.4.4 Estimating the probability of stage head degradation 266
12.4.5 Avoiding the gas—intake below the production
interval—motor shrouded intake 269
12.4.6 Avoiding the gas—intake below the production
interval—recirculating system 270
12.4.7 Avoiding the gas—intake below the production
interval—permanent magnet motor without cooling 271
12.4.8 Avoiding the gas—intake above the production
interval—motor shrouded intake or pod with a tail
pipe or dip tube 272
12.4.9 Avoiding the gas—intake above/below the production
interval—encapsulated system 272
12.4.10 Avoiding the gas—intake above the production
interval—pump shrouded intake—upside-down shroud 272
12.4.11 Removing the gas—gas separators—rotary gas
separator 274
12.4.12 Removing the gas—gas separators—vortex gas
separator 275
12.5 Electric submersible pumps 277
12.5.1 The pump stage 277
12.5.2 Pump radial flow stages 279
12.5.3 Pump mixed flow stages 282
12.5.4 Pump gas handler stage 282
12.5.5 Pump gas handler helico-axial stage 282
12.5.6 Pump performance curve, mixed and radial
flow stages 283
12.5.7 Pump performance curve, helico-axial stage 285
12.5.8 Pump performance curve changes with changes
in impeller RPM 285
12.5.9 Pump stage thrust 287
12.5.10 Floater pump construction 289
12.5.11 Compression pump construction 290
12.5.12 Abrasion resistant modular construction 291
12.5.13 Designing a pump for gas handling 292
12.6 Summary 306
12.6.1 ESP motors 306
12.6.2 ESP seals 306
12.6.3 ESP intakes 306
12.6.4 ESP pumps 307
References 307
Contents xi

13 Coal bed methane (CBM) and shale 309

13.1 Introduction 309
13.1.1 History 311
13.1.2 Economic impact 311
13.2 Organic reservoirs 312
13.2.1 Reservoir characteristics 312
13.2.2 Flow within an organic reservoir 315
13.2.3 Adsorption site contamination 317
13.2.4 Coal mechanical strength 317
13.3 Organic reservoir production 318
13.3.1 Deliquification plan 319
13.3.2 Wellsite and gathering plan 322
13.4 Pressure targets with time 325
13.4.1 Wellbore 325
13.4.2 Flow lines 326
13.4.3 Separation 326
13.4.4 Compression 327
13.4.5 Deliquification 328
References 328

14 Production automation 329

14.1 Introduction 329
14.2 Brief history 331
14.2.1 Wellsite intelligence 331
14.2.2 Desktop intelligence 331
14.2.3 Communications 332
14.2.4 System architecture 332
14.3 Automation equipment 333
14.3.1 Instrumentation 333
14.3.2 Electronic flow measurement 335
14.3.3 Controls 339
14.3.4 Remote terminal units and programmable logic
controllers 344
14.3.5 Host systems 347
14.3.6 Communications 348
14.3.7 Database 353
14.3.8 Other 355
14.4 General applications 356
14.4.1 User interface 357
14.4.2 Scanning 357
14.4.3 Alarming 358
14.4.4 Reporting 360
14.4.5 Trending and plotting 361
14.4.6 Displays 362
14.4.7 Data historians 364
xii Contents

14.5 Unique applications for gas well deliquification and oil well
production 364
14.5.1 Plunger lift 365
14.5.2 Sucker rod pumping 370
14.5.3 Progressive cavity pumping 377
14.5.4 Electrical submersible pumping 385
14.5.5 Hydraulic pumping 394
14.5.6 Chemical injection 395
14.5.7 Gas-lift 396
14.5.8 Wellhead compression 405
14.5.9 Heaters 406
14.5.10 Cycling 407
14.5.11 Production allocation 407
14.5.12 Other unique applications 408
14.6 Automation issues 408
14.6.1 Typical benefits 409
14.6.2 Potential problem areas 410
14.6.3 Justification 412
14.6.4 Capital expenditure 414
14.6.5 Operational expense 414
14.6.6 Design 415
14.6.7 Installation 417
14.6.8 Security 418
14.6.9 Staffing 419
14.6.10 Training 421
14.6.11 Commercial versus “in-house” 423
14.7 Case histories 424
14.7.1 Success stories 424
14.7.2 Failures 426
14.7.3 Systems that have not reached their potential 427
14.8 Summary 428
Further reading 428

Appendix A: Development of critical velocity equations 433

Appendix B: Nodal concepts and stability concerns 439
Appendix C: Plunger troubleshooting procedures 451
Appendix D: Gas lift terminology 467
Index 469
Introduction
1
James F. Lea’s experience includes about 20 years with Amoco Production
Research, Tulsa, OK; 7 years as Head PE at Texas Tech; and the last 10 years or
so teaching at Petroskills and working for PLTech LLC consulting company. Lea
helped to start the ALRDC Gas Dewatering Forum, is the coauthor of two previous
editions of this book, author of several technical papers, and recipient of the SPE
Production Award, the SWPSC Slonneger Award, and the SPE Legends of Artificial
Lift Award.

1.1 Introduction
Liquid loading in a gas well is the inability of the produced gas to lift the produced
liquids from the wellbore. Under this condition, produced liquids will accumulate
in the wellbore leading to reduced production and shortening of the time till the
well no longer produces.
According to EIA, there are about 600,000 gas wells in the United States (see
Fig. 1.1).
By some estimates, 70%
80% of gas wells are low rate and below about
300 Mscf/D. Therefore perhaps 400,000
500,000 gas wells are at risk of lower or
no production from liquid loading unless artificial lift (AL) is properly applied.
Methods of diagnosing the occurrence of liquid loading will be presented here
for both near vertical conventional wells and horizontal rapidly declining unconven-
tional wells. Methods of solution will be presented and discussed in detail to help
optimize the solution of liquid loading using various forms of AL including:
1. Newer techniques of rod design and rod protection in deviated wells using sucker rod
systems
2. New methods for SRP (sucker rod pump) systems to allow deeper intake for the systems
in horizontal wells
3. Design of gas lift systems for conventional and also declining unconventional wells
using conventional gas lift with bracketed valves for anticipated changing rates
4. Use of high-pressure gas lift to allow more drawdown initially and to eliminate some
downhole equipment
5. New techniques of tracking plungers, various forms of plunger lift, new plunger optimi-
zation techniques, new equipment, and plungers in horizontal wells

Gas Well Deliquification. DOI: [Link]

© 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
2 Gas Well Deliquification

Number of elements

800,000

600,000

400,000

200,000

0
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015

U.S. Natural Gas Number of Gas and Gas Condensate Wells

Figure 1.1 Number of gas wells.

Source: US Energy Information Administration.

6. Use of electric submersible pumps (ESPs) to dewater including design for lower rate
wells requiring needed cautions
7. Optimization of progressing cavity pumpings (PCPs) that usually operate in shallower
wells. Rod protection in deviated and horizontal wells
8. The latest in application of foamer chemicals and methods of application
9. Details and methods of application for gas separation for all the pumping systems
10. New advances in automation are presented in a separate chapter. Automation is a neces-
sity if optimum conditions are to be achieved

1.2 Multiphase flow in a gas well

To understand the effects of liquids in a gas well, we must understand how the liq-
uid and gas phases interact under flowing conditions.
Multiphase flow in a vertical conduit can be described by a number of available
flow regime maps. These can be used to decide whether or not a well is predicted
to be in a loaded condition. However, the well would have to be evaluated at both
the surface and depth for a complete analysis. The flow regime of annular mist
would be where one would like to flow a gas well and if it drops out of the flow
regime, AL (artificial lift) would be required to remove liquid and lighten the gradi-
ent in the tubing. In the mist flow the effects of liquid production are felt the least
by the well (Fig. 1.2).
Coincidentally the rate of 320 Mscf/D at 100 psi is the critical for 2 3/8
tubing. When pressure (200 psi), the point drops below critical and the line between
annular and slug/churn for both values of bpd/Mscf. When the pressure is
less than 100 psi, the velocity is more than critical for both 88 and 200 bbls/Mscf
liquid/gas fractions. In Chapter 3 and Appendix B the expression derived and
used for critical velocity and rate is independent of the liquid/gas fraction and
Introduction 3

Approximate flow regime illustration

Dispersed bubble
0.7

Annular
Vsl (ft/s)

Bubble
mist

Slug or churn 6 5 4

3 2 1
0.07
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Vsg (ft/s)

Figure 1.2 Illustration of possible flow regime map for vertical flow.
For above what numbers in bold indicate: (all for 2 3/8’s tubing)
1: 88 bbls/Mscf, 50 psi, velocity for 320 Mscf/D, 120 F;
2: 88 bbls/Mscf/100 psi, velocity for 320 Mscf/D, 120 F;
3: 88 bbls/Mscf, 200 psi, velocity for 320 Mscf/D, 120 F;
4: 200 bbls/Mscf, 100 psi, velocity for 320 Mscf/D, 120 F;
5: 200 bbls/Mscf, 50 psi, velocity for 320 Mscf/D, 120 F;
6: 200 bbls/Mscf/50 psi, velocity for 320 Mscf/D, 120 F.

this shows why the critical, without this dependency, is still shown to work in
this example.
This example uses an approximate flow regime map and if one is to use the flow
regime chart to suggest if an operational point is above/below critical (in Annular
Mist or not), then one should find a flow regime chart that is tested to agree with
well data.
More details will be shown on the critical velocity and critical rate. Also it will
be shown that Nodal Analysis (Chapter 4) can infer above/below critical or not.
However, this example ties the critical to the multiphase aspects of the calculated
critical rate. It is shown that the flow regime map, the calculated critical rate/
velocity model, and Nodal Analysis will be predictive techniques for critical rate
and under what conditions liquid loading can occur.
A well may initially have a high gas rate so that the flow regime is in mist
flow in the tubing near the surface, but is more liquid rich flow regimes in the
tubing at depth. As time increases and production declines, the flow regimes from
perforations to surface will change as the gas velocity decreases. Liquid produc-
tion may also increase as the gas production declines.
Flow at surface will remain in mist flow until the conditions change sufficiently
at the surface so that the flow exhibits a more liquid rich regime such as slug flow.
At this point, the well production will be observed to become somewhat erratic,
progressing to slug flow as gas rate continues to decline. This will often be
4 Gas Well Deliquification

accompanied by a marked increase in the decline rate. Note this type of analysis is
more complicated than presented here as conditions in a well can be different from
the surface to the bottom hole of the well. For instance liquids may be starting to
accumulate in a more liquid-rich flow pattern downhole and the conditions uphole
can still be in mist flow.
Eventually, the unstable slug flow at surface will transition to a stable, fairly
steady production rate again as the gas rate declines further. This occurs when the
gas rate is too low to carry liquids to surface and simply bubbles up through a stag-
nant liquid column at the bottm of the well.
If corrective action is not taken, the well will continue to decline and eventu-
ally log off. It is also possible that the well continues to flow for a long period in
a loaded condition with gas produces up through liquids with no liquids coming
to the surface. Note that the well can continue to flow below critical, sometimes
for a long time, but it would flow more if the liquid loading problem could be
solved.

1.3 Liquid loading

Nearly all gas wells produce some liquids even if the rate of liquid production
is small; if the gas velocity is below the critical (to be defined in more detail in
Chapter 3), then the well will experience liquid loading. In other words, liquids
will accumulate in the wellbore and reduce production. This is shown by the
fact that there are many gas wells on plunger lift that produce 5 or less bpd of
liquids. If not on plunger, they will produce less or no gas. Critical velocity correla-
tions (Chapter 3) do not require the liquid rate as an input. If more liquid is being
produced then once below the critical the well can load faster. If little liquids
are still being produced below critical, the well will eventually liquid load. Liquid
loading modeling is sensitive to the liquid rate when using Nodal Analysis
(Chapter 4).

1.4 Deliquification techniques

The below list1 (modified) introduces some of the possible methods to deliquefy
gas wells that will be discussed in this book. These methods may be used singly or
in combination in some cases.
G
Initial high rates (for unconventional well on sharp decline)
Unconventional wells may come in high rates initially which are well above critical
rate. For maximum PVP (present value profit) use Nodal to look at flow up casing, flow
up casing/tubing annulus and to look at tubing size effect on flow. Some operators are
considering annular gas lift and high-pressure gas to boost the high rates. Most of the
profits from unconventional wells are in the first year or two, and then later with low rates
and required AL, the returns are much lower.
Introduction 5

G
Lower rates but still above critical (perhaps 300
1000/2000 bpd)
Being above critical, the choice is available to flow the wells. However, the use of AL
can exceed the rates above even the most optimum flow situation (which can be deter-
mined by Nodal). So higher rate ALs such as ESP, gas lift, or other pumping systems
may be used to accelerate the rate above flowing conditions. Lower surface pressure helps
all ALs and all above-critical flowing situations. Once AL is selected for the mid-range or
even higher rates, then the process of AL staging begins (from higher rate systems to
lower rate systems).
Conditions may determine the method/s of lift. For instance, if the well is very gassy
or has solids then one may choose gas lift for long-term lift as excessive gas makes use of
pumping systems more difficult. Also excesssive solids production and excesssive devia-
tion or dog-leg severity can make one consider something other than pumping systems.
On the other hand, SRP systems are one of the most profitable methods of lift and
with not too much gas, solids, and well-deviation SRPs can be used for a wide range of
production rates.
Other systems have particular advantages that may help with selection.
G
Below critical production
Here AL is required to prevent loading.
Plunger, surfactants, compression, pumping systems, and gas lift can be considered.
Pumps and then plunger could be sequentially applied. Or gas lift and then plunger
could be a strategy. Discussion of the lift possibilities in the following chapters will help
with the selection or staging of lift possibilities.
G
Low to very low production rates
Beam pumps, hydraulics, and ESPs can be used to low rates. However, low rates for
ESPs can be damaging and a lower limit on production or special precautions should be
considered for EPSs at low rates. PCPs can be used for moderate to low rates but are
more depth-limited. Ineffective gas separation can lead to poor drawdown with pumping
systems.
Gas lift can be used to low rates but a smaller tubing allows for more efficient lift.
Plungers are designed for low rates and modified plunger lift sysstem such as GAPL
(gas-asssisted plunger lift) and progressive plunger lift (use of two or more plungers run-
ning in one well, i.e. one plunger moving up and down in the top part of the well and
another plunger moving up and down in the lower part of the well) can be efficient for
lower rates and lower available well pressures. Sand limits or prevents the use of plunger
lift. Again sand/deviation/gas production tends to lead to gas lift for longer life and fewer
problems but most likely not as good of drawdown under certain circumstances.

1.5 Most used systems for deliquification

The top most used four AL methods of dewatering are as follows:
G
Plunger
G
SRPs
G
Surfactants
G
Gas lift
Augmenting the choices includes intermitting the well with no AL system, spe-
cial pumping systems, heating systems, velocity strings, compression (which should
6 Gas Well Deliquification

be used in combination with all systems for maximum performance), combination

systems, and more.
The best economical system or the most profitable system should be used. One
such economics decision might be to use plunger lift because it is cheaper to install
and operate but it may not give the best drawdown, especially with an on/off sys-
tem. You might then choose a pumping system but it would cost more initially,
also most likely cost more to operate, but might get better drawdown depending on
conditions and time spent operationally. It seems that the industry chooses a lot of
plunger because of low initial/operating costs, and to save the time spent to judge if
another system may produce more or slightly more. Plunger does pretty well for a
long time for producing rates for the lower range of liquids production. Some con-
ditions such as sand/solids, not enough gas/liquid ratio, or low-pressure build up
can rule out plunger.
All of these factors are covered in more detail in the following chapters.

Reference
1. Coleman SB, et al. A new look at predicting gas well liquid load-up. J Petrol Technol
1991;329
32.

Further reading
Lea JF, Tighe RE. Gas well operation with liquid production. In: SPE 11583, presented at
the 1983 production operation symposium, Oklahoma City, OK, February 27
March 1;
1983.
Libson TN, Henry JT. Case histories: identification of and remedial action for liquid loading
in gas wells-intermediate shelf gas play. J Petrol Technol 1980;685
93.
Recognizing symptoms of liquid
loading in gas wells 2
James F. Lea’s experience includes about 20 years with Amoco Production
Research, Tulsa, OK; 7 years as Head of PE Department at Texas Tech; and the
last 10 years or so teaching at Petroskills and working for PLTech LLC consulting
company. Lea helped to start the ALRDC Gas Dewatering Forum, is the coauthor
of two previous editions of this book, author of several technical papers, and recipi-
ent of the SPE Production Award, the SWPSC Slonneger Award, and the SPE
Legends of Artificial Lift Award.
Lynn Rowlan, BSCE, 1975, Oklahoma State University, was the recipient of the
2000 J.C. Slonneger Award bestowed by the Southwestern Petroleum Short Course
Association, Inc. He has authored numerous papers for the Southwestern Petroleum
Short Course, Canadian Petroleum Society, and Society of Petroleum Engineers.
Rowlan works as an Engineer for Echometer Company in Wichita Falls, Texas. His
primary interest is to advance the technology used in the Echometer Portable Well
Analyzer to analyze and optimize the real-time operation of all artificial lift produc-
tion systems. He also provides training and consultation for performing well analy-
sis to increase oil and gas production, reduce failures, and reduce power
consumption. He presents many seminars and gives numerous talks on the efficient
operation of oil and gas wells.

2.1 Introduction
As gas rate declines in a gas well (conventional or unconventional), a point will
be reached where liquids will begin to accumulate in the tubing and either further
diminish the production or possibly stop the production altogether.
If the liquid loading in wellbore goes unnoticed, the liquids can accumulate in
the wellbore and the adjoining reservoir, possibly causing temporary or even per-
manent damage. It is important that the effects caused by liquid loading are
detected early to prevent costly losses during production and possible reservoir
damage.
This chapter discusses methods to recognize the occurrence of liquid loading.
Methods can be predictive or can be observations of field symptoms. Actual field
symptoms are more preferable as predictive methods may have some deviation
from reality. However, field symptoms can also have their problems as drop in pro-
duction could be due to formation damage, sand accumulations, or scaling which
could be erroneously attributed to liquid loading.

Gas Well Deliquification. DOI: [Link]

© 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
8 Gas Well Deliquification

Indications of loading can be from:

Predictive methods
G
Use of critical velocity/rate correlations
G
Use of Nodal Analysis
G
Use of multiphase flow regime maps
Field symptoms
G
Slugs of liquid begin to be produced
G
Erratic flow and production dropping below the target decline curve
G
Difference between the surface measured tubing/casing pressures begins to increase
G
Pressure survey or acoustic analysis indicates presence of a liquid level in the well
G
Shoot fluid level or do a wireline survey down the tubing and diagnose for posssible liq-
uid loading

2.2 Predictive indications of liquid loading

Predictive indications of loading can be quick and easy. However, there can be a
difference in what actually goes on and the predictions made. Instead of relying
only on the predictive indications, it is a good idea to compare field symptoms with
the results of predictive methods before making a final conclusion. Another use of
predictive methods is to see what happened in the past occurrences of liquid loading
in wells and see which predictive or adjusted predictive method fits best in that sce-
nario and then such standalone predictions can be viewed with more confidence in
future.

2.2.1 Predict or verify liquid loading using critical velocity

correlations, Nodal Analysis, and multiphase flow
regimes
See Chapter 4 where critical velocity relationships are reviewed and the details of
development are presented. Chapter 4 and Appendix review Nodal Analysis and
Nodal Analysis concepts. Chapter 5 reviews compresssion and discusses about how
to analyze it using critical velocity and Nodal Analysis. Chapter 1 briefly reviews
multiphase flow regimes which can be used to predict or verify liqiuid loading.

Critical velocity
Critical velocity correlations predict at what rate liquid loading will occur as the
well rates decline. It is not a function of liquid production or bbl/mmscf. It is
(for some widely used correlations) based on what rate or velocity will carry the
liquid droplets up and when they can no longer be foreseen to travel up, then liquid
loading is predicted. Turner and Coleman are two widely used methods but there
are many other models.
Recognizing symptoms of liquid loading in gas wells 9

The critical flow chart, shown in Fig. 2.1, shows that the critical rate for 2 3/8’s
tubing at 100 psi is about 320 Mscf/D with water production. If liquid is only
condensate, the critical rate (and velocity) would be less. If any water is produced
with condensate, use the water chart. Therefore, critical velocity correlations is a
quick method to assess if flow is critical or not or is approaching critical. Note X-
axis should be in psi.

Use of Nodal Analysis to predict if flow is above/below critical

Nodal Analysis is a model of the well. It usually has a reservoir inflow relationship
and an outflow curve plotted. The outflow curve shows what pressure is needed at
the bottom of the tubing to overcome the friction in the tubing (or other flow path),
weight of gas/liquid in the tubing (gravity effects), and WHP. Some tubing correla-
tions also account for fluid acceleration which is important only at high flow rates.
Fig. 2.2 shows some of the possibilities for the relationship of the tubing perfor-
mance curve relative to the inflow (reservoir) curve.
So a nodal tubing performance is stable toward the right of the minimum in the
tubing curve. If the tubing curve intersects the inflow performance relationship
(IPR) curve at the right of the minimum then a stable rate is predicted at the inter-
section. Even with no IPR if the tubing curve is slanting up and toward the right,
the tubing is stable for that range of flows.

Turner unloading rate for well producing water

3000
4-1/2 OD 3.958 ID
3-1/2 2.992
2500
2-7/8 2.441
2-3/8 1.995
2000 2-1/16 1.751
Rate (Mcfd)

1500

1000

500

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Flowing pressure (psi)

Figure 2.1 Critical flow rate versus pressure and tubing size.
10 Gas Well Deliquification

Figure 2.2 Some Nodal concepts.

Approximate flow regime illustration

Dispersed bubble
0.7

Annular
Bubble
mist
VsI (ft/s)

Slug or churn

0.07
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Vsg (ft/s)

Figure 2.3 Example flow regime map.

Multiphase flow regimes

Based on various authors and multiphase pressure drop prediction models, there
are a number of flow regime maps available in the literature. One must check the
accuracy of the flow regime map with the performance of the well before select-
ing the map. One such example of the flow regime map is shown in Fig. 2.3 as
Recognizing symptoms of liquid loading in gas wells 11

discussed in the Introduction, Chapter 1. This map has entries regarding

superficial velocity of gas and liquid. The superficial velocities are calculated as
if only liquid and only gas are flowing in the conduit. Fig. 2.3 is followed by the
calculations used to enter the example flow regime map and generate the round
dot flow condition.
Input data and calculations for flow regime map to generate the round dot in
Fig. 2.3.

Input API 30
Input Tbg ID 1:995 in:
Input WG 1:00
Input bbls=mmscf 88:00
input WC 0:95
Input Mscf=D 320:00
Calculated lip density 0:99
Calculated BPD 28:16
Calbulated Tbg area 0:0217 ft2
Input pressure 100:00 psi
Input temperature 120:00 F
Input Z factor 0:90
Calculated Scf=D 320; 000:00
0:08 ft=s
Calculate Vsl
0:03 m=s
170:70 ft=s 25:18998 in situ ft=s
Calculate Vsg
52:03 m=s 7:677905 in situ m=s

where Vsl and Vsg are calculated using the following formulas:


Vsl 5 BPD 3 5:615= 86; 400 3 areatbg Vsg 5 Scf=D=ð86; 400 3 tubing areaÞ
Vsg 5 Scf=D=ð86; 400 3 tubing areaÞ
Multiply by: 14=7=P0 ðT 1 460Þ 3 Z=520 to convert to in situ gas velocity
WG 5 Water gravity; Vsl 5 superficial liquid velocity; and
Vsg 5 superficial gas velocity

From the above example the calculated round dot in the flow regime map
corresponding to the above input data is inside the annular-mist flow regime. Thus,
according to the example flow regime map, the well is not liquid loaded in this
condition. Actually, this condition is for the critical velocity as predicted by
Turner’s model for critical velociy and critical rate. However, critical velocity, flow
regime maps, and Nodal Analysis are all predictive techniques and it is wise to
verify these methods with field symptoms which are discussed next.
12 Gas Well Deliquification

2.3 Field symptoms of liquid loading

The shape of a well’s decline curve can be an important indication of downhole
liquid loading problems. Decline curves should be analyzed for long periods
looking for changes in the general trend. Fig. 2.4 shows a smooth target “goal” that
is fit to earlier time data. The round dots are from the production data. One can see
that the production data near the bottom of the plot are falling below the “goal”
decline curve. Since this is a well that has been flowing above critical before the
data falls below the goal, the production falling off can be an indication of declin-
ing below the critical flow and the well is now flowing below critical. If so, then it
is time to consider some artificial lift to try to return production to the goal.
Actually, most operators, once they get the idea at what rate critical occurs for
wells in the field, will install artificial lift before critical so they do not have to
experience the drop in production shown later. Also one can do some work when
wells seem to drop off and see what critical correlation, if any, best predicts when
the well may drop below the goal decline curve. Possibilities on the graph, shown
in Fig. 2.4, are Turner/Coleman critical models taken at the surface/bottom hole.
One aspect of comparing data to the goal decline curve to detect liquid loading
is that there could be something else dropping the flow rates. For instance, the well
may be sanding up and needs to be cleaned out. A hole in the tubing is another
posssibility. The operator has to always consider that initial drops in production
may be due to well damage or solids, etc. before concluding that it is due to the
rates dropping below critical.

Figure 2.4 Decline curve analysis.

Recognizing symptoms of liquid loading in gas wells 13

Figure 2.5 Drop of data below the decline curve well below liquid loading.

Fig. 2.5 shows a drop below the goal decline curve well below the critical. This
is a well where the rate declined below critical and an artificial lift is installed to
keep the well producing along the target decline curve. The drop below the decline
curve is an indication that the artificial lift (perhaps plunger) is experiencing some
problems which need to be diagnosed in attempt to bring production back to the tar-
get or decline curve. If plunger lift is being used, the problems could be a worn or
sticking plunger or the cycle for the plunger needs adjustment back to more opti-
mum control. If other methods of AL are being used then the AL system must be
diagnosed with troubleshooting techniques particular to that system.

2.3.1 Increase in difference between surface values of casing

and tubing pressures
If liquids begin to accumulate at the bottom of the wellbore, the casing pressure
will rise to support the additional liquids in the tubing.
In packerless completions, where this phenomenon can be observed, the presence
of liquids in the tubing is shown as an increase in the surface casing pressure as the
fluids bring the reservoir to a lower flow, higher pressure production point. The gas
produced from the reservoir percolates into the tubing casing annulus. This gas is
exposed to the higher formation pressure, causing an increase in the surface casing
pressure. Therefore an incease in the difference between tubing and casing
14 Gas Well Deliquification

pressures is an indcator of liquid loading. These effects are illustrated in Fig. 2.5
but the changes may/may not be linear with time as shown.
Finally, estimates of the tubing pressure gradient can be made in a flowing well
without a packer by measuring the difference in the tubing and casing pressures. In
a packerless production well the free gas will separate from the liquids in the well-
bore and rise into the annulus. The fluid level in a flowing well will remain
depressed at the tubing intake depth, except when “heading” occurs or a tubing leak
is present.
During “heading” the liquid level in the annulus periodically rises and then
falls back to the tubing intake. In a flowing well, however, the difference in the
surface casing and tubing pressures is an indication of the pressure loss in the
production tubing. The weight of the gas column in the casing can be computed
easily. Comparing the difference between casing and tubing pressures with a dry
gas gradient for the casing can give an estimate of the higher tubing gradient due
to liquids accumulating or loading in the tubing. This will also allow the compari-
son to multiphase flow pressure drop correlations to check for accuracy for differ-
ent correlations (Fig. 2.6).

2.3.2 Pressure survey showing liquid level

Flowing or static well pressure surveys are available to determine the liquid level in a
gas well and thereby whether the well is loading with liquids. Pressure surveys mea-
sure the pressure with depth of the well either during shut-in or flowing.
The measured pressure gradient is a direct function of the density of the medium and
the depth, and the pressure with depth should be nearly linear for a single static fluid.

Figure 2.6 Casing and tubing pressure indications.

Recognizing symptoms of liquid loading in gas wells 15

Pressure survey to determine liquid loading

Depth

Gas gradient above liquid

Liquid level

Water gradient below liquid

Some gas may bubble up through

liquid column

Pressure

Figure 2.7 Pressure survey schematic.

Since the density of the gas is significantly lower than that of water or conden-
sate, the measured gradient curve will exhibit a sharp change of slope when the tool
encounters standing liquid in the tubing. Thus the pressure survey provides an accu-
rate means of determining the liquid level in the wellbore. If the liquid level is
higher than the perforations, liquid loading problems are indicated.
Fig. 2.7 illustrates the basic principle associated with the pressure survey. Note
that the gas and liquid production rates can change the slopes measured by the survey,
giving a higher gas gradient because of some liquids dispersed and a lower liquid gra-
dient due to the presence of gas in the liquid. Also note that the liquid level in a shut-
in gas well can be measured acoustically by shooting a liquid level down the tubing.
Although it was previously done with a wireline pressure survey, a fluid level can be
shot down the tubing with special cautions (echometer technique) to detect a fluid
level with no wireline pressure survey (see Section 2.3.4).

2.3.3 Appearance of slug flow at surface of well

Fig. 2.3 shows that if you are in the annular-mist regime at first, you can move to
the slug flow regime as you move to less gas on the X-axis. In practice, if you are
operating a gas well when it is strong, you can see mist flow. But if it liquid loads
16 Gas Well Deliquification

then you move into the slug flow regime. One indication of liquid loading is that
you see slugs of liquid being produced (you can hear them at the well) where there
were no slugs of liquid before. Actually by the time you start seeing the slug flow
at the surface, a good portion of the well downhole is most likely already liquid
loaded, so this indicator is sort of an after-fact indicator. However, it is still an indi-
cator and if you see slug flow at the surface, the well is liquid loaded (unless well
damage dropped the gas flow and put you into the slug flow regime).
In the past, this has also caught some operators by surprise as they had smooth
data from the flow measurement orifice while in mist flow, but suddenly got spikes
in the readings when slugs start coming through. This may not be an issue now as
most will have liquid KO’s in front of the gas measuring orifice to handle the
liquids before measurement. However, you can still hear slugs if they are present in
the wellhead before the liquids are knocked out.

2.3.4 Acoustic fluid level measurements in gas wells

(Echometer)
Determination of liquid loading can be made by other methods mentioned earlier
including critical velocity, field symptoms, and wireline pressure survey to look for
a liquid level in the well. However, a nonintrusive fluid shot down the tubing, right
after the well is shut-in, can also be used to look for liquids that might have been
accumulating in the well if it is in the process of being liquid loaded.
An acoustic fluid level in a gas well starts when the microphone attached at
the surface records the sudden change in the pressure at the surface of the wellbore
when the fluid-level shot is initiated. The sudden change in pressure creates a
pressure wave that travels away from the surface at the speed of sound, through the
gas composition in the wellbore. Echoes of pressure waves back to the microphone
are produced as slices of the traveling pressure waves are reflected by changes in
diameter in the path of the traveling wave inside the tubing or annulus of the
wellbore. The greater the change in diameter of the wellbore, larger are the echoes at
the surface, because more energy from the traveling wave is reflected back to the sur-
face. The echoes displayed on an acoustic trace have traveled from the surface to the
wellbore diameter change and back to the surface. When the recorded acoustic trace
is displayed, a reduction in the wellbore cross-section area is seen as a down-kick, an
increase as an up-kick, and typically the fluid level is the largest kick because almost
all of the traveling wave energy is reflected back to the surface.
Acoustic surveys on gas wells (shooting fluid levels down the tubing) answer the
following questions:
1. Is gas flowing? At what rate?
2. What is the depth to the top of the liquid?
3. Does liquid exist above the formation? In tubing?
4. What is the percentage of liquid in the fluid column?
5. Does the liquid above the formation restrict production?
6. Does surface pressure restrict production? How much is the flow rate restricted due to
backpressure from liquid loading?
Recognizing symptoms of liquid loading in gas wells 17

7. What are the producing and static bottom-hole pressures (BHPs)?

8. Does tubing gas/liquid pressure push liquid out of tubing?
9. What is the maximum rate available from the well?
Acoustic surveys on wells:
1. Require stabilized conditions
2. Determination of liquid level
3. Measurement of surface pressure
4. Measurement of surface pressure buildup rate
5. Wellbore description
6. Oil, water, and gas densities
7. Oil, water, and gas production rates
8. Identify if shot acquired down tubing or casing annulus
9. Type of shot—implosion or explosion
Fig. 2.8 shows the stages of conditions that exist in gas wells with liquids. Type
1 is when the velocity is above critical and liquids are in the mist flow regime
creating little pressure drop. Type 2 is when gas flow is below critical and liquids
are accumulating in the well but some liquids are still coming to the surface.
A liquid level is in the well at the bottom with gas coming through it. A Type 3
well is where liquids are accumulating in the well and gas is flowing to the surface
but no liquids are transported to the surface. In the condition, a quick glance at this
lads to the conclusion that the well does not/never did produce liquid. This, how-
ever, would be false conclusion.

Figure 2.8 Types of flow that occur in the tubing when shooting acoustic fluid levels.
Source: Echometer.
18 Gas Well Deliquification

A Type 1 well
1. Liquid being produced with the gas or condensing due to temperature and pressure
changes is uniformly distributed in the wellbore.
2. Gas velocity is sufficient to continuously carry liquid as a fine mist or small droplets to
the surface (above critical).
3. Gas velocity is sufficient to establish a relatively low and fairly uniform flowing pressure
gradient.
If you shut the well in and quickly shoot a fluid level down the tubing the appar-
ent fluid level (top of the mist in the tubing) will appear to be at the surface.
The longer you keep the well shut-in, the more the top of the mist flow will
move toward the bottom of the well with dry gas flowing above the mist level. This
is the condition that many high-flow wells flow in initially when they are high on
the decline curve. Later the wells can move into Types 2 and 3 conditions.

A Type 2 well
In Fig. 2.9 a casing fluid level shot on a Type 2 well is shown with an expanded
view near the end of the tubing. The well is operating in a stabilized condition with
gas only flowing up the tubing, with the surface casing valve closed, and with no

Figure 2.9 A “Type 2” well.

Recognizing symptoms of liquid loading in gas wells 19

packer in the well. The fluid level is shot down the tubing immediately once the
well is shut-in and then shot down the casing either after the tubing shot or before
the well is shut-in. The casing fluid level shot confirms that the liquid level from
the casing shot is located at the end of the tubing as expected. A troubleshooting
technique is to shoot fluid level down the casing and confirm that the liquid level is
located at the end of the tubing, because a high fluid level in the casing often indi-
cates that there is a possible hole in the tubing.
The wellbore drawing displays the tubing gassy fluid level somewhere in
the well below the surface. If the well is continued to be shut-in, then the fluid
level will move downward as the gas flow into the tubing increases the tubing
surface pressure. The casing pressure will gradually increase to support the increas-
ing gas pressure in the tubing, thereby maintaining the liquid level at the end of the
tubing.
The tubing gas velocity is not high enough to lift this well’s 2087 ft of
accumulated gassy tubing liquids to the surface because the flowing gas rate
is below critical causing the well to be liquid loaded. Liquid loading accumulated
in the bottom of the tubing causes 553 psi of tubing backpressure to act
against the formation reducing inflow. Calculating the difference between casing
minus tubing pressure, 429 psi, is a simplified way of estimating the liquid load-
ing in the tubing. In this 10,536 ft deep well the fluid level shot shows there is
124 psi of additional liquid loading when compared to the difference between cas-
ing and tubing surface pressures. As the gas rate decreases, the concentration of
liquid at the bottom of the well increases. Depending on the well as the casing
pressure increases, the tubing liquid may unload from the bottom of the well.
When the tubing is set deep and the gas flow decreases as the pressure increases,
all flow from the formation can stop. When the tubing is set above the bottom of
the perforations, the accumulated liquid in the tubing is usually pushed out by the
increasing tubing pressure.
The simple picture of the well represents the flowing pressure gradient in
the well bores. There is a light gas gradient above the gas/liquid interface (close to
gradient of flowing gas), below the liquid level is a heavier gradient composed of
gas flowing through liquid. The liquid is held up by the gas flow (zero net liquid
flow) with gas bubbles or slugs percolating through the liquid. Below the end of the
tubing the liquid gradient is heavier due to reduced gas velocity.

A Type 3 well
Fluid is at the bottom of the well. Gas flow has stopped. No liquids are transported
to the surface. If the well is shut-in and a fluid shot is immediately made then the
fluid level will be indicated. While the well is shut-in the fluid level will move
down in the well as pressure builds up in the tubing. Fig. 2.10 shows the up-kick on
the acoustic trace from the increase in cross-sectional area at the top of the perfora-
tions, and the liquid level at 6069 ft has been pushed to the bottom of the
perforations.
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YOUNG. YOUTH. YOUNG. — The Instruction of the

Delightful task ! to rear the tender thought, To teach the young idea
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ZEAL. ZEAL. Z. ZEAL. — Angry with I might well be angry

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LICHTWER. ZEAL. — The Decay of Zeal will soon wax cold, as water
when fire is taken from the vessel in which it is, or iron taken out of
the fire. — DR. GOUGE. ZEAL— Defined. Zeal may be defined as the
heat or fervour of the mind, prompting its vehemence of indignation
against anything which it conceives to be evil — prompting its
vehemence of desire towards anything which it imagines to be good.
In itself it has no moral character at all. It is the simple instinct of
energetic nature, never wholly divested of a sort of rude nobility, and
never destitute of influence upon the lives and characters of others.
— PUNS HON. ZEAL. — A Detestable Nothing can be more
detestable than the disguised outside of a simulated zeal. —
MOLIERE. ZEAL. — Different Forms of There is a zeal of pleasure, a
zeal of literature, a zeal of agriculture, a zeal of commerce, a zeal of
manufactures, a zeal 638 of education, a zeal of reform. These are
all natural to man, and they are countenanced and encouraged by
public opinion. — DEAN M'NEILE. ZEAL. — Excessive Excessive zeal
for that which is good, though it may not be offensive to me, at all
events raises my wonder, and leaves me in a difficulty how I should
call it. — MONTAIGNE. An Indian, having heard from a white man
some strictures on zeal, replied — " I don't know about having too
much zeal ; but I think it is better the pot should boil over than not
boil at all."— MACLEOD. ZEAL. — A Guarantee for His interest was a
guarantee for his zeal. — MACAU LAY. ZEAL. — Injudicious We do
that in our zeal Our calmer moments are afraid to answer. SIR W.
SCOTT ZEAL. — Longing for Oh that I had so much zeal as to steep
it in its own liquor ; — to set it forth in its own colours ; — that the
seraphim would touch my tongue with a live coal from the divine
altar, that I might regain the decayed credit of it with the sons of
men ! It is good to be zealous in good things; and is it not best in
the best? Or is there any better than God? or the kingdom of
heaven? — S. WARD. ZEAL, — for One's Country. Zeal for the good
of one's country has frequently been represented as chimerical and
romantic. — ADDISON. ZEAL,. — Overmuch Hence 'tis that holy
wars have ever been The horrid'st scene of blood and sin ; For when
religion does recede From her own nature, nothing but a breed Of
prodigies and hideous monsters can succeed. S. BUTLER. ZEAL. —
The Regulation of It is like fire, which may be applied to many useful
purposes when subject to wise direction, but which, if not kept in its
proper place and under proper restraint, may cause a conflagration.
Or, to change the illustration, it may be only as the healthful vital
heat which keeps the body in comfort and action ; or it may beccme
a fever of the soul, to consume its strength and destroy its life. Or,
to venture, for the
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ZEAL. ZION. sake of emphasis, even upon a third

illustration, many a zealous mind is set on fire by the speed of its
own action, and for want of some regulator to check its speed, and
some lubricator to lessen its friction, ignites into a flame that
consumes the whole machine, and does mischief to others as well as
to itself.— J. A. JAMES. ZEAL. — Religious Religious zeal should, in
every instance, be the offspring of personal piety. — J. A. JAMES.
ZEAL. — True Nothing can be fairer, or more noble, than the holy
fervour of true zeal — MOLIERE. ZEAL,. — Uniformity in We do not
value an intermitting spring so much as the clear brooklet which our
childhood knew, and which has laughed on its course unheeding,
and which could never be persuaded to dry up, though it has had to
battle against the scorchings of a jubilee of summers' suns. We do
not guide ourselves by the glow-worm's bead of light, or with the
marsh-lamp's fitful flame. No : we look to the ancient sun, which in
our infancy struggled through the window and danced upon the wall
of the nursery, as if he knew how much we delighted to see him
light up the flowercup and peep through the shivering leaf. And, for
ourselves, we do not value the affection of a stranger awakened by
some casual congeniality, and displayed in kindly greeting or in
occasional courtesy. Our wealth is in the patient bearing, and the
unnoticed deed, and the anticipated wish, and the ready sympathies,
which make a summer and a paradise wherever there is a home.
And not only in the natural and the social relations, but in the
enterprise of the world, in the busy activities of men, the necessity
for uniformity in earnestness is readily acknowledged. Society very
soon brands a man if he has not got a perseverance as well as an
earnestness about him. Society very soon puts its mark upon the
man who lodges in a succession of Utopias, — the unwearied but
the objectless builder who never roofs his house, either because he
was unable to finish, or because some more brilliant speculation
dazzled the builder's brain. The world has got so matter-of-fact now-
a-days, that it jostles the genius of the foot-post, while (he plodder,
whose eye sparkles less brilliantly but more evenly and longer,
steadily proceeds on his way to success.— PUNSHON. ZEPHYR.—
The Exquisitely soft and gentle is the zephyr. It scarcely kisses into
tremulousness the leaf of the aspen, or ripples the sea of air through
which it floats so joyously and free. Surely this mild breeze of the
west was the only wind known in Eden ; for it comes when Nature
decks herself with her Easter robes, and earth resembles heaven in
its beauty and gladness !— DR. DAVIES. ZEST — Described. It is the
contrary of phlegmatic apathy ; it is the contrary of littleness and of
indifference, and of dulness of apprehension, and of sluggishness
and slowness of the faculties. Zest is a plant which flourishes in the
country : it does not grow well in a garden-pot in cities. The town
substitute for zest is excitement ; but you are not likely to mistake
one for the other, and you may know them by this mark — zest is
awake toward all things, even the dullest ; excitement wakes up only
at the shrill call of things new and strange. Zest imparts a relish to
things that are not the most sapid ; excitement asks for larger and
larger doses of cayenne, whatever it may be that is on the table. —I.
TAYLOR. ZION. — Mount Mount Zion was one of the heights on
which Jerusalem was built. It stood near Mount Moriah, where
Abraham offered up Isaac to the Lord, and witnessed that greatest
triumph of human faith ; and centuries afterwards, when the Temple
covered the summit of the former, it formed the heart and strength
of the city. Situated at the southern extremity, it rose above every
other part of Jerusalem, and came in time to stand for the city itself.
At first it seems strange that Zion should have become a word filled
with such endearing associations to the Jews. They could never let it
go from them when speaking of their city. If her strength as a
fortress was spoken of, the language was — "Walk about Zion, and
go round about her ; tell the towers thereof : mark ye well her
bulwarks, and consider her palaces :" if her elevation, it was — "
The holy hill of Zion " God's affection for it was thus expressed —
"He loveth the gates of Zion;" "The Lord hath chosen Zion."
Occupied by the son of Jesse, it became "The city of David," the
representative of all that was dear and cherished in Israel. Thus
everything conspired to render "Zion" the spell-word of the nation,
and on its summit the heart of Israel seemed to lie and throb. But at
length it was visited by misfortune and ruin, and the eagles of
Caesar took the place of the banner of David. Now the plough-share
is driven over the top of Zion Where its towers and palaces stood,
grain waves in
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ZOOLOGY. ZOOPHYTES. the passing wind, or ruins,

overlaying each other, attest the truth of the Word of God. The Arab
spurs his steed along the forsaken streets, or scornfully stands on
Mount Zion, and surveys the forsaken city of God. — HEAD LEY.
ZOOLOGY. — Love for the Science of The sportsman may love to
hear the whirr of the startled pheasant as it springs from the
meadow, and seeks safety in the adjoining thicket ; I am as much
pleased with the rustling of a simple crab that runs for shelter, at my
approach, into a rocky crevice, or beneath a boulder, shaggy with
corallines and sea- weed. He, too, while walking down some rural
lane, may love to see a blackbird hastily woo the privacy of a
hawthorn bush, or a frightened hare limp across his path, and strive
to hide among the poppies in the corn-fields ; I am equally gratified
with the sight of a simple razorfish sinking into sand, or with the
flash of a silver-bodied fish darting across a rockpool. Nay, even the
trembling lark that mounts upward as my shadow falls upon its nest
among the clover, is not a more pleasing object to my eye than the
crustaceous hermit, who rushes within his borrowed dwelling at the
sound of footsteps. — HARPER. ZOOLOGY. — Pleasure Derived from
the Study of I have seen a man, a worthy man, In happy mood
conversing with a fly ; And as he through his glass, made by himself.
Beheld its wondrous eye and plumage fine, From leaping scarce he
kept for perfect joy. COWPER. ZOOLOGY. — Wonders Revealed by
Take, as an example, one of the monsters of the deep, the whale,
and we find, according to several learned writers, that this animal
carries on its back and in its tissues a mass of creatures, so minute
that their number equals that of the entire population of the globe !
A single frond of marine algae, in size "No bigger than an agate
stone On the forefinger of an alderman," may contain a combination
of living zoophytic beings so infinitely small, that in comparison the "
fairies' midwife " and her "team of little atomies" appear monsters as
gigantic even as the whale or behemoth opposed to the gnat that
flutters in the brightest sunbeam ! Again ; in a simple drop of sea-
water, no larger than the head of a pin, the microscope will discover
a million of animals ! Nay, more : there are some delicate sea-shells
— -foraminifera — so minute that the point of a fine needle at one
touch crushes hundreds of them ! "Full nature swarms with life; one
wondrous mass Of animals, or atoms organized, Waiting the vital
breath when Parent Heaven Shall bid His spirit flow ! "—HARPER.
ZOOPHYTES — the Lowest Class of Animals. Zoophytes are the
lowest order of creatures in the animated world. In appearance, they
closely resemble plants and flowers ; nevertheless, their animal
organization is wondrously perfect, demonstrating, as undeniably as
the creation of intelligent beings, the infinite wisdom and
exhaustless beneficence of that great Spirit who pervades every
region of the universe, and works as minutely, and delicately, and
perfectly, in lonely deserts, as He does grandly and strikingly in the
chief places of the earth, and yet who is Himself described by a
monosyllable — GOD ! — DR. DA VIES FINIS : Our revels now are
ended.— SHAKSPEARE.
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FN 6245 D3 Davies, Edwin Other men's minds arfir" PLEASE

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