Introduction to Civil Engineering (BESCK104A/204)

Civil Engineering Disciplines and Building Science

Introduction to Civil Engineering
Scope of Civil Engineering:
Civil Engineering is the oldest branch of Engineering next to Military Engineering. It involves
planning, design, construction and maintenance of structures such as bridges, roads, canals, dams,
tunnels and multistoried buildings.
Shelter is the basic need of civilization. The huts built with bamboos and
leaves can be taken as the early civil Engineering Constructions carried out to satisfy
the needs for shelter. Over the years there has been a tremendous growth in the field
of civil Engineering to provide quality houses which are safe, functional, aesthetic
and economical.

Flats and apartments are constructed in urban areas to provide

shelter to large number of people. Multi storeyed buildings and
sky−scrapers are planned and constructed to provide office space,
shopping−malls, cyber centers, hotels and restaurants etc.

Irrigation is defined as the artificial application of water to land for the

purpose of raising crops. Civil Engineering gives vast scope for irrigation by
constructing barrages, dams, canals and distributaries. Vast areas of dry land
have been successfully irrigated and green revolution has become a reality in
India.

Providing better transportation facilities is also a part of civil Engineering.

Good network of roads, highways & expressways are necessary for movement of
men and materials. Railways, Airways and Waterways are needed for overall
development of any country.

Water is an important need for all living beings. Potable water

supply to the towns and cities is a thrust area in Civil Engineering.
Natural water available in lakes and rivers is not suitable for drinking
without proper treatment. Hence big water treatment plants have been
constructed and operated to supply potable water to the public. In
addition, waste water generated in the city has to be taken out and
disposed after providing suitable treatment.

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Module 1: Civil Engineering Disciplines and Building Science Dept. Of Civil Engineering, JNNCE
 Introduction to Civil Engineering (BESCK104A/204)

Flood control and environmental protection are other areas

where in Civil Engineering has an important role to play.
Dams and levees are constructed to mitigate floods. Waste
Water Treatment plants are constructed to prevent pollution
of surface and ground water sources.

Role of Civil Engineers:

A Civil Engineer is one who deals with the planning, designing, construction and maintenance
of different types of Civil Engineering works. He should be competent in various fields such as
surveying, analyzing, estimating, construction scheduling and construction management.
A Civil Engineer will involve in various Engineering activities such as

• Surveying and preparation of

estimates.
• Planning and designing and
construction of houses, apartments,
office − buildings, commercial
establishments and factory building.

• Planning and design of transportation facilities such as highways and Railways.

• Construction of ports and harbors, Railway stations, bus and truck terminals, airports and
helipads.

• Construction of dams and canals for irrigation, drinking water

supply for flood control purposes.
• Planning, design and construction of pollution control facilities
such as sewage treatment plants.

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Module 1: Civil Engineering Disciplines and Building Science Dept. Of Civil Engineering, JNNCE
 Introduction to Civil Engineering (BESCK104A/204)
Impact of Infrastructural developments on the economy of the country:
The term infrastructure is used to denote the conditions which are available for economic
development of a region. In other words, infrastructure can be defined as the facilities to be provided
by the state or central government or local administration for overall development of a region. The
facilities include power generation, transportation, health, education, water and sanitation and other
public utilities.
The investments made on infrastructural developments have a profound impact on the
economy of the country. Some of the effects of investment made on infrastructure is given below.
• Investment on infrastructural facilities result in increased job opportunities for both skilled
and unskilled and literate and illiterate people. Eg: Construction of new roads, bridges &
canals provide employment to large number of poor people.
• The creation of better infrastructure in a region motivates entrepreneurs to establish their own
industries, service centers, commercial establishments etc. This will open up job opportunities
to a number of unemployed people in the region. The improvements in job opportunities will
have positive effect on economy.

Civil Engineering for Civilization

Civilization is not built by bricks and mortar but by the men and women. Civilization is the
average
intellectual level of this population based on their educational standards and outcomes thereof to
analyse a given problem on happening of a thing/event in a correct perspective.
In the olden days, the word Military Engineer originated first as he undertook the engineering
tasks with reference to military’s role in the war. The engineer undertaking works other than military
engineering was referred to as a Civil Engineer. By civil engineering, we mean the engineering know-
how and the tasks undertaken for the purpose of the civil population. Engineer and a civil engineer
lay in the TIME resource.

Branches in Civil Engineering

Surveying
The study of surveying enables the engineer to determine relative positions of points on the
surface of earth. Before the construction of any structure, surveying of the land, on which the
construction is to come up, is always done. From the field observations in surveying taken in the
horizontal plane, a plan is prepared of the existing features of ground and relative positions of points
in the vertical plane are shown by sections, obtained by taking measurements in the vertical plane,
termed levelling.

Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics

It is a branch of science in which the study of fluids, i.e. liquids and gases, at rest and in
motion is done. Usually, the liquid is water and the subject is titled hydraulics. When the water is as
rest, the forces exerted by the water on immersed areas are found out by the laws of mechanics. Thus,
the knowledge of these forces is useful in the design of the gates used to control the flood water in
case of dams. When water is drawn off from a reservoir and conveyed through closed conduits or
open channels, the knowledge of the behaviour of liquids in motion is useful here. Thus in the design
of water supply distribution systems, the study of fluid mechanics helps to solve the problems
encountered in the design. Certain machines which work on the water are used for the generation of
electricity and are termed hydraulic machines. Knowledge of fluids mechanics is useful in designing
these machines so that they give the best possible output.

Transportation Engineering
This subject deals with the transport of men and materials through different communication
routes such as land, water and air. The railways and roads are the important modes of communication
by land. The water transport is feasible only where the rivers, canals are navigable or where the sea
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Module 1: Civil Engineering Disciplines and Building Science Dept. Of Civil Engineering, JNNCE
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coast is available. Transportation by air routes is also increasing day by day. The transportation of
men and goods for short distances can be speedily done by road transport, whereas railway transport
is considered safe and convenient for long distances. The knowledge of surveying and levelling is
very useful before deciding the alignments of roads or railway. The preparation of contour plan of a
hilly region obtained from a levelling operation is useful in deciding the alignment of hill roads. The
knowledge of surveying and levelling enables the engineer to decide the alignment of tunnels, which
become necessary when the road or railway transportation is to be done through the hilly regions.

Water Resources Engineering

Water is such a commodity that it is vital for the existence of mankind. Human beings, animals
and plants require water for their survival. Surface water is easy and economical to harness, however,
its availability cannot be relied upon continuously since it varies with the season. Water Resources
Engineering can be defined as the science which deals with the subject of tapping water either from
the surface or subsurface sources. A water resource is such a vast subject that it includes in itself
hydrology, irrigation, hydraulics and water supply. Tremendous volume of water is stored in the
earth’s crust. According to one estimate the total volume stored under the surface of earth may be
about 80 million km cube, half of which may be at depths less than 600 m. The use of surface water
for irrigation is likely to create problems like waterlogging in certain areas. Groundwater is obtainable
all the year round and its use along with the surface water keeps the subsoil water level within
reasonable limits. The judicious use of water for purposes of irrigation has gained such importance
in the recent times that water management has become a science in itself. Engineers have learnt to
tame the water resources by construction of dams, construction of bore wells and construction of
hydroelectric plants for the benefit of mankind.

Environmental Engineering
This is an important branch of civil engineering which covers both water supply and sanitary
engineering. The importance of clean environment was felt with the rapid growth in population, and
the growth in urbanization and industries. Environment is polluted through the mediums of air, water
or such other agents. The science of civil engineering deals with the subject of tapping water from
different sources, testing its quality, purification processes and distribution of water to the consumers.
Similarly, the environmental engineering encompasses the subject of treatment of wastes which
originate from different sources and deals with the removal of harmful substances in these wastes by
different processes. The impact of wastes originating from industries is felt by living organisms if
such wastes contain toxic substances. The Central Government as well as state governments have
enacted laws for the protection of environment needed for the safe living of human beings.

Geotechnical Engineering
This branch of civil engineering is also called soil mechanics. It is a discipline of civil
engineering in which the study of soil, its behaviour on the application of load and its use as an
engineering material in the construction of earth dams, is done. The properties and strength
characteristics of different types of soil are studied in this subject. The knowledge of this subject is
useful in the design of earth dams, different pile foundations, buildings, foundations, etc.

Construction Technology—Built Environment

A suitable environment is created by constructing a building. The building technology covers
the planning of different units of a building to provide a suitable environment for the activities
designed for the building. Codes of building bye-laws ensure good and sound construction through
regulating the materials and construction methods. Climatic influence on the built environment is
vital for minimum energy consumption. The building technology also covers the maintenance and
repairs of the buildings and their safe demolition when they become too old to be used further.

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Module 1: Civil Engineering Disciplines and Building Science Dept. Of Civil Engineering, JNNCE
 Introduction to Civil Engineering (BESCK104A/204)
Construction technology and its management
The scope of ‘construction’ is more comprehensive here than that is in building technology.
Based on sound principles of soil mechanics, foundations to non-conventional structures are
covered under construction technology. It is comprised of different techniques of construction for
different materials under different site conditions. The study of construction machinery comes
under its purview. The management or organization of men (labour), materials, methods in relation
to site, money and time is the backbone of construction management. It involves almost every
branch of engineering, commerce and economics, for its ultimate aim is to ‘achieve the desired
construction in the most economical way’. A clear knowledge of the following points is necessary
for reliable construction and its management.

Structural Engineering
Structural engineering is a branch of civil engineering that is concerned with the structural design
of man-made structures. Often described as designing the 'bones and muscles' of structures, these
engineers need to understand the rigidity, stability and strength of both buildings and non-building
structures. Structure is the assemblage of two or more basic elements such as beam, slab, column,
truss, frame, shells etc. Deals with the requirements considering design for limit states of collapse
and serviceability.

Building materials
The materials required for the construction of structures are called either civil engineering
materials or building materials. It is very essential for an engineer, builder, architect and contractor
to be thoroughly conversant with these building materials. The knowledge of different types of
materials, their properties and uses for different purposes is very essential for the builder in achieving
overall economy. Building materials account for about 70% of the total cost of construction. Thus, it
is important that the building materials are easily and cheaply available. Some of the building
materials are:
1. Bricks: A brick is a rectangular block of regular shape obtained by moulding the mixture of clay
and sand, which is then generally burnt at a high temperature.
2. Rubble or stone: A building stone or rubble is a natural material quarried from geological rock
formations of igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic type. When quarried, stones are irregular in
shape and have rough surface. Irregular stones are brought to the required size and shape and the
process is called the dressing of stone. These dressed stones or rubbles are used in stone masonry.
3. Aggregates: Aggregates are chemically inert materials, such as crushed stone, gravel, sand, broken
bricks, blast furnace slag, etc., obtained naturally or by crushing.
4. Cement: Cement is a binding material used in preparing cement mortar or concrete.
5. Alternative building materials: Traditional materials have a limited use for heavy constructions
and therefore there is a need to develop new materials. Hence to reduce the cost of construction and
to increase the strength, alternative building materials are used, for example, mud blocks, concrete
blocks (solid or hollow), ferro cement, etc.
6. Composite materials: When two or more materials are combined to act as a single material, it is
called the composite material, for example, wood laminates, plastic laminates, asbestos cement sheet,
reinforced glass, etc.
7. Smart materials: These are materials which exhibit a change in their non-mechanical properties
like thermal, optical, electrical or magnetic because of changes in the mechanical stimulus.

Basic Materials of Construction:

Bricks: Bricks are obtained by moulding clay in the rectangular blocks of uniform size and then by
drying and burning these blocks. Bricks are very popular as they are easily available, economical,
strong, durable and reliable. They are also reasonably heat and sound proof. Thus, at places where
stones are not easily available, but if there is plenty of clay, bricks replace stones.

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Module 1: Civil Engineering Disciplines and Building Science Dept. Of Civil Engineering, JNNCE
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Properties of bricks: Good bricks which are used as building material should possess the following
qualities.
1. Bricks should be uniform in shape and should be of standard size.
2. Bricks should be table moulded, well burnt in kilns, copper colored, free from cracks and
with sharp and square edges.
3. Bricks should give clear ringing sound when struck with each other.
4. Bricks when broken should show homogeneous and compact structure.
5. A brick should not absorb more than 15% of its weight of water when kept immersed for 24
hours.
6. The crushing strength should not be less than 5.5 N/mm2.
7. Bricks should be sufficiently hard such that no impression is left when scratched with finger
nails and they should be free of soluble salts.
8. A brick should not break when dropped from a height of about one meter.

Uses of Bricks:
1. Bricks are extensively used as a leading material of construction.
2. A fire brick (Refractory brick) is used for lining the interiors of ovens, chimneys and
furnaces.
3. Broken bricks are used as a ballast material for railway tracks, and also as a road metal.
4. Bricks are extensively used for construction of load-bearing walls and partition-walls.
5. Bricks are also used for face-work when artistic effect is required.

Cement: Cement is a commonly used binding material in the construction. The cement is obtained
by burning a mixture of calcarious (calcium) and argillaceous (clay) material at a very high
temperature and then grinding the clinker so produced to a fine powder. It was first produced by a
mason Joseph Aspdin in England in 1924. He patented it as portland cement.
Types of Cement
1. White Cement: The cement when made free from colouring oxides of iron, maganese and
chlorium results into white cement. In the manufacture of this cement, the oil fuel is used
instead of coal for burning. White cement is used for the floor finishes, plastering, ornamental
works etc. In swimming pools white cement is used to replace glazed tiles. It is used for fixing
marbles and glazed tiles.
2. Coloured Cement: The cements of desired colours are produced by intimately mixing
pigments with ordinary cement. The chlorium oxide gives green colour. Cobalt produce blue
colour. Iron oxide with different proportion produce brown, red or yellow colour. Addition of
manganese dioxide gives black or brown coloured cement. These cements are used for giving
finishing touches to floors, walls, window sills, roofs etc.
3. Quick Setting Cement: Quick setting cement is produced by reducing the percentage of
gypsum and adding a small amount of aluminium sulphate during the manufacture of cement.
Finer grinding also adds to quick setting property. This cement starts setting within 5 minutes
after adding water and becomes hard mass within 30 minutes. This cement is used to lay
concrete under static or slowly running water.
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Module 1: Civil Engineering Disciplines and Building Science Dept. Of Civil Engineering, JNNCE
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4. Rapid Hardening Cement: This cement can be produced by increasing lime content and
burning at high temperature while manufacturing cement. Grinding to very fine is also
necessary. Though the initial and final setting time of this cement is the same as that of
portland cement, it gains strength in early days. This property helps in earlier removal of form
works and speed in construction activity
5. Low Heat Cement: In mass concrete works like construction of dams, heat produced due to
hydration of cement will not get dispersed easily. This may give rise to cracks. Hence in such
constructions it is preferable to use low heat cement. This cement contains low percentage
(5%) of tricalcium aluminate (C3A) and higher percentage (46%) of dicalcium silicate (C2S).
6. Pozzulana Cement: Pozzulana is a volcanic power found in Italy. It can be processed from
shales and certain types of clay also. In this cement pozzulana material is 10 to 30 per cent. It
can resist action of sulphate. It releases less heat during setting. It imparts higher degree of
water tightness. Its tensile strength is high but compressive strength is low. It is used for mass
concrete works. It is also used in sewage line works.
7. Expanding Cement: This cement expands as it sets. This property is achieved by adding
expanding medium like sulpho aluminate and a stabilizing agent to ordinary cement. This is
used for filling the cracks in concrete structures.
8. High Alumina Cement: It is manufactured by calcining a mixture of lime and bauxite. It is
more resistant to sulphate and acid attack. It develops almost full strength within 24 hours of
adding water. It is used for under water works.
9. Blast Furnace Cement: In the manufacture of pig iron, slag comes out as a waste product.
By grinding clinkers of cement with about 60 to 65 per cent of slag, this cement is produced.
The properties of this cement are more or less same as ordinary cement, but it is cheap, since
it utilise waste product. This cement is durable but it gains the strength slowly and hence
needs longer period of curing.
10. Acid Resistant Cement: This cement is produced by adding acid resistant aggregated such
as quartz, quartzite, sodium silicate or soluble glass. This cement has good resistance to action
of acid and water. It is commonly used in the construction of chemical factories.
11. Sulphate Resistant Cement: By keeping the percentage of tricalcium aluminate C3A below
five per cent in ordinary cement this cement is produced. It is used in the construction of
structures which are likely to be damaged by alkaline conditions. Examples of such structures
are canals, culverts etc.
12. Fly Ash Blended Cement: Fly ash is a byproduct in thermal stations. The particles of fly ash
are very minute and they fly in the air, creating air pollution problems. Thermal power stations
have to spend lot of money to arrest fly ash and dispose safely. It is found that one of the best
way to dispose fly ash is to mix it with cement in controlled condition and derive some of the
beneficiary effects on cement.

Mortar: The term mortar is used to indicate a paste prepared by adding required quantity of
water to a mixture of binding material and sand. The most common binding material used in the
preparation of mortar is cement. Such a mortar is called cement-mortar.
Properties of mortar
1. Strength: The compressive strength of cement-mortar varies from 1 N/mm2 to 10
N/mm2 depending upon mix proportion of cement and sand and water added to it.
2. Durability: Good cement-mortar can effectively withstand the adverse effects of weathering
agents such as rain, wind and sun light.
3. Impermeability: Mortars should be impervious and act as a water-tight layer.
4. Shrinkage: Mortar exhibits tendency to shrink during setting process and likely to develop
hair-line cracks. Mortars with rich cement mix are prone to high shrinkage.
5. Binding strength: When water is added to the dry mix of cement and sand, the hydration
process of cement starts and cement binds the sand particles and the surrounding surfaces
of masonry and concrete. A good mortar possesses high binding strength.
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Module 1: Civil Engineering Disciplines and Building Science Dept. Of Civil Engineering, JNNCE
 Introduction to Civil Engineering (BESCK104A/204)
Uses of mortar
1. Mortar is used as a binding material for brick and stone masonry constructions.
2. Mortar is used to carry out pointing and plastering work on exposed surfaces of masonry.
3. Mortar is used to provide fine finish to concrete works.
4. Mortar is used for decorative finish to masonry walls and roof slabs.
5. Mortar is used as a filler material in ferro-cement works.

Cement concrete Cement concrete is an artificial product obtained by hardening of the mixture
of cement, sand, gravel and water in pre-determined proportions. The hardening of cement-concrete
is due to chemical reaction between cement and water and the process is also called ‘setting’.
Uses of Cement Concrete
1. It is used for making Reinforced Cement Concrete (R.C.C.) and Prestressed Cement
Concrete (P.S.C.).
2. It is used for mass concrete works such as dams and bridges.
3. It is used for making electric poles, railway sleepers and high rise towers.
4. It is used for the construction of silos and bunkers.
5. It is used for the construction of water tanks and under water construction.
6. It is used for the construction of road pavements and air port pavements.
7. It is used for construction of arches and ornamental structures.
8. It is one of the best universally accepted construction material and used in various civil
Engineering works.

Reinforced Cement Concrete (R.C.C.) : Plain concrete can withstand very high
compressive loads. But it is very weak in resisting tensile loads. Steel, on the other hand can resist
very high tensile force. Hence, steel is embedded in concrete whenever tensile stresses are expected
in concrete. Such a concrete is called ‘Reinforced Cement Concrete’

Properties of R.C.C.
1. R.C.C. is highly economical when compared to other engineering materials.
2. R.C.C. is durable and can effectively resist moisture variation and temperature variation.
3. R.C.C. is a fire-resistant construction material.
4. Water-tight structures such as water tanks can be constructed of R.C.C.
5. R.C.C. can be moulded to any shape and size before setting and hardening of concrete.
Uses
1. R.C.C. is used for construction of structural elements such as beams, columns and slabs.
2. R.C.C. is used for the construction of water tanks, storage bins, bunkers, tall chimneys,
towers etc.,
3. R.C.C. is used in making raft foundations and pile foundations.
4. R.C.C. is used in the construction of bridges, marine structures, aqueducts, high rise
buildings and many other civil engineering works.

Pre-stressed Concrete (PSC):

• Strength of concrete in tension is very low and hence it is ignored in R.C.C. design. Concrete
in tension is acting as a cover to steel and helping to keep steel at desired distance. Thus in
R.C.C. lot of concrete is not properly utilized.
• Prestressing the concrete is one of the method of utilizing entire concrete. The principle of
prestressed concrete is to introduce calculated compressive stresses in the zones wherever
tensile stresses are expected in the concrete structural elements.

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Module 1: Civil Engineering Disciplines and Building Science Dept. Of Civil Engineering, JNNCE
 Introduction to Civil Engineering (BESCK104A/204)
• When such structural element is used stresses developed due to loading has to first nullify
these compressive stresses before introducing tensile stress in concrete. Thus in prestressed
concrete entire concrete is utilized to resist the load.
• Another important advantage of PSC is hair cracks are avoided in the concrete and hence
durability is high. The fatigue strength of PSC is also more. The deflections of PSC beam is
much less and hence can be used for longer spans also.

Structural steel:
Structural Steel is a special kind of Steel. It is used for construction purposes. Due to its
rigidity and high strength-to-weight ratio, structural Steel is mainly employed in buildings. Structural
Steel is used in houses, warehouses, airplane hangars, educational facilities, bridges, stadiums, etc.

Structural Steel Definition

Structural Steel is Steel that contains carbon, not more than 2.1%. These are also called
Carbon Steel, and structural Steel typically has a carbon content of less than 0.6%.

Properties of Structural Steel:

The features of structural steel influence the design and construction of steel structures, and the value
of different steel characteristics are highlighted below.
• Density: The density of Structural Steel is 7750 to 8100 kg/m3.
• Young's Modulus of Elasticity: Typical values for structural steel range from 190-210 GPa
• Poisson's ratio: For structural Steel, the acceptable value ranges from 0.27 to 0.3.
• Tensile strength: Structural Steel has high tensile strength, so it is preferred over other
construction materials.
• Yield strength: The yield strength, also known as the yield point, is the stress at which an
object permanently deforms. When stress is removed, it does not revert to its former shape.
Carbon structural steel has a yield strength ranging from 187 to 758 MPa. The values of
structural Steel constructed of alloys range from 366 to 1793 MPa.
• Shear strength: The shear strength of steel structure is specified at the failure under shear
stress, and it is about 0.57 times the yield stress of structural Steel.
• Hardness: The resistance of an object to shape change when force is applied is referred to as
hardness. There are three different types of hardness tests. Scratch, indentation, and rebound
are all terms used to describe the process of scratching and indenting, and the hardness of
structural Steel manufactured with alloys ranges from 149 to 627 kg. Carbon structural steels
have a weight range of 86 to 388 kg.
• Melting point: Because there are so many different types of structural Steel, there is no
standard melting point.
• Specific heat: The amount required to raise an object's temperature by a particular quantity
is known as specific heat or heat capacity. A higher specific heat value indicates that the thing
is more insulating.

Types of Structural Steel

Carbon is the most often used commercial steel alloy. Increased carbon content improves
hardenability and boosts hardness and strength. Conversely, carbon increases brittleness and lowers
weldability. Based on the carbon content, the mechanical properties of different types of structural
Steel and their uses are given below:
• Carbon steel: Steel in which the carbon content is upto 2% is known as carbon steel. The
Specified ultimate tensile strength is 410 to 440 MPa, and the yield strength is 350 to 400
MPa.

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Module 1: Civil Engineering Disciplines and Building Science Dept. Of Civil Engineering, JNNCE
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• High-strength carbon steel: These steels are used in structures such as transmission lines
and microwave towers. The specified ultimate tensile strength is 480 to 550 MPa, and the
yield strength is 350 to 400 MPa.
• Medium and high strength micro-alloyed steel: Alloys such as chromium, nickel,
molybdenum, etc., are used to increase the strength while retaining the desired ductility. The
specified ultimate tensile strength is 440 to 590 MPa, and the yield strength is 300 to 450
MPa.
• High strength quenched and tempered Steel: Heat treatment increases strength in this
type of Steel. The specified ultimate tensile strength is 440 to 590 MPa; the yield strength is
300 to 450 MPa.
• Weathering Steel: These are corrosion-resistant Steel and are often not Painted. The
specified ultimate tensile strength is 480 MPa, and the yield strength is 350 MPa.
• Fire-resistant Steel: These steels are also known as thermo mechanically treated (TMT) steel
and are used where the structures are more prone to fire.

Construction Chemicals:
Construction chemicals basically consist of the following areas.
• Concrete Admixtures
• Waterproofing materials
• Concrete Repair/ Grouts- Cementitious, Polymer modified
• Industrial Flooring- Cementitious Dry shake, Polymer

Concrete Admixtures
1. Mineral Admixture
• Fly ash: Fly ash is a finely divided residue made from the combustion of pulverized
coal that can be used to increase concrete durability and workability, while reducing
permeability.
• Silica fume: Silica fume, a by-product of the ferrosilicon industry, is a highly
pozzolanic material that is used to enhance mechanical and durability properties of
concrete. It may be added directly to concrete as an individual ingredient or in a blend
of portland cement and silica fume.
• The ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS): GGBFS is a by-product of
iron manufacturing which when added to concrete improves its properties such as
workability, strength and durability. This material is obtained by the heating of iron
ore, limestone and coke at a temperature about 1500 degree Celsius.

2. Chemical admixtures
• Plasticizers - Plasticizers are chemical compounds enabling the production of
concrete with approximately 15% less water content. Super-plasticizers allow
reduction in water content by 30% or more. These additives are employed at the level
of a few weight percent.
• Air Entrainers - Air-entraining admixtures facilitate the development of a system of
microscopic air bubbles within concrete during mixing. They increase the freeze-thaw
durability of concrete, increase resistance to scaling caused by de-icing chemicals, and
improve workability.
• Waterproofing Admixtures - Waterproofing admixture is a type of admixture which
prevents the passage of water through hardened concrete under a pressure head. It is
also called as water resisting admixture or permeability reducing admixture or damp
proofing admixture.
• Corrosion Inhibiting Admixtures - Corrosion inhibitors are admixtures that either
extend the time to corrosion initiation or significantly reduce the corrosion rate of
embedded metal, or both, in concrete containing chlorides in excess of the accepted
corrosion threshold value for the metal in untreated concrete.
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Module 1: Civil Engineering Disciplines and Building Science Dept. Of Civil Engineering, JNNCE
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• Viscosity Modifying Admixtures - Viscosity-modifying admixtures (VMAs)
are essential to control the stability and cohesion of concrete with very specific
rheological requirements, such as self-compacting concrete, underwater concrete, or
shotcrete.

Structural elements of a building:

FOUNDATIONS:
In engineering, a foundation is the element of a structure which connects it to the ground or
more rarely, water, (like with floating structures) transferring loads from the structure to the ground.
Foundations are generally considered either shallow or deep.
Functions of good foundations
• To distribute the total load coming on the structure on a larger area so as to bring down the
intensity of load at it base below SBC of soil.
• To give enough lateral stability to the structures against various disturbing horizontal forces
like wind, rain, earthquake etc..
• To prepare a level and hard surface for concreting and masonry work.
• To distribute the non uniform load of the superstructure evenly to the sub soil.
• To prevent or minimize cracks due to movement of moisture in case of weak or poor soils
etc..
Requirements of good foundations
• Location: The foundation structure should be so located that it is able to resist any
unexpected future influence which may adversely affect its performance. Foundations
should be taken suficient1y deep to guard the building against damage or distress caused by
swelling or shrinkage of the sub-soil
• Stability: The foundation structure should be stable or safe against any possible failure. The
foundation base should be rigid enough to bring down the differential settlements to a
minimum extent specially when superimposed loads are unevenly distributed.
• Settlement: The foundation structure should not settle itself when superimposed loads act
on it. There is very difficult to define the objectionable amount of settlement or deflection.

Types of foundation
• Shallow foundation.
• Min depth 800mm max depth 1.5-2m
– Spread or Isolated footing.
– Combined footing.
– Strap footing.
– Raft or mat foundation.
• Deep foundation.
– Pile foundation.
Plinth: A plinth level forms the foundation of a house. It is a rectangular block of stone or RCC beam
on which a column and pillar of a building stands. It is a wall or baem between the ground level and
the ground floor level. The main function of a plinth in construction is to distribute the load of the
building over the foundation evenly.

Lintels: Lintels are structural member design to support the loads of the potion of a wall situated
above the opening and then transmit the load to the adjacent wall portions over which these are

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Module 1: Civil Engineering Disciplines and Building Science Dept. Of Civil Engineering, JNNCE
 Introduction to Civil Engineering (BESCK104A/204)
supported. Or A lintel is a horizontal member which is placed across an opening to support the portion
of the structure above it.
Classification of lintels
▪ Wood or timber lintels
▪ Stone lintels
▪ Brick lintels
▪ Steel lintels
▪ Reinforced cement concrete lintels

Chejja: The horizontal projection of RCC lintel is known as chajja. This projection may be
constructed over door, window openings and they may be projected outward from exterior wall or
inward from interior wall.

Functions of Chejja;
▪ When they are provided over windows or doors projecting outwards they serve as weather
shed
▪ Chejja are constructed in such a way that they throw the rain water away from the wall.
▪ Prevents the frames and panels of windows or doors sunrays and rain water.
▪ When chejjas are provided projecting inwards from interior wall surface, they serve as space
for storage.

Staircase: A stair is defined as a sequence of steps and it is provided to afford the means of ascent
and descent between the floors of buildings, it may be external or internal.
The apartment or room of a building, in which the stair Is located, is known as a staircase and the
opening or space occupied by the stair is known as a stairway.
The other means of transportation between the floors of a building, apart from stairs, are lifts, ramps
and moving stairs.

Types of stairs:
The stairs are classified as follows:
– Straight stairs
– Turning stairs
– Circular or helical or spiral stairs
– Geometrical stairs.

Requirements of a Good Stair

• Design of layout
• Treads and Raisers
• Materials and workmanship
• Width
• Pitch
• Headroom
• Flight
• Single step
• Winders
• Handrails
• Location
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Module 1: Civil Engineering Disciplines and Building Science Dept. Of Civil Engineering, JNNCE
 Introduction to Civil Engineering (BESCK104A/204)
Masonry wall: Masonry is used to indicate the art of building a structure in either stones or bricks.
The masonry wall is built of individual blocks of materials such as stones, bricks, concrete, hollow
blocks, cellular concrete and laterite, usually in horizontal courses cemented together with some form
of mortar.
Masonry can be classified into the following categories:

1. Stone masonry
2. Brick masonry
3. Hollow block concrete masonry
4. Reinforced masonry
5. Composite masonry

Column: A column is a vertical structural member intended to transfer a compressive load. For
example, a column might transfer loads from a ceiling, floor or roof slab or from a beam, to a floor
or foundations. Columns are typically constructed from materials such as stone, brick, block,
concrete, timber, steel, and so on, which have good compressive strength

Common Shapes of column: Rectangular.

▪ Square.
▪ Circular.
▪ Hexagonal
▪ Octagonal.

Beam: In building construction, a beam is a horizontal member spanning an opening and carrying a
load that may be a brick or stone wall above the opening, in which case the beam is often called a
lintel. The load may be a floor or roof in a building, in which case the beam is called a floor joist or
a roof joist. In a bridge deck the lightly loaded longitudinal beams are the stringers; the heavier,
transverse members are called floor beams.
Beams may be of wood, steel or other metals, reinforced or prestressed concrete, plastics, and
even brickwork with steel rods in the bond between bricks. For weight reduction, beams of metal are
formed as an I or other shape having a thin vertical web and thicker horizontal flanges where most of
the strain appears.

Slab: A slab is a structural element, made of concrete, that is used to create flat horizontal surfaces
such as floors, roof decks, and ceilings. A slab is generally several inches thick and supported by
beams, columns, walls, or the ground.

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Module 1: Civil Engineering Disciplines and Building Science Dept. Of Civil Engineering, JNNCE