C H A P T E R

2
Basic Mineralogy
O U T L I N E

2.1. Introduction 39 2.5. Overview of the Main Rock

Forming Minerals 51
2.2. Internal Structure of Crystals and
2.5.1. Autochthonous Elements 52
Their Properties 40
2.5.2. Sulfides 52
2.2.1. Crystallized and Amorphous
2.5.3. Oxides and Hydroxides 53
Solid Minerals 40
2.5.4. Carbonates 55
2.2.2. Formation of Minerals 41
2.5.5. Halides 57
2.2.3. Crystal Lattice 42
2.5.6. Sulfates 57
2.2.4. Crystallographic Axes, the Crystal
2.5.7. Phosphates 58
Planes and Elements
2.5.8. Silicates 58
of Crystal Symmetry 43
2.5.8.1. Nesosilicates [SiO4]4
59
2.2.5. Crystal Systems, Crystal Forms,
2.5.8.2. Sorosilicatesd[Si2O7]6
61
Single Crystals and Crystal
2.5.8.3. Cyclosilicatesd
Twinning 45
[SinO3n]2n
62
2.3. Chemical and Physical Properties of 2.5.8.4. Inosilicates 63
Minerals 47 2.5.8.5. Phyllosilicatesd
2.3.1. Chemical Properties of Minerals 47 [Si2nO5n]2n
68
2.3.2. Physical Properties of Minerals 47 2.5.8.6. Tectosilicates 73
2.4. Polymorphism and Isomorphism 50 Further Reading 79

2.1. INTRODUCTION
1. Crystallography studies crystal forms, i.e.
Mineralogy is the systematic study that deals forms in which the minerals crystallize, as
with the characteristics of minerals. The miner- well as their internal structure, relations and
alogy has more scientific branches such as the distribution of atoms, ions or ionic groups in
following: the crystal lattice.

Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-408133-8.00002-X 39 Copyright Ó 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
40 2. BASIC MINERALOGY

2. Physical mineralogy is the study of physical (Fig. 1.14 and Fig. 2.5) or garnet (Fig. 1.16 and
properties of minerals, such as cohesion Fig. 2.9).
(hardness, cleavage, elasticity, and density; Crystallized minerals have specific and con-
refer Table 1.1), optical, thermal and magnetic stant physical properties. Same minerals always
properties, electrical conductivity, and have a constant melting point or crystallization
radioactivity, and so on. point. If we increase the temperature of crystal-
3. Chemical mineralogy is the study of chemical lized mineral, when it reaches melting point, it
formula (Table 1.1) and chemical properties of will stop to heat as long as the mineral does
the minerals. not convert to mineral melt. It is because that
4. Environmental mineralogy studies complex all the heat energy is spent on the decomposition
and very different conditions of the origin of of the crystal lattice, or melting of minerals. It is
minerals, understand element behavior in called melting point or crystallization point in
echo-systems, natural and industrial effects of reverse process.
minerals, and mitigates potential Melting point or crystallization point is al-
contamination problems. ways constant for a mineral in same pressure.
5. Descriptive mineralogy deals with the Physical properties of crystallized minerals
classification of minerals into groups based on are always exactly equal in a particular direction:
their common properties, mostly chemical for example, all minerals which are not part of
and structural properties. the cubic system are double refracting, where or-
dinary light passing through them is broken up
into two plane polarized rays that travel at
2.2. INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF different velocities and refracted at different an-
CRYSTALS AND THEIR gles. They are anisotropic. Minerals which are
PROPERTIES part of the cubic system and amorphous
solid are isotropic which means that light
2.2.1. Crystallized and Amorphous behaves the same way no matter which direction
it is traveling in the crystal. The isotropy
Solid Minerals
and anisotropy of crystallized minerals will
The constancy of chemical composition and be discussed in more detail in Sections 2.2.3
physical properties of minerals are the outcome and 2.3.2.
of their internal crystal structure. The exact and Amorphous minerals from Greek amor-
unique arrangement of atoms, ions or ionic phous “shapeless” (from a “without” þ morphe
groups is the characteristic feature of each crys- “form”) in which there is no long-range order
tallized mineral. The minerals are mostly found of the positions of the atoms and in fact are not
as crystallized substance and less frequently as minerals, but mineraloids. Therefore, never as-
amorphous solid in Earth’s crust (Fig. 3.2). sume a regular polyhedral shape. Mineraloids
A crystal or crystalline solid is a solid mate- possess chemical compositions that vary beyond
rial, whose constituent atoms, molecules, or the generally accepted ranges for specific min-
ions are arranged in an orderly repeating pattern erals. Mineraloids unlike the crystallized min-
extending in all three spatial dimensions. During erals do not have a specific melting point and
crystallization, where there was enough space crystallization point. With the gradual increase
for their uninterrupted growth in all directions, in temperature of mineraloids, for example,
the crystals can have a regular polyhedral shape. glass, gradually becoming softer and softer until
That is, for example, often the case with minerals it finally softens enough to become liquid.
halite (Fig. 1.9), quartz (Fig. 1.11), calcite All mineraloids are optically isotropic. Agate is
 2.2. INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF CRYSTALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES 41
2. Crystallization from gases and vapors,
“pneumatolysis” processes, such as
tourmaline.
3. Crystallization from the hot solution,
“hydrothermal” processes, such as fluorite
and galena (Section 4.1).
4. Crystallization and deposition of
minerals from aqueous solutions,
“hydatogenesis” processes, such as secretion
of aragonite and calcite from seawater
(Section 5.7.1.1).
5. “Vaporization” of highly concentrated
aqueous solutions due to the strong
evaporation, evaporation processes, such as
gypsum, anhydrite and halite (Section 5.8.1).
6. “Dynamic metamorphism” is associated with
FIGURE 2.1 Agate-noduledconcentric secretion of light
and dark zones of amorphous silicon hydroxide from edges zones of high to moderate strain such as fault
toward center. Agate is a variety of chalcedony formed from zones. Cataclasis, crushing and grinding of
layers of quartz showing multicolor bands. Most agates rocks into angular fragments, occurs in
occur as rounded nodules or veins in volcanic rocks or dynamic metamorphic zones, giving
ancient lavas.
cataclastic texture (Section 6.5).
7. “Contact metamorphism” occurs typically
considered a “Mineraloids” because of its lack of
around intrusive igneous rocks as a result of
crystallization (Fig. 2.1).
the temperature increase caused by the
Mineraloids are not so common in the Earth’s
intrusion of magma into cooler country rock.
crust as crystallized minerals and usually occur
The area surrounding the intrusion (called
during spending of minerals on Earth surface
aureoles) where the contact metamorphism
or secretion from lava. A good example of a min-
effects are present is called the metamorphic
eraloid is opal, semiprecious stone. It usually oc-
aureole. Contact metamorphic rocks are
curs by excretion of minerals substances from the
usually known as hornfels. Rocks formed by
edge to the center of fissures of almost any kind
contact metamorphism may not present signs
of rock, being most commonly found with basalt,
of strong deformation and are often fine
rhyolite, limonite, sandstone and marl. It is basi-
grained (Section 6.4).
cally hydrated silica with variable amounts
8. The action of aqueous solutions and the
(1e21%) of water (Section 2.5.3).
atmospheric conditions on solid minerals can
create “authigenic” minerals. Chemical wear
2.2.2. Formation of Minerals can create new minerals under the influence
of water and CO2 occurs mild carbon acid
Minerals, as integral part of the rocks, are
[H]þ þ [HCO3]
under whose effects of
forming in different ways by complex processes
spending feldspars can create kaolinite
such as the following:
(Section 5.2.1.2).
1. Crystallization of magma (silicate 9. Life processes of organisms, or “biochemical”
composition), “pyrogenesis” processes, processes, are biogenic minerals such as
such as olivine, pyroxenes and plagioclase secretion of calcite or aragonite for building
(Section 4.1.2). shells or coral skeletons (Section 5.7.1.1).
42 2. BASIC MINERALOGY

Pyrogenesis is the process of mineral/rock for- a0 a0 a0

mation derived by solidification of intrusive or One-dimensional pattern
extrusive magma/molten lava/and its derivatives
emplaced by volcanism.
Pneumatolysis is the alteration of rock or min-
eral crystallization affected by gaseous emana-
b0 b0
tions from solidifying magma.
Hydrothermal process/synthesis is crystallizing
a0 a0 a0
single crystal/substances from high-temperature
aqueous solution at equilibrium vapor pressure. Two-dimensional pattern

2.2.3. Crystal Lattice

The mineral as a homogeneous body is
defined with a regular arrangement of atoms,
ions or ionic groups in the crystal lattice. This
means that all the same crystallized minerals
have same formations of ions. Specifically, in
all the three dimensions, every mineral has the
same pattern of a set of atoms arranged in partic-
ular way according to their type. This can be
thought of as forming identical tiny boxes, called
unit cells that fill the space of the lattice. Such
unique arrangement of atoms or molecules is
called crystal lattice (Fig. 1.10 and Fig. 2.2). This
is the homogeneity of the crystals.
Lattice constants can be determined using X-ray
diffraction or with an atomic microscope. The
structure of each mineral species, i.e. their proper
internal structure is determined by using X-rays.
Three-dimensional grid or lattice of each mineral
was determined by regulardperiodicdsorting of Three-dimensional pattern
ions (or ionic groups) in one direction and at equal
FIGURE 2.2 Three-dimensional arrangement of atoms of
distances, forming a so-called long-range order the crystal supported by one-dimensional and two-dimen-
(Fig. 2.2). Two dimensional planar network results sional patters.
by repeating the pattern periodically in two
different directions and similarly three dimen- unit cell halite, which crystallizes in the cubic sys-
sional forms of lattice is obtained by repeating in tem (Fig. 1.10), has the same intervals in all the
three different directions (Fig. 2.2). The basic unit three directions (a0 ¼ b0 ¼ c0 and amounts to
of the crystal lattice of the unit cell in the crystal 4.12  10
10 m), and right angles (a ¼ b ¼ g ¼ 90 ).
periodically repeated in three directions, two of By the lattice constant of crystallized minerals
which lie in the same plane. The unit cell has is defined a constant chemical composition
defined edges a0, b0 and c0 and angles a, b and g and chemical formula of mineral. Lattice con-
between them, respectively. For example, the stant also determines the other very important
 2.2. INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF CRYSTALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES 43
properties of crystallized minerals homogeneity crystal (Fig. 2.4). Crystal planes in relation to
isotropy, anisotropy and symmetry. the crystallographic axes are placed so that
Homogeneity of minerals is reflected by the at some distance from the center of the crystal
fact that in parallel direction of crystal lattice, intersect one or more axes. Distance to the crys-
atoms have same interval, and in the different di- tallographic axes are called parameters and
rections, they do not. they exactly determine the position of each plane.
Isotropy is uniformity in all directions. The Crystal planes are a reflection of proper inter-
term is made up from the Greek words iso (equal) nal structure of crystals and are part of the
and tropos (direction). Isotropy means that phys- network plane, therefore, are not random phe-
ical properties of mineral are identical in all crys- nomena in crystals. Each plane in the crystal oc-
tallographic directions. These are isotropic cupies a specific position in relation to a
minerals which belong only to minerals of cubic particular crystallographic axis: it cuts it or is
system and mineraloids. Only minerals which parallel with it (Fig. 2.3). Each crystal plane can
crystallize in the cubic system in the crystal lattice be described parametric relationship. For a plane
have in all three directions equivalent arrange- that intersects all three crystallographic axes in
ment of atoms, (Fig. 1.10) such as Na and Cl in their unit distances parametric relationship is
a halite lattice (distance of 4.12  10
10 m). (1a:1b:1c) to a surface that is parallel to the crys-
Anisotropy is the property of being direction- tallographic axes and c (N a:1b:N C).
ally dependent. The term is made up from the These parameters are knows as Weiss parame-
Greek words aniso (without) and tropos (direc- ters. Today in the mineralogy, however, to indi-
tion). Anisotropy means that physical properties cate the position of the crystal surface is in use
of mineral are not identical in all crystallographic Miller indices. Miller indices were introduced in
directions. For example, a0, b0, and c0 have 1839 by the British mineralogist William Hallowes
different values. Anisotropy has all the minerals Miller. Specifically, Miller indices are much easier
that crystallize in the tetragonal, orthorhombic, for writing and marking on the surface of a crystal
hexagonal, rhombohedral, monoclinic and that has a large number of surfaces.
triclinic system (Section 2.2.5). 1. Planes with Weiss parameter (1a:1b:1c) has a
Each arrangement of atoms has a certain num- Miller indices (111).
ber of elements of symmetry, i.e. changes in the 2. Planes with Weiss parameter (1a:1b:N C) has
orientation of the arrangement of atoms seem a Miller indices (110).
to leave the atoms unmoved. One such element 3. Planes with Weiss parameter (N a:1b:N C)
of symmetry is rotation; other elements are has a Miller indices (010).
translation, reflection, and inversion. The ele-
ments of symmetry present in a particular crys- By convention, negative integers are written
talline solid determine its shape and affect its with a bar, as in 3 for 3, for example, if the axis is
physical properties (Section 5.2.4). cut on the negative arm of the Miller Index is ð111Þ.
In crystals are available seven planes of
different positions with respect to crystallo-
2.2.4. Crystallographic Axes, the graphic axes, which can show the seven different
Crystal Planes and Elements types of Miller index. By its position according to
of Crystal Symmetry the crystallographic axes to be surface bipyr-
All planes in the crystal can be placed in the amid, prism and pinacoid (Fig. 2.3):
imaginary coordinate system of crystallographic 1. Bipyramid, (111) intersects all three axes.
axes, which is known as a common point. These are 2. First-order prism, (011) plane parallel to the
imaginary lines that intersect at the center of the axis of “a”.
44 2. BASIC MINERALOGY

Surface of Surface of
first-order c first-order Surface of
prism prism base
(011) (011) pinacoid
(001)
c
Surface of Surface of
b side side
a pinacoid pinacoid
(010) (010)
b
a

c
Surface of
pyramid
(001)
(111)
Surface of
base
pinacoid
b
a

FIGURE 2.3 Location of the crystal planes and their Miller indices in relation to the crystallographic axes a, b, and c.

3. Second-order prism, (101) plane parallel to the

combination (Fig. 1.11, Figs 2.5, 2.11, 2.13,
axis “b”.
2.18(A) and (B)). Figure 1.11 shows the crystal
4. Third-order prism, (110) plane parallel to the
combination in which the quartz crystals occur.
axis “c”.
A combination of six-sided prisms, and
5. Front pinacoid, (100) plane intersects a front
four different types of bipyramid crystal
axis “a”.
combinations are among the minerals much
6. Side pinacoid, (010), plane intersect side
more widespread than the simple forms. And
axis “b”.
they have lot more planes than simple forms
7. Base or basal pinacoid, (001) plane intersects
(Fig. 1.11; Figs 2.11, 2.13 and 2.18(B)).
the vertical axis or base axis “c”.
Crystals are symmetry bodies that have one
Crystals can occur in simple forms or in com- or more planes of symmetry, one or more axes
binations of different forms. If crystal has devel- of symmetry and a center of symmetry. There
oped, for example, in six same planes, pinacoid are crystals that have not got a single plane of
of the same side shape and symmetry. They symmetry or any of the axes of symmetry, or
will form in cubic system a geometric body are without center of symmetry. The plane of
shape of cube which is called in crystallography, symmetry divides crystal on two mirrors same
regular hexahedron (Fig. 1.10). Such crystal is a parts (mirror plane). Axis of symmetry is the di-
simple form. If, however, the crystal is composed rection in a crystal around which crystals can
of various planes, two or more different simple turn and repeat two, three, four or six times
shapes will be obtained. Such crystal is a crystal within 360 .
 2.2. INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF CRYSTALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES 45
A3 C C

a3
–a2 –a1 –a2 –a1 –a2 –a1

a1 a2 a1 a2 a1 a2
–a3

1 2 3

–a3 –c –c

C C C

–b β
–a –a
–b –a –b β
α
b b
a
a a γ b
β > 90º
β > 90º
α > 90º
4 5 6
γ ≠ 90º
–c –c –c

FIGURE 2.4 The relationship between the position of the crystallographic axes: 1, cubic; 2, tetragonal; 3, hexagonal and
trigonal; 4, orthorhombic; 5, monoclinic; 6, triclinic.

In a complete 360 rotation, the grain will gridsdhexagonal and trigonal, but the same
repeat itself in appearance two times, once every common pointdhexagonal (Fig. 2.4). All known
180 , it is called twofold rotational symmetry; crystals have only 32 possible combinations of
three times, once every 120 , it is called threefold planes of symmetry, which due to the mutual re-
rotational symmetry; four times, once every 90 , lations of crystallographic axis, their lengths and
it is called fourfold rotational symmetry; and six angles between them can be grouped into six or
times, once every 60 , it is called sixfold rota- seven lattice point groups (Fig. 2.4).
tional symmetry. Cubic crystal lattices have three mutually
perpendicular crystallographic axes of equal
2.2.5. Crystal Systems, Crystal Forms, length (axis a1:a2:a3) from which the first hori-
zontal axis (front axis) is directed toward the
Single Crystals and Crystal Twinning
observer, the second horizontal axis extending
Based on the size of the crystallographic axes, from left to right (lateral axis) and the third
there are different six or seven lattice point axis is vertical (vertical axis). Contains five crys-
groups. In fact, there are two different tal classes.
46 2. BASIC MINERALOGY

Tetragonal results from stretching a cubic lat- symmetry) has crystals that crystallized in the
tice along one of its lattice vectors, so that the cubic system, for example, crystals having the
cube becomes a rectangular prism with a square shape of a cube or hexahedron (see halite
base (a by a) and height (c, which is different Fig. 1.10). Of the 32 crystal classes, those as
from a). Contains seven crystal classes. many planes as required for complete symmetry
Hexagonal has four crystallographic axes of in a given crystal system are called holohedral.
which three were of equal length and they are The crystal form is a set of uniform surfaces,
in horizontal plane (axes a1:a2:a3), each at angle which as a whole has certain symmetry. For
120 . Fourth (c axis or vertical axis) is longer or example, six planes of square form, each of
shorter than the rest of three and perpendicular which intersects only one axis (100), (010),
to them. This system contains 12 crystal classes. (001), make a crystal form that geometrically cor-
Orthorhombic results from stretching a cubic responds to the cube, and in crystallography
lattice along two of its orthogonal pairs by two called hexahedra (hex ¼ six and hédra ¼ flat).
different factors, resulting in a rectangular prism Eight planes in shape of equilateral triangle,
with a rectangular base (a by b) and height (c), which each plane cuts across all three axes
such that a, b, and c are distinct. All three bases (111), form octahedron (octa ¼ eight), and the
intersect at 90 angles. The three lattice vectors 12 surface in shape of rhombus forms rhombic
remain mutually orthogonal. Contains three dodecahedron (Fig. 2.9).
crystal classes.
1. If surfaces are deployed to close some space
Monoclinic crystal system is described by three
or geometric body, as is the case in a
vectors. In the monoclinic system, the crystal is
hexahedron, octahedron or orthorhombic
described by vectors of unequal length, as in
dodecahedron, then they are closed forms.
the orthorhombic system. They form a rectan-
2. If the surface does not obstruct the space, such
gular prism with a parallelogram as its base.
as prism surfaces that intersect two axes and
Hence two pairs of vectors are perpendicular,
with third are parallel (011), (110) or (101),
while the third pair makes an angle other than
then they are open forms.
90 . Contains three crystal classes.
3. Prism is an open form, and may have a
Triclinic crystal system is described by the
different number of planes.
three basis vectors. In the triclinic system, the
4. Pyramid is an open form. Pyramid has a
crystal is described by vectors of unequal length,
different number of planes and is usually
as in the orthorhombic system. In addition, all
combined with another symmetric side of
three vectors are not mutually orthogonal
the pyramid, creating a so-closed formd
(a s b s c and a s b s g). Contains three crystal
bipyramid, or is combined with a prism,
classes.
as for example the case of quartz
The triclinic lattice is the least symmetric. It
(Fig. 1.11).
has (itself) the minimum symmetry all lattices
have: points of inversion at each lattice point Separate crystals can be completely free
and at seven more points for each lattice point: (Fig. 2.9) or they grow on some base (Fig. 2.5).
at the midpoints of the edges and the faces, When two separate crystals share some of the
and at the center points. It is the only lattice same crystal lattice points in a symmetrical
type that itself has no mirror planes although manner, the result is an intergrowth of two sepa-
they are characterized by proper internal rate crystals in a variety of specific configura-
structure. tions. A twin boundary or composition surface
Combination of the largest number of symme- separates the two crystals. It is called crystal twin-
try elements (9 planes of symmetry, 13 axis of ning (Fig. 2.18(B), (C), (D) and (E)).
 2.3. CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS 47
2. Crystalline water or adsorption water in the
form of H2O molecules.
Crystal water have certain points in the crys-
tal lattice (for example, gypsum CaSO4$2H2O).
By heating, a portion of such water is lost
(¼ process of dehydration), but the crystal lattice
is not destroyed and may again receive such wa-
ter (¼ hydration).
Adsorption water has not got strict location in
the crystal lattice. In some clay minerals can cause
plasticity or swelling which can make landslides.
In minerals with a layered grid, for example,
smectite, it is the interlayer water located between
the layers. In zeolite group of minerals, the water
is in holes and channel grids, and it is called zeolite
water. By heating those kind of minerals, they lose
water, but their lattice will not break apart, but
the unit cell is reduced. By receiving that water
again their unit cell is increased, for example,
montmorillonite will increase in size by 2.5 times
FIGURE 2.5 Crystal of calcite composed of planes that compared to the dry mineral.
form the rhombohedral shape.
Content of constitutional, crystal and adsorp-
tion water is expressed in chemical formula of
2.3. CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL mineral, for example, kaolinite Al2Si2O5 (OH)4
PROPERTIES OF MINERALS or gypsum CaSO4$2H2O.
Minerals can also contain hygroscopic water
2.3.1. Chemical Properties of Minerals and mechanically incorporated into the water.
Minerals have a defined chemical composition Hygroscopic water is actually the humidity
which can be determined by various methods of that is located on the surface of minerals or
analytical chemistry and determine their chemical which fills cracks and gaps in it, so that it is
formula. The results of quantitative chemical anal- not related to the crystal lattice. It can be
ysis of minerals, usually expressed in two ways: removed by heating to 110  C.
Mechanically blended water is located in the
1. Ratio of chemical elements (for example, minerals in the form of inclusion, drops of water
quartz, 46.73% silicon and 53.27% oxygen). embedded in mineral during its growth in fluid
2. Ratio of oxides (for example, forsterite 57.11% environments (fluid inclusions).
MgO and 42.89% SiO2 or fayalite 70.57% FeO
and 29.43% and SiO2).
2.3.2. Physical Properties of Minerals
Minerals may include water as the following:
Classifying minerals can range from simple to
1. Constitutional water in form of hydroxide ions
very difficult. A mineral can be identified by
(OH) which are an integral part of the crystal
several physical properties such as:
lattice and have a steady position in the grid.
By the loss of water, crystal will fall apart and 1. category (oxide, sulfide, silicate, carbonate,
the water cannot get back into the grid. etc.);
48 2. BASIC MINERALOGY

FIGURE 2.6 Crystal lattice of polymorphic modifications in carbon minerals: (A) diamonds; (B) graphite.

2. crystal system (cubic, tetragonal, hexagonal, hardness still has the mineral that can rip
etc.); another, i.e. a softer mineral. The relative hard-
3. cohesion properties (hardness in Mohs scale ness of minerals is determined by using and
1e10, cleavage, tenacity, and fracture); comparing Mohs' scale of hardness, which in-
4. density/specific gravity; cludes 10 lined-up minerals from softest to the
5. macroscopic optical properties (color, hardest mineral (Table 2.1).
brightness, luster, and streak); and
6. microscopic optical properties (refractive
index, birefringencea, and pleochroism).
TABLE 2.1 Mohs’ Scale of Mineral Hardness
The minerals can be analyzed for chemical
composition and broadly grouped under oxide, Mineral Hardness
sulfide, silicate, etc.
Talc 1
Crystal system/family represents an identical
mathematical and geometrical three-dimensional Gypsum 2
space for a group of minerals. Calcite 3
Hardness of minerals can be seen in the
Fluorite 4
resistance of minerals to the encroachment of
a solid object in its surface and interior. Hard- Apatite 5
ness of minerals is dependent on the structure, Orthoclase feldspar 6
i.e. the distribution and density of packing of
Quartz 7
atoms, ions and ionic groups in the crystal lat-
tice, as it can be seen in structure of graphite Topaz 8
and diamond (Fig. 2.6). The mineralogy defines Corundum 9
and determines the hardness of minerals and
Diamond 10
applied as relative hardness. Higher relative
 2.3. CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS 49
For example, corundum (9) is twice as hard as 3. Dust of mineral is put inside the pycnometer and
topaz (8), but diamond (10) is almost four times check the temperature which must be þ4  C.
as hard as corundum. 4. Measure the weight of pycnometer with
Cleavage is the tendency of minerals to split mineral dust and water (v).
along crystallographic planes as a result of struc- 5. Calculate density (g) of mineral with formula:
tural locations of atoms and ions in the crystal,
Density ¼ (Weight in air)/(Weight in air

creating planes of relative weakness. Mineral
Weight in water)
graphite, for example, has an excellent cleavage
or
with basal pinacoid plane (0001) because its
structure consists of planes of carbon atoms ar- mðgrÞ
g¼
ranged in parallel with the basic pinacoid. p þ m
vðgrÞ
Diamond which crystallizes cubic and has signif-
icantly denser packing of carbon atoms has no Color indicates the appearance of the mineral
cleavage (Fig. 2.6). Cleavage is an important in reflected light or transmitted light for translu-
property for determination of minerals even cent minerals.
when the minerals are found as irregular grains Color of petrogenic silicate minerals are usu-
(Fig. 2.12). ally derived from isomorphic mixed Fe ions.
Minerals with a large difference in cohesion in The minerals with a small proportion of isomor-
different directions have great cleavage (e.g. phic admixtures of iron are bright green, while
micas, calcite, gypsum, feldspar, pyroxenes, those with more isomorphic admixtures are
and amphiboles), and minerals with small differ- dark green and black color (Section 2.5.8.4.2).
ence in cohesion have poor or no cleavage (e.g. The color of minerals is decisive for colors of
quartz, apatite, and olivine). rocks. The proportion of mineral aggregate is
Mineral density is defined as mass of unit vol- accountable for different interrelated rock color.
ume, i.e. the mass of 1 cm3 expressed in grams The colorless or white petrogenic or leucocratic
(g/cm3) and at a certain temperature and pres- minerals give rise to white to light gray color
sure is constant for all the minerals of the same rocks (such as most granite). The dark green
mineral species. As a unit of measure is usually and black or melanocratic minerals give rise to
taken the density of water at þ4  C which is rocks of dark gray, dark green or black color
1 g/cm3 so for mineral is used relative density (e.g. gabbro and peridotite).
which indicate how much is mineral denser Idiochromatic minerals have constant character-
than water at þ4  C, for example, the relative istic color and that characteristic color does not
density of quartz is 2.65. The most common pet- change even with small amount of various addi-
rogenic minerals (minerals that are the main con- tives or impurities, as for instance the case of
stituents of rocks) have a density between 2.0 golden-yellow pyrite, green malachite or blue
and 4.5 g/cm3. The densities of minerals are azurite.
easily determined by pycnometer, small glass Allochromatic minerals, that occurs most
vials and a thermometer following the steps frequently, show colors of their impurities,
given below: such as quartz, which otherwise should be clear,
colorless and often translucent like glass. It can
1. The pycnometer is filled with water of þ4  C, be milky white, purple, yellow or black when it
seals and measures the weight of pycnometer contains impurities.
with water (p). Shine of minerals depends on the ability of
2. Measure the weight of mineral crushed to refraction, i.e. the size of refraction. Minerals
dust (m). that are characterized by excellent cleavage and
50 2. BASIC MINERALOGY

smooth cleavage planes (e.g. micas) and min- birefringence show only white, gray and black
erals that are characterized by high index of interference colors.
refraction (e.g. sphalerite, galena and diamond)
have high glossy shine.
Optical properties of minerals, perceived with 2.4. POLYMORPHISM AND
polarization microscope, are the most significant ISOMORPHISM
characteristics for identification of minerals, both
in mineralogy and petrology. This is specifically Although the crystal structure of each min-
significant if the rocks are composed mostly of eral is constant and characteristic, it is a com-
fine grains or microcrystalline mineral aggre- mon phenomenon that chemically the same
gates and the mineral ingredients are mixed substance is found in two or more crystalline
together. The identification of the mineral forms. It crystallizes in two or more crystal
composition is not easy with the naked eye or systems with small or very large differences
a magnifying glass, but can only be possible in crystallographic and physical properties.
through a microscope. This phenomenon is called polymorphism
Polarizing microscope is used to examine the (from the Greek. “Poly” ¼ “more” and
optical properties of minerals, determines the “morph” ¼ “form”).
type and quantity of certain mineral compo- The good examples of polymorphs are
nents in the rock as well as structural and ge- graphite and diamond (Fig. 2.6). The chemical
netic features of rocks in the linearly polarized composition of both the minerals consists of the
light that passes through the mineral or rock. same elemental carbon with the formula of
The optical properties of minerals are the result “C”. While diamond is the hardest mineral
of propagation and behavior of light as an elec- (Mohs hardness of 10), translucent, high glossy
tromagnetic wave in the mineral. The propaga- shine, density 3.52 g/cm3, an excellent electrical
tion of light in a mineral depends on the insulator, and known as the precious gem,
structure of minerals, i.e. about its internal graphite is very soft (Mohs hardness of 1), black
structure. Therefore, it is unique for every and completely opaque, density 2.1 g/cm3 and a
mineral. good conductor of electricity. Diamond crystal-
Isotropic minerals have the same properties in lizes in cubic form, usually in the form of an oc-
all directions. This means that light passes tahedron and graphite crystallizes in hexagonal
through the minerals in the same way, no matter structure. These differences are caused by a
in what direction the light is traveling. very different way of stacking carbon atoms in
Anisotropic minerals have different proper- the crystal lattice. The carbon atoms of diamond
ties, i.e. light travels through them in different have very dense and compact arrangement,
ways and with different velocities, depending while graphite atoms are not. The most common
on the direction of travel through a grain. examples of polymorphs in nature are given in
Anisotropic minerals cause polarized light to Table 2.2.
be split into two rays as it travels through a Isomorphism (from the Greek. “Izos” ¼ “same”
grain. The rays may not travel at the same ve- and “morph” ¼ “form”) is a phenomenon that
locity or follow exactly the same path. Birefrin- represents the minerals of different, but analo-
gence is a value that describes the difference in gous chemical composition in the same crystal
velocity of the two rays. When the rays emerge system and shapes. The minerals can blend in
from the grain, they combine to produce crystalline state, and form isomorphic com-
interference colors. The colors repeat as the pounds or mixed crystals. One of the basic condi-
birefringence increases. Minerals with low tions for this is that the cations are replaced in the
 2.5. OVERVIEW OF THE MAIN ROCK FORMING MINERALS 51
TABLE 2.2 Examples of Polymorphic Minerals that are Most Often Seen as Essential Ingredients of Rock

Mineral Crystal System Relative Density Properties

a and b quartz SiO2 Hexagonal (two different 2.65 Stable to 870  C

classes)
a and b tridymite SiO2 Rhombic and hexagonal (two 2.32 Stable from 870 to 1470  C
different classes)
a and b cristobalite SiO2 Tetragonal and cubic 2.32 Stable above 1470  C
Calcite Ca[CO3] Trigonal 2.72 Stable modification

Aragonite Ca[CO3] Rhombic 2.94 Unstable modification

Silimanite AlSiO5 Rhombic (different unit cells) 3.25 Two modifications stable at
lower, and silimanite at higher
Andalusite AlSiO5 3.10 temperatures
Kianite AlSiO5 Triclinic 3.56

crystal lattice, for example, Mg2þ can be example, olivine mixture of 80% forsterite and
substituted with Fe2þ, Ca2þ with Mg2þ. Simi- 20% fayalite (Table 2.12). The numerous exam-
larly, Si4þ can be replaced with Al3þ at simulta- ples of isomorphic mixtures, with olivine, are
neous installation of one cation (Kþ or Naþ). certainly most important isomorphic mixture
Two Si4þ ions can be replaced with two Al3þ of plagioclase.
ions with installation of Ca2þ to fulfill difference
in valence (Section 2.5.8.6.1.1).
There are many examples of mixed crystals,
especially among petrogenic silicate minerals. 2.5. OVERVIEW OF THE MAIN
A simple example of isomorphism and forma- ROCK FORMING MINERALS
tion of mixed crystals is olivine (Mg,Fe)2SiO4.
The olivine is essentially a mixture of isomor- Mineralogy today accounts for more than
phous minerals, forsterite (Mg2SiO4) and faya- 4000 different minerals, but only small numbers
lite (Fe2SiO4). It is evident from the formula of are essential ingredients in the composition of
olivine, forsterite and fayalite that Fe2þ and rocks. The scientific researches indicate that the
Mg2þ ions mix and form mixed crystal in which crust materials are representing by primarily
exact ratio of Fe2þ and Mg2þ cannot be deter- feldspars, quartz, pyroxenes, amphibole and
mined. Therefore, the chemical composition of olivine, as shown in Table 2.3.
such compounds cannot be accurately The classification of minerals is based on their
expressed by the formula or the stoichiometric chemical composition and structure. Certain
ratio, but ratio must always be 2 (Mg þ Fe):1- number of chemical elements in nature is found
Si:4O. The crystal formula of mixed crystals in elemental form. Those elements which are in
are written as cations and isomorphic replaced crystallized state constitute a special group of
elements are separated by commas and placed minerals or elements. The majority of minerals
in parentheses, for example, olivine (Mg,Fe)2- are in the form of chemical compounds: oxides,
SiO4. However, the contribution of different hydroxides, sulfides, sulfates, chlorides, fluo-
end-members that make up the crystal half- rides, carbonates, phosphates and silicates in
breed, we indicate their proportion, for particular (Table 2.4).
52 2. BASIC MINERALOGY

TABLE 2.3 Percents of Main Rock Forming Minerals Graphite (C) is a stable hexagonal polymorphic
modification of carbon with a layered lattice
Minerals %
(Fig. 2.6(B)). Graphite is a layered compound
Minerals from feldspars group 57.9 and in each layer, the carbon atoms are arranged
Pyroxenes, amphiboles and 16.4 in a hexagonal lattice. It is soft, black in color and
olivine leaves a black mark on fingers. It can be found in
pegmatites and granites, and particularly in the
Quartz 12.6
crystalline schists, and it is an essential ingredient
Fe oxides (magnetite and 3.7 of graphite schist (Table 6.1). It is an important
hematite)
raw material due to high electrical conductivity.
Mica 3.3 Diamond (C) is a stable cubic polymorphic
Calcite 5.0 modification of carbon in the form of octahedra
(Fig. 2.6(A)). The properties include hardness of
Clay minerals 1.0
10, relative density of 3.52, transparent, colorless,
All other minerals 3.6 with impurities can be white, gray, yellowish,
bluish and rarely black. The impure varieties of
diamond are used as abrasive due to the extreme
TABLE 2.4 The Most Important Group of Minerals by hardness and cutting material, making the
Their Chemistries crown for rock drilling. The clean and pure vari-
eties are treated as a high-value gemstone. The
Elements Graphite, diamond, gold and sulfur
diamonds crystallizes as the primary ingredient
Sulfides Pyrite, marcasite, and pyrrhotite in the olivine-rich ultramafic rock kimberlite,
Oxides and Quartz, opal, chalcedony, corundum, and it can be usually found in sandegravel river
hydroxides gibbsite, boehmite, diaspore, magnetite, deposits due to the exceptional resistance to
hematite, goethite, chromite, limenite, physical and chemical weathering.
rutile, pyrolusite, psilomelane, and spinel Gold (Au) is found as autochthonous cubic
Carbonates Aragonite, calcite, magnesite, siderite, mineral in hydrothermal ore veins or strings,
and dolomite and as resistant mineral in the debris. Color is
Halogenides Halite, silvite, and carnallite golden yellow, metallic shine, the relative den-
sity of 15.5e19.3.
Sulfates Gypsum, anhydrite, and barite
Sulfur (S) is often found in nature as autoch-
Phosphates Apatite and phosphorite thonous mineral that crystallizes in the ortho-
Silicates Nesosilicates rhombic system. The most common form of
Sorosilicates occurrences is aggregates of granular, fibrous or
Cyclosilicates kidney-shaped structure. Sulfur often forms
Inosilicates around volcanic craters and on the outbreaks of
Phyllosilicates
Tectosilicates
sulfur and water vapor around the volcanoes
and hot springs. It can also occur through organic
processes of bacteria that reduce sulfate. It is an
important raw material in chemical industry.
2.5.1. Autochthonous Elements
The minerals that can be found in crystallized
2.5.2. Sulfides
state as autochthonous elements are graphite,
diamond, gold and sulfur. They are the most Sulfides are compounds of transition metals
economic and important members. with sulfur. Sulfides are very frequent and
 2.5. OVERVIEW OF THE MAIN ROCK FORMING MINERALS 53
widely distributed as ore and petrogenic min- TABLE 2.5 Overview of Main Rock Forming Minerals
erals with most significant are pyrite, marcasite from the Group of Oxides and Hydroxides
and pyrrhotite. Oxides Hydroxides
Pyrite (FeS2) is a widespread mineral in many
rocks (Figs 1.26 and 1.32) and belongs to the Silicon Quartz SiO2
Chalcedony ¼ fibrous
most widespread sulfide minerals in the litho-
quartz
sphere. Pyrite crystallizes in the cubic system,
and has a brass-yellow color. It is found as Aluminum Corundum Al2O3 Gibbsite g-Al(OH)3
Boehmite g-AlOOH
rock-forming mineral in regular cubic grains,
Diaspore a-AlOOH
clusters of fine-grained aggregates. Pyrite can
turn into limonite and hematite by processes of Iron Hematite Fe2O3 Goethite a-FeOOH
Magnetite FeO$Fe2O3 Limonite
oxidation (Section 5.2.1.2). It occurs from crystal-
lization of magma, from hydrothermal solutions, Iron and Chromite FeO$Cr2O3
sediments in reducing conditions and metamor- chrome
phic processes. Iron and Limenite FeO$TiO2
Marcasite (FeS2) is an orthorhombic modifica- titanium
tion of the substance FeS2 and is generally asso- Titanium Rutile TiO2
ciated with sedimentary rocks in the form of
Manganate Pyrolusite MnO2 Psilomelane
spherical aggregates. Marcasite crystallizes at
MnO$MnO2$nH2O
low temperatures from solutions containing
ferrous sulfate, and is never found as a primary Magnesium Spinel MgO$Al2O3
and
mineral in igneous rocks.
aluminum
Pyrrhotite (FeS) (Fig. 1.27) is usually found in
basic and ultrabasic igneous rocks in the form
of dense aggregates. Pyrrhotite is often mag-
netic, has metal shine, opaque, and brownish Ice (H2O) is the solid phase of water at a tem-
bronze in color. The mineral frequently contains perature of 0  C and crystallizes as a hexagonal
a small amount of nickel in basic and ultrabasic mineral with density of 0.9175 g/cm3, and floats
rocks. Pyrrhotite is an important component of on water. The snowflakes are formed by subli-
some nickel bearing meteorites. mation (from water vapor and not from water)
and crystallizes in the hexagonal crystal in the
form of six-sided stars.
2.5.3. Oxides and Hydroxides
Quartz (SiO2) (Figs 1.11 and 8.1) is the most
An oxide is a chemical compound containing common polymorphic modifications of silicon
at least one oxygen atom as well as at least one dioxide in rocks. The crystalline silicon dioxide
other element. The oxides result when elements occurs in several polymorphic alpha modifica-
are oxidized by oxygen in air. Hydroxides tions in rocks: tridymite and cristobalite, each
are compounds in which the anion OHe with another unstable beta-modification. The
groups contain OHe ion as the OOHe different crystallized SiO2 occurs in as many as
group. Some minerals from the group of 12 polymorphic modifications depending on
oxide and hydroxide minerals, particularly, temperature. Transformation of one modifica-
silica, iron and aluminum, are very important tion into another is an extremely slow process.
and widespread mineral components of rocks. Sometimes higher temperature and lower tem-
The most abundant among the group are listed perature polymorphic modification can be both
in Table 2.5. stable during a certain time. Quartz crystallizes
54 2. BASIC MINERALOGY

in the hexagonal system and is often found in na- laminae is known as onyx. Dense and opaque
ture in crystal form as shown in Fig. 1.11. Quartz types of chalcedony with admixtures of iron
is very common and abundantly present in the brownish red color are called Jasper and used
sediments of silicon rocks, acidic intrusive and for making jewelry.
vein rocks, as well as most metamorphic rocks Corundum (Al2O3) is a crystalline form of
(mylonite, quartzite, phyllite, mica, and green aluminum oxide and have traces of iron, tita-
schists, gneiss and granulite). nium and chromium. It is a rock-forming min-
Opal (SiO2$nH2O) is a mineraloid (amorphous eral, and clear transparent natural material. It
mineral) of irregular shapes and white in color. can have different colors in the presence of impu-
The color changes to yellow, gray, brown or rities. The transparent red color varieties are
red in the presence of impurities. A special known as ruby and are used as high-value
type of opal becomes precious, which is charac- gems. Corundum with all other colors is called
terized by awesome flows of bluish gray and sapphire. It can scratch almost every other min-
white colors. Opal is excreted from hot springs eral due to extreme hardness (pure corundum
and geysers. In sedimentary rocks, particularly has harness of 9 in Mohs hardness scale). It is
limestone, opal is formed by carbonate and commonly used as an abrasive, on everything
excreted from solutions containing silicon. Opal from sandpaper to large machines, machining
may occur as secondary mineral during the metals, plastics and wood. Corundum occurs
weathering process of primary silicate minerals, as a mineral in mica schist, gneiss, and some
basic and ultrabasic igneous rocks. The skeletons marbles in metamorphic terranes. It also occurs
of algae, diatoms, silicon sponges and radiolar- in low-silica igneous syenite and nepheline sye-
ians are consisting of opal, and with their depo- nite intrusives. Other occurrences are as masses
sition and diagenesis occurring siliceous adjacent to ultramafic intrusives, associated
sedimentary rocks. with lamprophyre dikes and as large crystals in
Chalcedony is a fibrous type of cryptocrystal- pegmatites.
line quartz, which forms very dense kidney- Gibbsite (Al(OH)3) is an aluminum hydroxide,
shape clusters. It is composed of thin parallelly sometimes known as hydrargillite and crystal-
and linearly arranged aggregates of fibrous crys- lizes in monoclinic system. It is rarely found in
tals that usually show X-ray structural features a pure state and often blended with boehmite,
of b-quartz. It has waxy and glossy appearance, kaolinite, hematite and limonite in bauxites and
and can be white, gray, pink, yellowish, dark laterites, i.e. sedimentary rocks that serve as the
brown to black color. The yellowish and red co- ore to obtain aluminum (Section 5.5.6).
lor chalcedony is considered as semiprecious Boehmite g-AlO(OH) or Böehmite is an
stones. Chalcedony is a frequent ingredient in aluminum oxide hydroxide mineral and alumo-
silicon sediment, i.e. chert (Table 5.7) and radio- gel is an amorphous gel Al(OH)3. It occurs
larite (Section 5.9.1). Chalcedony usually occurs with gibbsite as main mineral constituents of
by extraction from aqueous solutions containing bauxite and laterite (Section 5.5.6).
silicon acid and from opal in processes of recrys- Hematite (Fe2O3) (Fig. 1.25) and magnetite
tallization. It occurs in the form of irregular (FeO$Fe2O3) are very common, but usually mi-
masses, concretions, lenses and nodules in lime- nor constituents of many rocks. However,
stone as filling voids in the rock appears in the magmatic and hydrothermal processes may
basic volcanic or extrusive rocks. form large deposits of these minerals suitable
Agate is a variety of chalcedony with modified for iron ore mining.
thin lamina or layers of different colors (Fig. 2.1). Goethite (FeO(OH)) is the iron hydroxide,
Agate with the changes of black and white formed as amorphous clusters and known as
 2.5. OVERVIEW OF THE MAIN ROCK FORMING MINERALS 55
limonite (brown iron ores formed due to wearing igneous rocks as secondary mineral (Section
of iron minerals). Limonite includes amorphous 4.3.1.1).
Fe-hydroxides with variable amounts of water. Pyrolusite (MnO2) is manganese oxide and
Limonite is often found in many rocks that crystallizes in tetragonal system. It is usually
give the brown, yellow or tan color. It usually de- located in strip and needle aggregates with
velops as a product of chemical weathering of dark gray to black in color. It is formed by hydro-
many minerals containing Fe2þ, or ferrous iron. thermal and sedimentary origin. The pyrolusite
In the oxidation process oxidizes in the trivalent is very widespread and the main ore of
iron Fe3þ, which is known as a process of limoni- manganese.
tization. Limonitization processes are well visible Psilomelane (MnO$MnO2$nH2O) is a colloidal
in yellow-brown color in freshly broken-off modification of manganese oxide with water. It
greenish-gray rocks along and around cracks. occurs as kidney-like clusters. It is often found
The brown, yellow or reddish-brown color of in the form of thin crusts, coatings, and dendrites
clays and many other rocks is derived from limo- in layer surfaces or crevices of different rocks,
nite. Finely dispersed limonite in the rock is a especially limestone. The mineral colors are
natural pigment that causes a yellow-brown co- iron-black or blue-black and the rocks which
lor of rocks. Dense clusters of limonite are contain psilomelane are dark gray or black. Psi-
known as limonite ocher and pigment. Limonite lomelane is originated from aqueous solutions
above the hematite and siderite deposits often enriched with manganese as a product of the
forms a crust of weathering and is known as surface weathering of various minerals contain-
the “iron hat”. Limonite and goethite are ing manganese.
important as a source of low-grade iron and Spinel (MgO$Al2O3) is a member of isomor-
nickel ore. phic mixtures of different Al3þ, Fe3þ and Cr3þ
Chromite (FeO$Cr2O4) (Fig. 1.23), is an iron spinel. The mineral is a typical product of contact
chromium oxide, and ilmenite (FeO$TiO2) is a metamorphism. It is formed from clay sediments
titaniumeiron oxide minerals. These minerals in contact with the magma, and is located in
are important ores of chromium and titanium, skarns and hornfels (Table 6.1).
and are often the ingredients of rock in minor
quantities. Chromite and ilmenite crystallize at
high temperatures of intrusive magma in the
2.5.4. Carbonates
initial stage of crystallization, and present as Carbonates are salts of carbonic acid, charac-
the regular ingredients of ultrabasic and ultra- terized by the presence of the carbonate ion,
mafic rocks (Section 4.3.1.4). CO2
3 . The minerals from the group of carbon-
Rutile (TiO2) crystallizes in tetragonal system ates form isomorphic series of CaeMgeFee
and is commonly found in the form of rod or MneZn trigonal carbonate and CaeSreBaePb
needle crystals. The color varies between dark rhombic carbonate (calcite and aragonite group).
red and black. It occurs usually in regional meta- The carbonates also include the dolomite group
morphism, and associates with crystalline schists (Table 2.6).
(gneiss, mica schists, phyllites and amphibolites, The most important petrogenic minerals from
Table 6.1). It is a common mineral in clastic sed- carbonate group are calcium, magnesium and
iments and sedimentary rocks (sand/sand- iron carbonates or aragonite, calcite and dolomite,
stones), with high resistance to weathering. less frequent siderite and very rare magnesite.
Rutile is often occurring in the river and offshore Aragonite (CaCO3) is a carbonate mineral, one
deposits along with the gold concentrate in sig- of the two common, naturally occurring crystal
nificant quantities. Rutile is common in acid forms of calcium carbonate (the other form is
56 2. BASIC MINERALOGY

TABLE 2.6 Minerals of Calcite and Aragonite Groups 5.5.4.2 and 5.5.5.1 and Section 6.5.2). The various
types of occurrences are the following:
Calcite Group Aragonite Group
Low-magnesium calcite is very common in
Calcite CaCO3 Aragonite CaCO3 biogenic origin. It builds skeletons of planktonic
Magnesite MgCO3 Strontianite SrCO3 organisms and regularly as a very stable mineral
Siderite FeCO3 Witherite BaCO3
in limestone preserves during all diagenetic
Rhodochrosite MnCO3 Cerussite PbCO3
Smithsonite ZnCO3 changes.
High-magnesium calcite, together with the
DOLOMITE GROUP metastable aragonite, is an essential ingredient
of the carbonate mineral deposits of shallow ma-
Dolomite CaMg(CO3)2
rine limestone. The transformation into calcite is
usually not found in limestone due to low stabil-
ity. High-magnesium calcite is most commonly
the mineral calcite.) It is formed by biological found in many recent carbonate skeletons, espe-
and physical processes, including precipitation cially coralline algae, calcareous sponges, bryo-
from marine and freshwater environments. It is zoans and serpulite, as in many cement and
essential, and with high-magnesium calcite, ooids (Section 5.7.1.1). It is often found in some
practically the only carbonate mineral compo- freshwater sediment and their cements, such as
nent of shallow marine limestone deposits of travertine limestone.
warm and tropical seas. Dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2) (Fig. 5.64) with calcite
Calcite (CaCO3) (Fig. 1.14) forms isomorphic is the most common mineral in carbonate rocks.
series with magnesite (Table 2.6) and can contain The mineral dolomite crystallizes in the trigo-
up to 28 mol% MgCO3 and there are also low- nalerhombohedral system. It develops white,
magnesium calcite (<4 mol% MgCO3) and gray to pink, commonly curved crystals, usually
high-magnesium calcite (4e28 mol% MgCO3). in the massive forms. It has physical properties
In the lattice of calcite, Ca2þ can be replaced similar to those of the mineral calcite. Small
with Fe2þ, Mn2þ and Zn2þ, thus resulting mag- amounts of iron in the structure give the crystals
nesium carbonate (MnCO3) and zinc carbonate a yellow to brown tint. Unlike calcite, Mg calcite,
(ZnCO3) (Table 2.6). Petrogenic significance aragonite and dolomite are not formed by
have only calcite and magnesium calcite and in biochemical processes or by direct precipitation
some limestone, especially in the form of cement from seawater, but they are generally secondary
or iron calcite (calcite, in which part of the Ca2þ mineral formed by process of dolomitization.
isomorphic is replaced by Fe2þ). Replacement of Ca2þ ions with Mg2þ ions with
Calcite crystallizes in the trigonal crystal sys- suppression of calcite and aragonite in the lime-
tem, excretes in the deeper and/or colder sea stone sludges or in the already-tough limestone
and freshwater. It often occurs with contact with dolomite (Section 5.7.2.1).
and regional metamorphism of limestone and Siderite (FeCO3) is relatively poorly repre-
shale. Large crystal grains are distinctly visible sented petrogenic minerals, but occasionally
from, the color and transparency like quartz. It can be accumulated in large quantities to consti-
is very significant and extensive petrogenic min- tute a reservoir of iron ore. The crystals belong to
eral or the main mineral component of lime- the hexagonal system, and are rhombohedral in
stone, marl and marble. It is also an important shape, typically with curved and striated faces.
ingredient, especially as cement, to virtually all The color ranges between yellow and dark
clastic sedimentary rocks (Sections 5.7.1.1, brown or black.
 2.5. OVERVIEW OF THE MAIN ROCK FORMING MINERALS 57
Magnesite (MgCO3) usually occurs in the form 2.5.6. Sulfates
of dense or granular masses, such as porcelain
white. The mineral possesses hardness of four Sulfates are salts of sulfuric acid (H2SO4). The
and relative density of three. Smaller amounts minerals gypsum and anhydrite, and rarely ba-
of magnesia can occur by deposition from ryte, kieserite and polyhalite from the group of
seawater, and in larger quantities that have eco- sulfate have petrogenic importance and occur
nomic importance (magnesite ore deposits), as the main ingredients of evaporites sediments.
mainly caused by the effect of Gypsum (CaSO4$2H2O) (Fig. 1.17) crystallizes
in monoclinic system and is usually located in
1. hot Mg bicarbonate solution to limestone to dense aggregates of fine or coarse granulated
form calcite and dolomite in the first stage and transparent aggregates called alabaster. It is very
followed by magnesite; soft (hardness 2), white in color or monochrome,
2. hot solutions containing CO2 to ultramafic and from the admixture of organic matter and
igneous rocks rich in olivine from which the clay may be gray or brown gray. The mineral loses
serpentine group of minerals occur (Section 75% water at a temperature of 120e130  C and be-
2.5.8.5.6) and magnesite. comes so-called burnt gypsum. This feature is
Magnesite is the raw material for production widely applied in construction. Gypsum is a
of refractory matter and special types of cement much abundant mineral that can independently
(sorel cement). form a rock, because it is secreted in large masses
of seawater in evaporation conditions. It can also
be secreted from pore water in the desert. Gypsum
2.5.5. Halides is an essential ingredient of evaporite sediments
Halides are the salts of sodium fluoride and (Section 5.8.1). It occurs as secondary mineral in
hydrochloric acid. The minerals halite, sylvite many rocks by the oxidation of iron sulfide.
and carnallite from this group only contain chlo- Anhydrite (CaSO4) is an anhydrous calcium
ride and have petrogenic significance. sulfate. It is in the orthorhombic crystal system,
Halite (NaCl) is the mineral form of sodium with three directions of perfect cleavages parallel
chloride, and commonly known as rock salt. to the three planes of symmetry. Anhydrite crys-
Halite forms isometric crystals. The mineral is tallizes from seawater with its strong evapora-
typically colorless or white, but may also be light tion, and in large quantities is the evaporite
blue, dark blue, purple, pink, red, orange, yellow sediment, usually in association with early dia-
or gray depending on the amount and type of genetical dolomites (Section 5.8.1).
impurities (Fig. 1.9). It is an essential mineral Baryte, or barite (BaSO4), crystallizes ortho-
component of evaporite sediments (deposits of rhombic system, commonly found in tabular crys-
rock salt, see Section 5.8.1). tals or granulated, fibrous and radial clusters of
Sylvite (KCl) unlike halite, has a bitter taste white or bluish-white color. It has a high relative
that makes these two minerals distinct. Sylvanite density (from 4.3 to 4.7) and excellent cleavage of
occurs with halite as essential mineral ingredient plane basal pinacoid (001). It can be found,
of evaporite sediments (salt deposits). almost always, together with sulfide ores formed
Carnallite (KMgCl3$6(H2O)) crystallizes ortho- in hydrothermal processes, and also forms in
rhombic, has no cleavage, and is colorless or crystallization from seawater in reductive terms.
white to pale reddish. Carnallite occurs together Baryte is widely used in paper-making, paint,
with halite and sylvite and is the essential min- insulation material for protection against radia-
eral ingredient evaporite sediments and salt tion and in addition to drilling mud to increase
deposits. their density.
58 2. BASIC MINERALOGY

2.5.7. Phosphates Si4+

O2–
Phosphates are salts of phosphoric acid
(H3PO4). The minerals from the apatite group
only have petrogenic significance.
Apatite (Ca5 (F, Cl, OH) (PO4)3) is a group of
phosphate minerals, usually referring to hy- (SiO4)4–
droxyapatite, fluorapatite, chlorapatite and bro-
mapatite, named for high concentrations of FIGURE 2.7 The basic structural unit of silicate mineralsd
OH
, F
, Cl
or Br
ions, respectively, in the SiO4 tetrahedron.

crystal. Apatite is the main representative of

isomorphic minerals of the apatite group that
crystallizes in hexagonal system. The fluorapa- minerals are formed by crystallization of magma
tite, a part of F isomorphic replaced with Cl at high temperatures, and in metamorphic pro-
and OHe group, is mostly located in the rocks. cesses at high temperature and high pressure.
These are mostly minor minerals, elongated pris- Silicate minerals are classified according to
matic or needle-shaped, glassy shine, brown, the structure with main feature of strong rela-
red, green and emerald green color. Apatite is a tionship between major oxygen ions, and minor
common mineral, and often a secondary mineral silicon ions. Four oxygen ions are arranged in
ingredient in almost all igneous rocks, especially close form of the tetrahedron with a small silicon
in pegmatite and mafic igneous rocks forming as ion in the center (Fig. 2.7). Therefore, the basic
veins. The primary use of apatite is in the manu- structural unit of silicate minerals is SiO4 tetra-
facture of fertilizer and a source of phosphorus. hedra. The distance between the centers of two
It is occasionally used as a gemstone. ions of oxygen is always 2.6  10
8 cm (2.6 Å).
Phosphorite, the amorphous colloid and cryp- The distance between the center of silicon ions
tocrystalline variety of Ca phosphate, is mostly and each of the relatively large oxygen ions is
of sedimentary origin. Most of it is from the orga- only 1.6  10
8 cm (1.6 Å), as shown in Fig. 2.7.
nogenic origin because phosphorus is derived Silicate minerals are put together by binding
from the bones, feces and other organic remains siliconeoxygen tetrahedra to each other and to
of animals. Phosphorite occurs in effect of other ions in a fairly small number of ways.
ammonium phosphate from bones or excrement Even this number represents only variations on
on calcium carbonate (limestone). About 90% of the theme of combining ionic and covalent bonds.
phosphate rock production is used for fertilizer The ionic bonding of tetrahedra involves
and animal feed supplements and the balance another atom, a cation which usually carries a
for industrial chemicals. þ2 charge. This ion is situated between the cor-
ners of two tetrahedra where it can receive one
electron from the nearest oxygen in each.
2.5.8. Silicates The covalent bonding of tetrahedra involves
Silicates are the most common and most actually sharing one oxygen atom between two
important petrogenic minerals, particularly feld- adjacent tetrahedra. One of the extra electrons
spars, amphiboles, pyroxenes, olivine, micas and of the shared oxygen is used by one silicon,
clay minerals, as indicated in Table 2.3. Their and the other electron is used by the other.
main characteristics are difficult to melt and Between these two extreme cases, there are a
often have very complex chemical composition number of different cases of bonding two,
because of isomorphic replacement. Most silicate three, four, six or more of the SiO4 tetrahedra,
 2.5. OVERVIEW OF THE MAIN ROCK FORMING MINERALS 59
so that there are seven different major struc- mineral serpentine (olivine serpentinization),
tural types of silicate minerals. These are the talc or actinolite. Olivine is the important min-
following: eral constituent of basic igneous rocks (gabbro,
norite, basalt) and ultramafic rocks, as well as
1. Nesosilicates (lone tetrahedron)d[SiO4]4

some crystalline schists formed in the deep
2. Sorosilicates (double tetrahedra)d[Si2O7]6

rock layers. Olivine is extensively present in
3. Cyclosilicates (rings)d[SinO3n]2n

meteorites.
4. Inosilicates (single chain)d[SinO3n]2n

Garnets (Fig. 1.16) consist of the free SiO4 tetra-
5. Phyllosilicates (sheets)d[Si2nO5n]2n

hedra interconnected by ions of various divalent
6. Tectosilicates (3D framework)d
and trivalent metals. Garnets have a complex
[AlxSiyO2(xþy)]x

composition due to the high possibility of isomor-
phic substitution of these ions. The end members
2.5.8.1. Nesosilicates [SiO4]4
are known as series: pyropeealmandineespessarite
In the structure of nesosilicates, SiO4 tetra- and uvaroviteegrossulareandradite. The general
hedra are not directly connected with mutual ox- chemical formula is as follows:
ygen ion, only by interstitial cations. The
simplest structure in nesosilicates have mineral M2þ 3 M3þ 2 Si3 O12
forsterite Mg2[SiO4]. The most important min-
where; M2þ ¼ Ca; Mg; Fe or Mn
erals from the nesosilicates are shown in Table
2.7 and Fig. 2.8. M3þ ¼ Al; Fe or Cr:
Olivine with little iron is closer to forsterite
with greenish color. The same with more iron Members of each of the two series of crystals
is closer to fayalite with dark green color. Olivine form a cross-breed with each other, and the
crystallizes in orthorhombic system and hard- isomorphic replacement between the two series
ness of 7e6.5 (depending on the isomorphous are limited. In divalent cations, there is unlimited
replacement of Mg with Fe). It forms by crystal- possibility of isomorphic substitution of Mg2þ
lization of magma at high temperatures (pyro- with Fe2þ and Mn2þ with Fe2þ. Isomorphic
gen minerals). In normal atmospheric replacement of Mg2þ with Mn2þ is limited, and
conditions, it has low resistance to weathering Mg2þ, Mn2þ and Fe2þ may still be up to about
and easily subjected to metamorphism in the 20% replaced with Ca2þ. In all garnets part of
the Si can be isomorphic replaced with Ti. There
are almost no pure members in nature, and
TABLE 2.7 The Most Important Petrogenic Minerals garnet gets its name by the main components
from Nesosilicates Group dominate (Table 2.7). Garnet crystallizes in cubic
Olivines Group Al2SiO5 Group
system (Fig. 1.16), and is commonly found in iso-
metric form, i.e. the regular crystallographic
ForsteritedMg2SiO4 AndalusitedAl2SiO5 forms, mostly orthorhombic dodecahedron,
FayalitedFe2SiO4 KyanitedAl2SiO5
and their combination (Fig. 2.9 and Fig. 6.6). Gar-
SillimanitedAl2SiO5
nets do not have cleavage, and have hardness of
Garnet Group Zircon Group
PyropedMg3Al2(SiO4)3 ZircondZrSiO4
6.5e7, and the color depends on their chemical
AlmandinedFe3Al2(SiO4)3 TitanitedCaTiSiO52 composition.
SpessartinedMn3Al2(SiO4)3 Garnets may originate in different ways. It
GrossulardCa3Al2(SiO4)3 may form by crystallization of magma in the
AndraditedCa3Fe2(SiO4)3 pegmatite and acidic intrusive rocks (granites
UvarovitedCa3Cr2(SiO4)3
and granodiorites). However, the common
60 2. BASIC MINERALOGY

FIGURE 2.8 Representation of free and in separate groups linked SiO4 tetrahedra in the structures of (A) nesosilicates, (B)
sorosilicates, and (C) cyclosilicates.

FIGURE 2.9 Crystal forms of garnet: (A) rhombic dodecahedron; (B) deltoid icosahedron.
 2.5. OVERVIEW OF THE MAIN ROCK FORMING MINERALS 61
occurrences are by regional, contact and plutonic igneous and metamorphic rocks, and is a regular
metamorphism, and are essential ingredients of ingredient in clastic sediments.
a high-degree metamorphic schist (gneiss and Titanite (CaTiSiO5) crystallizes in monoclinic
mica schist), skarn, hornfels and eclogite (Table system. It is found as individual crystal. Cleav-
6.1). Garnets are resistant to weathering and age is clear at (110), hardness is 5.0e5.5, and rela-
regularly found as minor components in the tive density of 3.5. It often occurs as secondary or
clastic sediments and sedimentary rocks (sand- accessory mineral in neutral and acidic magma-
stones). Garnets are used as abrasive material. tites (alkali syenite and pegmatites, Table 4.1),
Kyanite, Andalusite and Sillimanite (Al2SiO5) some crystalline schists, and gneisses in partic-
are polymorphic modifications of aluminum sil- ular. It is usually located associated with the
icates with the same formula (Table 2.7). Kyanite bauxite.
crystallizes in triclinic system. Andalusite and
sillimanite crystallize in orthorhombic system. 2.5.8.2. Sorosilicatesd[Si2O7]6

Sillimanite has the structural features of inosili- Sorosilicates have isolated double tetrahedra
cates. The crystals are usually elongated. Kyanite groups with (Si2O7)6
or a ratio of 2:7. There
hardness is 4.5e5.0 parallel to one axis 6.5e7.0 are no significant petrogenic minerals among
perpendicular to that axis. The hardness of silli- sorosilicates, except epidote, zoisite and vesuvi-
manite and andalusite is 6e7. Kyanite is a min- anite (Fig. 2.8).
eral typical of regional metamorphosis under Epidote (Ca2Al2(Fe3þ;Al)(SiO4)(Si2O7)O(OH))
high pressure. Andalusite is a typical mineral is a calcium aluminum-silicate mineral, in which
for contact metamorphism and sillimanite repre- part of the aluminum is substituted with triva-
sents regional and contact metamorphism at lent iron. If the iron is replaced by only 10%,
high temperatures. All three minerals occur in then the aluminum is white and is known as cli-
the metamorphic environment from clay sedi- nozoisite. If it is replaced by 10e40% aluminum,
ments. These are common and essential mineral it is called pistacite which has a typical green co-
components of hornfels (Table 6.1). lor with yellow and dark-gray shades. Epidote
Staurolite crystallizes in orthorhombic system crystallizes in the monoclinic system. The crys-
and occurs mainly as twinned and cruciform pat- tals are prismatic, the direction of elongation be-
terns in metamorphic rocks. It has complex chem- ing perpendicular to the single plane of
ical formula of (Fe,Mg,Zn)3e4Al18Si8O48H2e4. symmetry. It occurs in the presence of water va-
The hardness is 7.0e7.5 in Mohs scale. Staurolite por at low and high temperatures (100e450  C)
is formed by regional metamorphism of rocks in hydrothermal conditions, and can occur, in
such as mica schists, slates, and gneisses, and dynamic and contact metamorphism (Section
generally associated with other minerals like 6.2). Epidote is a constituent of igneous rocks
kyanite, garnet, and tourmaline. that have undergone hydrothermal changes
Zircon (ZrSiO4) regularly contains a small and metamorphic rocks from the schist group.
amount of hafnium, thorium, yttrium, iron or Zoisite (Ca2Al3 (OH) Si3O12) is a calcium
uranium, and generally weakly radioactive. aluminum-silicate without iron. It crystallizes
Zircon crystallizes in tetragonal crystal system. in orthorhombic system. The most common
It has hardness of 7e8, incomplete cleavage, occurrence is in the form of fine-grained aggre-
and relative density of 4.7. It is highly resistant gates of light to blue-gray color, usually associ-
to weathering. The natural color varies between ated with epidote and albite, in hydrothermal
colorless, yellow-golden, red, brown, blue, and metamorphism of basic plagioclase, in pegma-
green. It is a widespread mineral, but usually titic phase crystallization of magma, and
in very small quantities. It is a component of regional metamorphism of calcium-rich rocks.
62 2. BASIC MINERALOGY

Zoisite is an essential ingredient of green schist Tourmaline {(Na,Ca)(Al,Li,Mg)3(Al,Fe,Mn)6

and amphibolite eclogites (Table 6.1), a common (Si6O18)(BO3)3(OH)4}.
constituent of secondary pegmatite.
Vesuvianite (Ca10Al4(Mg,Fe)2Si9O34(OH)4) is a In cyclosilicates, only six-member ring has
mineral of complex composition crystallizing in petrogenic important minerals.
the tetragonal system because of isomorphic im- The tourmaline group includes isomorphic se-
purities. It was first discovered in blocks or adja- ries of silicate minerals of highly variable and
cent to lavas on Mount Vesuvius, hence its name. complex composition that often contains B and
The color is usually green or brown but may be Al. However, the tourmaline bearing rocks
yellow, blue, or red. The hardness is 6.5, and spe- frequently contain Na and Li, a part of Mg and
cific gravity is 3.35e3.45. The mineral forms by Fe is isomorphic substitute of Mn and Ca. Tour-
contact metamorphism of clay limestone, dolo- maline crystallizes in trigonal system. The crys-
mite and marl (Section 6.2). It usually occurs in tals typically occur as long, slender to thick
conjunction with garnets in marble, and during prismatic and columnar structure (Fig. 2.18).
crystallization of magma. The mineral has great hardness between 7.0
and 7.5, and changing colors depending on the
2.5.8.3. Cyclosilicatesd[SinO3n]2n
chemical composition.
Cyclosilicates, or ring silicates, have linked Tourmaline (Fig. 1.18) is very abundant second-
tetrahedra with (SixO3x)2x
or a ratio of 1:3. ary mineral, especially in acidic intrusives (gran-
These groups of minerals exist as three-member ites), pegmatites and rocks affected by
(Si3O9)6
, four-member (Si4O12)8
and six- pneumatolytic processes. Tourmalines are typical
member (Si6O18)12
rings (Table 2.8) (Fig. 2.8): pneumatolytic minerals that crystallize in pneu-
matolytic phase of magma-rich gases and
1. Three-member ring
vapors (Section 2.2.2). The minerals are very resis-
Benitoite {BaTi(Si3O9)}
tant to the processes of physical and chemical
2. Four-member ring
weathering and regularly found in sand dunes,
Axinite {(Ca,Fe,Mn)3Al2(BO3)(Si4O12)(OH)}
or nearly all clastic sedimentary rocks.
3. Six-member ring
Beryl (Be3Al2Si6O18) hexagonal crystals may
Beryl/Emerald {Be3Al2(Si6O18)}
be very small or range to several meters in size.
Cordierite {(Mg,Fe)2Al3(Si5AlO18)}
Pure beryl is colorless, but often contains impu-
rities. The various common colors are green,
blue, yellow, red, and white. Beryl has great
TABLE 2.8 The Most Important Petrogenic
Cyclosilicates hardness between 7.5 and 8.0, and clear cleavage.
The precious beryls are known as aquamarine
6-Member Ring (blue), emerald (deep green), and morganite
Tourmaline group Beryl
(pink to red). Beryl forms by pneumatolytic stage
of crystallization of magma, and is located in
MgeAl: Be3Al2Si6O18 veins in granites, also in the crystalline schists,
Al5Mg3CaMg (OH,F)4 Si6O27B3 particularly gneisses and mica schists (Table 6.1).
NaeAl:
Cordierite ((Mg,Fe)2Al4Si5O18) crystallizes in
orthorhombic system, and occurs as crystals
Al7Na2Mg (OH,F)4 Si6O27B3 Cordierite and granular aggregates of short form. If it con-
FeeAl: (Mg,Fe)2Al3(Al,Si)5O18 tains more iron than magnesium, then it is known
(Al,Fe)5FeCaFe (OH,F)4 Si6O27B3
as Fe-rich cordierite, and if it contains more
magnesium than iron, it is known as Mg-rich
 2.5. OVERVIEW OF THE MAIN ROCK FORMING MINERALS 63
cordierite. The hardness is 7, and specific gravity igneous and metamorphic rocks. They share a
2.6. The various colors are greenish-blue, lilac common structure of single chains of silica tetra-
blue, or dark blue. Cordierite occurs in contact hedra (Fig. 2.10). The group of minerals crystal-
or regional metamorphism of argillaceous rocks. lizes in the monoclinic and orthorhombic systems.
It is especially common in hornfels produced by Inosilicates with a single-chain SiO4 tetrahe-
contact metamorphism of pelitic rocks. Some- dron of the pyroxene group are very important
times, the share in paragneiss may be so large and widespread petrogenic minerals (Table
that it forms a special type known as cordierite 2.3). Pyroxenes constitute a related group of sili-
gneisses (Table 6.1). cate minerals with similar crystallographic,
physical and chemical properties. The most
2.5.8.4. Inosilicates important of them are given in Table 2.9.
Inosilicates, or chain silicates, have interlock-
ing chains of silicate tetrahedra with either 2.5.8.4.1.1. ORTHOPYROXENES Orthopyrox-
SiO3, 1:3 ratio, for single chains or Si4O11, 4:11 ra- enes have general formula (Mg,Fe,Ca)
tio, for double chains. (Mg,Fe,Al) (Si,Al)2O6. The natural compositions
are dominated by two major end-member com-
2.5.8.4.1. SINGLE-CHAIN ponents: enstatite, Mg2Si2O6, and ferrosilite,
INOSILICATESdPYROXENE GROUP Fe2Si2O6. The most common rock is bronzite
The pyroxenes are important rock-forming that contains 10e30% ferrosilite components,
inosilicate minerals and often exist in many and hypersthenes containing 30e50% ferrosilite

FIGURE 2.10 Inosilicatesd(A) single chain pyroxenes; (B) double chain amphibole.
64 2. BASIC MINERALOGY

TABLE 2.9 The Most Important Petrogenic Minerals from Pyroxene Group

Petrogenic Important Pyroxenes

Orthopyroxenes Clinopyroxenes Alkaline Pyroxenes

Enstatite Pigeonite Jadeite

Mg2Si2O6 (Mg,Fe2þ,Ca)(Mg,Fe3þ)Si2O6 NaAlSi2O6
Bronzite Diopside Aegirine
(Mg,Fe)2SiO6 CaMgSi2O6 NaFeSi2O6
Hypersthene Hedenbergite AegirineeAugite ¼ isomorphic member
(Mg,Fe)2Si2O6 CaFeSi2O6 of aegirine and augite
Dialage ¼ rich in iron diopside turned into Spodumene
Aleaugite LiAlSi2O6
Augite Omphacite
Ca(Mg,Fe2þ,Al) (SiAl)2O6 (Ca,Na)(Mg,Fe2þ,Al)Si2O6
Fassaite ¼ augite with Al2O3 > Fe2O3

Wollastonite Ca3Si3O9

components (Table 2.9). These minerals are regularly have a very complex chemical
pyrogenic origin and regular mineral ingredients composition (Table 2.9). The most petrogenic
of basic and ultrabasic rocks (gabbro, norite, important minerals among the group are the
peridotite, and lercololite), and hypersthenes is following:
often found in trachyte and andesite (Table 4.1).
1. Diopside-hedenbergite series
Hypersthene may occur in metamorphic
2. Augite group
process of contact and regional metamorphism
3. Pyroxenes (aegirineeaugite and
as an ingredient of skarns and crystalline schist
jadeiteeaugite)
(especially biotite gneiss pyroxene granulite
4. Pigeonite
(Table 6.1)).
Pyroxenes from the group of diopsidee
2.5.8.4.1.2. CLINOPYROXENES Monoclinic hedenbergite have typical pyroxene short pillar
pyroxene or clinopyroxene are isomorphic crystals with an octagonal cross-sections perpen-
blends of several different end-members, and dicular to the c-axis (Figs 2.11 and 2.12). Their

FIGURE 2.11 Typical crystal forms of pyroxene. The diagnostic feature of any pyroxene is two sets of cleavages that
intersect at 89 or 91 . Pyroxene show mediocre cleavages that are hard to separate, unlike the feldspars or hornblende.
 2.5. OVERVIEW OF THE MAIN ROCK FORMING MINERALS 65

FIGURE 2.12 Typical pyroxene cleavage. The pyroxene (hornblende) always forms oblique cleavages and intersect (A) at
87 in case of octagonal crystals, and (B) between 120 and 124 for hexagonal crystals.

color depends on the amount of iron, magne- Augite rich in iron is called black augite. It is
sium and aluminum. The color of diopside is particularly common in neutral and basic volca-
pale green and hedenbergite of dark green. nic rocks (diabase, basalts and andesites). Tita-
Diopside may arise from the crystallization of nium augite (augite rich in titanium, because it
magma and are common ingredients of neutral, is part of the Si replaced by Ti) exists in dolerite,
basic and ultrabasic igneous rocks (Table 4.1). olivine basalt and alkali gabbro.
Diopside occurs in contact and regional meta- Jadeite (NaAlSi2O6) has hardness between 6.5
morphism and is often found in marble, hornfels, and 7.0 depending on the composition. The min-
green schists and schists of high degree of meta- eral is dense, with a specific gravity of about 3.4.
morphism, especially in the mica schists. The common colors of Jadeite ranges from white
Diallage is yellowish brown, greenish mineral in through pale apple green to deep jade green-
the diopsideehedenbergite series containing blue-green, pink, lavender, and a multitude of
pieces of magnetite or ilmenite. Diallage is a regular other rare colors. Jadeite is formed in metamor-
component of basic and ultrabasic igneous rocks phic rocks under high pressure and relatively
from the group of gabbro and lercolite (Table 4.1). low temperature.
Augite groups have lattice analogous to diop- Aegirine (NaFeSi2O6) occurs as dark green
side, but with the difference that are part of the monoclinic prismatic crystals. It has a glassy
SiO4 tetrahedra Si4þ is replaced by Al3þ ions. luster and perfect cleavage. The Mohs hardness
These minerals have a complex chemical compo- varies from 5 to 6 and the specific gravity is be-
sition, and involve a very wide range of isomor- tween 3.2 and 3.4. It is located only in igneous
phic replacement of Ca, Na, Mg, Fe2þ, Fe3þ, Ti rocks rich in alkalis, mainly syenite and trachyte,
and Al. Most of the augite is dark green to black and some alkali granites (Table 4.1). Aegirinee
color. Augite is widely abundant rock-forming augite (isomorphous mixtures of aegirine and
minerals in igneous and metamorphic rocks augite components) is characterized by a clear
(Tables 4.1 and 6.1). They are the typical ingredi- green color. It is a typical magmatic mineral
ents of gabbro, basalt and dolerite. and, in association of leucite forms an important
66 2. BASIC MINERALOGY

component of igneous rocks rich in alkalis, espe- been in contact with the magma, especially
cially leucite syenite and clinkstone (Table 4.1). wollastonite marble, skarns and kornites (Table
Spodumene (LiAlSi2O6), is consisting of 6.1). It is the raw material for refractory materials.
lithiumealuminum inosilicate. It is a source of
lithium. It occurs as colorless to yellowish, pur- 2.5.8.4.2. DOUBLE-CHAIN INOSILICATEd
plish or lilac, yellowish-green or emerald-green AMPHIBOLE GROUP
hiddenite, prismatic crystals, often of great size. Amphibole is an important group of generally
It crystallizes in the pegmatite and the final dark-colored inosilicate minerals. It is composed
magma containing Li and is often secondary of double-chain SiO4 tetrahedra, linked at the
ingredient of pegmatite and alkali granite. vertices and generally containing ions of iron
Omphacite ((Ca, Na)(Mg,Fe2þ,Al)Si2O6) is a and/or magnesium in their structures. Amphi-
deep to pale green or nearly colorless variety of boles crystallize in monoclinic and orthorhombic
pyroxene. The compositions of omphacite are in- system (Fig. 2.13). In chemical composition, am-
termediate between calcium-rich augite and phiboles are similar to the pyroxenes. The differ-
sodium-rich jadeite. It crystallizes in the mono- ences from pyroxenes are that amphiboles
clinic system with prismatic, typically twinned contain essential hydroxyl (OH) or halogen (F,
forms. The hardness is between 5 and 6. It is a Cl) and the basic structure is a double chain of
major mineral component of eclogite, i.e. meta- tetrahedra. Amphiboles are the primary constit-
morphic rocks formed under conditions of high uent of amphibolites.
pressure and temperature (Table 6.1). It is a com- Amphiboles along with pyroxenes and feld-
mon ingredient in peridotites, in particular spars are the most abundant rock-forming min-
kimberlite (ultramafic igneous rocks formed at erals (Table 2.3).
high temperatures where there are diamondsd
Section 2.5.1 and Section 4.3.1.4). 2.5.8.4.2.1. ORTHORHOMBIC AMPHIBOLES
Wollastonite (Ca3Si3O9) is in chemical composi- Anthophyllites are isomorphic mixture of mag-
tion calcium silicate which in structure belongs to nesium anthophyllite (Mg7(OH)2Si8O22) and
inosilicates, and the chemistry is similar to cyclo- ferroanthophyllite (Fe7(OH)2Si8O22). Antho-
silicates. It is a typical contact-metamorphic min- phyllite is the product of metamorphism of
eral and therefore a regular ingredient of magnesium-rich rocks especially ultrabasic
changed clayey limestone rocks which have igneous rocks and impure dolomitic shales.

FIGURE 2.13 Typical prismatic crystals of amphiboles elongated direction of crystallographic axis c.
 2.5. OVERVIEW OF THE MAIN ROCK FORMING MINERALS 67
2.5.8.4.2.2. MONOCLINIC AMPHIBOLES process of formation of actinolite in that way
Monoclinic amphiboles typically constitute com- is known by name uralite.
plex isomorphic compounds with a wide possi- 2. A low degree of regional metamorphosis
bility to replace a number of different ions, forming regular components of low degree of
resulting in a very complex chemical composi- metamorphic schist, especially green schist.
tion. Specifically, Ca2þ ion can be isomorphic 3. Contact metamorphism, and are found in
replacement with Naþ, Kþ and Fe2þ. Mg2þ ion calcite and dolomite marble (Table 6.1).
with Fe2þ, Al3þ and Ti4þ, and Si4þ ion with
Minerals actinoliteetremolite series are not
Al3þ. Table 2.10 lists the general formula for
stable, and can easily alter in the chlorites, trem-
some of the most important members of the
olite and talc on the Earth’s surface.
isomorphic series of monoclinic amphiboles
The group hornblende includes amphibole
(for groups tremolite, actinolite, hornblende
rich in trivalent iron and aluminum. A substan-
and alkali amphibole).
tial portion of Si4þ is replaced with Al3þ, which
The color of amphiboles depends on their
requires the entry of Naþ in the structure. Their
chemistry, particularly of iron. Tremolite,
chemical composition is very complex and can
Ca2(Mg)5(OH)2Si8O22, does not contain iron or
only show with general formulas of ferrohorn-
it has only a very small portion, usually white.
blende and magnesiohornblende. There are fer-
Actinolite, Ca2(Mg, Fe)5(OH)2Si8O22, in which
rohornblende (common hornblende) and
part of the magnesium is replaced with iron
magnesium (basaltic) hornblende with specific
and the color is green. Basaltic hornblende,
reference to composition of divalent and triva-
Ca2Na(Mg,Fe)4(Al,Fe)(OH)2(Si,Al)8O22, which
lent iron and magnesium. Hornblendes, unlike
contains many isomorphic mixed trivalent iron
most other amphiboles, are well-formed crystals
and aluminum is black in color.
with well-developed prism surfaces of the third
Tremolite and actinolite are calcium amphi-
and second positions (110, 101). In nature, there
boles forming a series of isomorphic mixed crys-
are only hornblendes in which the ratio of
tals. The minerals are in the form of long
Mg:Fe is always greater than 4:6.
prismatic, radial needle and fibrous aggregates
Ferrohornblende (common hornblende) is
and known as actinolite asbestos. It occurs at
richer in ferrous iron, which is isomorphic
relatively low temperatures in different ways:
replacement with Mg. Magnesiohornblende
1. Hydrothermal alteration of pyroxenes under does not contain Fe2þ, but Fe3þ which is isomor-
the influence of steam and hot solution. This phic is replaced with Al3þ (Table 2.10).

TABLE 2.10 The Most Important Petrogenic Minerals of Amphibole Group

Petrogenic Important Amphiboles

Orthorhombic Monoclinic Alkaline

Anthophyllite Tremolite Glaucophane

(Mg,Fe)7(OH)2Si8O22 Ca2(Mg)5(OH)2Si8O22 Na2Mg3Al2(OH)2Si8O22
Actinolite Riebeckite NaeFe amphibole with 15e30%
Ca2(Mg,Fe)5(OH)2Si8O22 Fe2O3
Ferrohornblende Arfvedsonite Na-amphibole with 5e10% Na2O
Ca2Fe2þ 3þ
4 (Al,Fe )(OH)2Si7AlO22
Magnesiohornblende
Ca2Mg4(Al,Fe3þ)(OH)2Si7AlO22
68 2. BASIC MINERALOGY

Hornblende is formed by crystallization of

magma, and the pneuma (aqueous solutions
and vapors that are released from magma and
lava). These minerals are found in almost all
intrusive, extrusive and vein igneous rocks,
and in particular diorite, granodiorites, andesite,
gabbro, diabase and pegmatite (Table 4.1). In
addition, hornblende occurs in regional and con-
tact metamorphism. The common rocks are am-
phibolites, amphibolite schist and amphibolite
gneiss and basic hornfels (metamorphites caused
by contact metamorphosis). Hornblende often
turns into clusters of chlorite, epidote, calcite
and quartz under the influence of hydrothermal
solution. Alkali amphiboles include monoclinic
amphiboles, that contain a considerable amount
of alkali elements (Na, K and Li), and only
three are important petrogenic Na minerals,
namely, glaucophane, riebeckite and arfvedson-
ite (Table 2.10).
Glaucophane (Na2Mg3Al2(OH)2Si8O22) is FIGURE 2.14 The structures of the phyllosilicates.
named from its typical blue color (in Greek,
“glaucophane” means “blue appearing”). Glau-
cophane occurs at high pressures and low tem- sheets. Three out of the four oxygens from each
peratures, and is an important mineral tetrahedron are shared with other tetrahedral
constituent of metamorphic rocks formed under as shown in Fig. 2.14.
conditions of low temperature and high pres- The most important petrogenic minerals among
sure, such as glaucophane schists and some phyllosilicates are group talcepyrophyllite, mica,
phyllites and mica schists (Table 6.1). chlorite, vermiculite, smectite and kaolinitee
Riebeckite (Na2 Fe2þ 3þ
3 , Fe2 (OH)2Si8O22) are serpentine (Table 2.11).
mainly found in igneous rocks that crystallize
from magma rich in sodium (alkali trachyte, sy- 2.5.8.5.1. GROUP TALCePYROPHYLLITE
enite, rhyolite and granitedsee Table 4.1). Talcepyrophyllite group comprises small
Arfvedsonite (Na Na2 Fe2þ4, Fe3þ(OH)2Si8O22) sheets of soft white phyllosilicates which are
the gray-black monoclinic alkali amphibole greasy on touch. Talc and pyrophyllite cannot
occurring from magma rich in sodium. It usually make mixed crystals because of large differences
appears in very elongated prismatic fibrous or in ionic radii of magnesium and aluminum.
radial fibrous aggregates. It is a constituent of Talc (Mg3 (OH)2 Si4O10) crystallizes in mono-
alkali syenite, clinkstone and their pegmatite clinic and triclinic system. It most often occurs
(Table 4.1). as foliated to fibrous masses. It has a low hard-
ness of 1in Mohs scale, which means it, can be
2.5.8.5. Phyllosilicatesd[Si2nO5n]2n
scratched by a fingernail. The mineral is an
The basic structure of the phyllosilicates is essential ingredient of talc schists and chlorite
based on interconnected six-member rings of schists (Table 6.1). Talc is a metamorphic mineral
SiO
4
4 tetrahedra that extend outward in infinite resulting from the metamorphism of magnesium
 2.5. OVERVIEW OF THE MAIN ROCK FORMING MINERALS 69
TABLE 2.11 The Most Important Petrogenic Minerals from the Group Phyllosilicates

KaolineSerpentine Group

Kaolin Minerals Belongs to Clay Minerals Serpentine Minerals

Kaolinite Lizardite
Al2(OH)4Si2O5 Mg3(OH)4Si2O5

Dickite Chrysotile
Al2(OH)4Si2O5 Mg3(OH)4Si2O5
Nacrite Antigorite
Al2(OH)4Si2O5 (Mg,Fe)3(OH)4Si2O5
TalcePyrophyllite Group Vermiculite Group Belongs to Clay Minerals

Talc (Mg,Al,Fe2þ)3(Si,Al)4O10(OH)2$4H20
Mg3(OH)2Si4O10
Pyrophyllite
Al2(OH)2Si4O10
Chlorite Group Smectite Group Belongs to Clay Minerals
Includes hydrosilicates which make mixed crystals Includes dioctaedric aluminum mica series
of complex chemical composition whose general montmorilloniteebeidellite and iron mica nontronite
formula is:
M4e6 T4 O10(OH,O)8 Montmorilloniteebeidellite
Na0.5Al2(Si3.5,Al0.5)O10(OH)2$nH2O

M ¼ Al,Fe3þ,Fe2þ,Li,Mg,Mn2þ,Cr, Ni and Zn Nontronite ¼ Feesmectite

T ¼ Si,Al,Fe3þ,Be and B Na0.5Fe2(Al,Si)4(OH)2$nH2O

MICA GROUP
Muscovite Celadonite
KAl2(OH)2AlSi3O10 KFE3þ(Mg,Fe2þ)(OH)2Si4O10
Celadonite Paragonite
KFe3þ(Mg,Fe2þ)(OH)2Si4O10 NaAl2(OH)2AlSi3O10
BIOTITE PHOLOPITE GROUP
Biotite Phologopite
K(Mg,Fe)3(OH)2AlSi3O10 KMg3(OH)2AlSi3O10
Illite Glauconite is the name of series with mixed layer rich in iron
K0.65Al2(OH)2Al0.65Si3.35O10 mica

minerals such as serpentine, pyroxene, amphi- and compact dense masses, and occasionally a
bole, olivine, in the presence of carbon dioxide fan aggregates of greenish, yellowish or light
and water. The main uses of talc are in the manu- bluish color. It is a frequent mineral ingredient
facture of powder, the production of soap and of crystalline schists that are rich in aluminum
paper, and as a refractory material. and some of bauxite. It occurs in regional meta-
Pyrophyllite (Al2(OH)2Si4O10) crystallizes in morphism, and by the action of acidic hydrother-
monoclinic system and occurs as crystalline folia mal solutions on the rocks rich in aluminum.
70 2. BASIC MINERALOGY

2.5.8.5.2. THE MICA GROUP phyllite and mica in particularly paragonite

Micas have been one of the most widespread schist (Table 6.1).
mineral group in the lithosphere. The group Series biotite: biotite and phlogopite are the
contains minerals that are key ingredients of only important petrogenic minerals.
many igneous rocks (Table 4.1) and metamor- Biotite (K(Mg,Fe)3 (OH)2 AlSi3O10) is irone
phic rocks (Table 6.1). The primary minerals magnesium mica, dark brown to black color.
from the mica group, especially muscovite, are The black color is due to the variations of the
regular constituents of clastic sedimentary contents of Fe2þ which is isomorphic replace-
rocks, particularly sand and sandstone (Section ment with Mg2þ and Fe3þ, which is substituted
5.5.3.1). Some types of crystalline schist (mica by Al3þ. The ratio of Mg/Fe in biotite in igneous
schists and phyllites) are composed almost rocks decreases from basic to acid, and biotite in
entirely of mica. In gneisses, micas are regular the volcanic rocks typically contain more Fe3þ
and very important ingredients (Table 6.1). All than Fe2þ. Iron-rich biotite is entirely black and
micas crystallize in monoclinic system and are known as lepidomelane. Biotite is generally
characterized by perfect cleavage into thin sli- found in the form of small sheets of perfect cleav-
ces, which often have a hexagonal outline. The age on (001), hardness of 2e3, and their relative
microcrystalline mica flakes are known under density is greater as the iron content gets higher
the name of sericite. (2.7e3.4). Biotite is general constituent of many
Muscovite (KAl2 (OH)2 AlSi3O10) also known igneous rocks, especially the pegmatite, granite,
as common mica whose name originates from tonalite, granodiorite, diorite and syenite (Table
Muscovy-glass, a name formerly used for the 4.1). Biotite is also forms part of crystalline schist
mineral because of its use as windows in Russia. from the group of mica-schist and gneiss. It is
It does not contain iron, so it is colorless mica, significantly less resistant to chemical weath-
and highly resistant to weathering. Muscovite ering of muscovite and therefore rarely found
is formed by crystallization of magma from the fresh in clastic sedimentary rocks. The color
hot gases, vapors (pneuma) and hot solution. rapidly changes from black to bronze-brown
Muscovite is the most common mica, found in during weathering and become vermiculite. Bio-
granites, pegmatites, gneisses, and schists, and tite changes into chlorites and in special condi-
as a contact metamorphic rock. tions to muscovite under the influence of
Celadon (KFe3þ(Mg, Fe2þ)(OH)2 Si4O10) is very hydrothermal effects.
small, only visible by electron microscopy crystal Phlogopite (KMg3 (OH)2 AlSi3O10) is the mag-
length of only a few micrometers, green to bluish nesium mica in composition and structure. It is
green color. It appears in volcanic, especially equivalent to biotite with no iron, and similar
altered rocks as filling veins, vesicles, and voids crystallographic properties as biotite. Phlogo-
of different origin, usually together with chlorite, pite is brownish red, dark brown, yellowish
calcite, and zeolites. It may also occur as a prod- brown, green and white in color. It is usually,
uct of changes of and olivine. It is very similar to with the OHe group and also contains some
glauconite with which it is often replaced, but fluoride. Phlogopite occurs from crystallization
glauconite is found in sedimentary rather than of gases and vapors, and contact metamor-
volcanic rocks. phism. Phlogopite is found in the pegmatite
Paragonite (NaAl2 (OH)2 AlSi3O10) also known and marbles.
as sodium mica, and is very similar to muscovite Clay minerals form illite series (named after
by appearance. It is typical mineral formed at the state Illinois, USA that originate a number
low and medium temperatures and a regular of samples analyzed as clay) belong to dioctahe-
and important component of crystalline schist, dral mica with lack of the layer cations. Part of K
 2.5. OVERVIEW OF THE MAIN ROCK FORMING MINERALS 71
is replaced with OHe group in lattice similar to mineral can be transformed, easily and quickly,
Muscovite. Therefore, the illite series is called as into smectite in surface weathering.
hydro-micas and illite hydro-muscovite. It often
forms mixed-layer minerals with disordered 2.5.8.5.4. SMECTITE GROUP
illite or smectite layers. According to the current Smectite group includes dioctahedral
nomenclature, illite includes a series of complex aluminum micas of montmorilloniteebeidellite
mineral with general chemical formula: and nontronite series or Feesmectite belonging
{K0.65Al2(OH)2Al0.65Si3.35O10}. Clay minerals of to clay minerals. It has complex chemical compo-
illite series occur in different environments, and sition. The structure is made up of three-layer
are important components of many soils and package, one layer of Al octahedron sandwiched
marine, lacustrine and terrestrial clayey sedi- between two layers of SiO4 tetrahedra. Water mol-
ments, and matrix of graywacke sandstones ecules are set between three-layer ions of Al, Mg
(Sections 5.5.3.1 and 5.5.3.3). Mainly derived and Fe. The package can expand or narrow due
from the processes of surface rock weathering: to these ions, and manifests itself by changing of
illitization of feldspar and muscovite, and illiti- the volume or strong swelling. The connection be-
zation kaolinite and smectite (Section 5.5.5). tween these two packages is weak. Smectite crys-
Glauconite (from Greek “Glaukonos” ¼ “blue- tallizes in monoclinic system in the form of small
green”) includes a series of green-mixed inter- sheets (<1 mm) and can be explored only by the
layer mica rich in iron, having complex and electron microscope (Fig. 2.15) and X-ray powder
variable chemical composition. It contains vari- diffraction and chemical analysis with the help of
able amounts of isomorphic replacement of Kþ, electronic microsonde.
Fe2þ, Fe3þ, Mg2þ and Al3þ ions. Glauconite ag- Smectite minerals are widespread in soils and
gregates appear in the form of grain diameter clay sediments. The strong absorption of fluids
of several micrometers to several millimeters and some cations are widely used for waste-
and as cryptocrystalline coating. Such grains water treatment, textile industry, production of
cluster rarely and contain only glauconite, and cosmetics and medicine, petroleum industry for
more often enclose interstratified mixed-layer removal of organic liquid and gaseous impu-
glauconite/smectite minerals. These are min- rities, addition of drilling mud, as the insulating
erals that provide green color to many of the buffer layer in preparing the impermeable bar-
rocks, for example, glauconite sandstones and rier in landfills and as adsorbent of harmful sub-
green sandstones. stances in medicine. On the geotechnical and

2.5.8.5.3. VERMICULITE GROUP

Vermiculite group (Mg, Al, Fe2þ)3 (Si,Al)4 O10
(OH)2$nH2O, belongs to clay minerals, encom-
passing minerals in morphology similar to musco-
vite and biotite. It forms by replacing the K with
some hydrated cations, usually, Mg2þ, a rare
and Ca2þ and Naþ. Vermiculite loses adsorbed
interlayer water when heated. Vermiculite is
found in fine, rare and somewhat larger sheets,
and in other clay minerals as particles <4 mm. It
is formed by weathering or hydrothermal alter-
ation of biotite or phlogopite. Vermiculite is essen- FIGURE 2.15 Sheets clusters and plate crystal of smectite
tial ingredient of soil and clay sediments. The visible by electron (SEM) microscopes.
72 2. BASIC MINERALOGY

construction-technological standpoint, smectite and can have pale green color depending on
minerals have unfavorable characteristics by the content of iron. Certain types of chlorite,
increasing the volume of the rock mass causing and their chemistry, can safely be determined
collapse, cracking or even complete collapse of only using X-ray diffraction combined with
construction. chemical analysis. Chlorites are formed by
Montmorillonite (per site montmorillonite) is regional metamorphic processes at lower tem-
the main representative of montmorillonitee peratures, and are regular components of low-
beidellite group with variable Mg content, and grade metamorphic schist, particularly chlorite
beidellite (per site Beidell in Colorado), member and green schist (Table 6.1). Chlorites are regular
of the series with little or no Mg. Clay minerals secondary ingredients of igneous rocks, resulting
montmorilloniteebeidellite groups are impor- from hydrothermal modifications at tempera-
tant mineral constituents of soils, especially in tures ranging between 50 and 400  C from pri-
tropical areas. It is created by the surface weath- mary FeeMg minerals, mainly mica, pyroxene,
ering of rocks, particularly acid tuffs, with the amphibole, garnet and olivine. These minerals
presence of solutions containing Na, Ca, Mg are common in sedimentary rocks, but usually
and ferrous iron. in small amount. It can quickly turn into vermic-
The acidic volcanic glass is altered to smectite ulite, smectite mixed layered minerals with
phyllosilicates, mainly montmorillonitee disordered layers of chloriteevermiculite and
beidellite series under the conditions of low chloriteesmectite by process of weathering.
pH, which is characteristic of fresh and seawater.
The alteration may be associated with an opal, 2.5.8.5.6. KAOLINeSERPENTINE GROUP
cristobalite and zeolite. Bentonite clay is the A group of kaolineserpentine phyllosilicates
product of weathering of acid vitreous volcanic includes two subgroups: group of dioctahedral
tuffs and ash most often in the presence of water kaolin minerals and group trioctahedral serpen-
(Section 5.6.3). tine minerals (Table 2.11).
Nontronite or Fe smectite is an authigenic Kaolin group implies real clay group of min-
ingredient of clay and mud, usually above the erals. These are pure aluminum silicate with hy-
basalt on the seafloor, and also can be created by droxyl groups that includes kaolinite, dickite
hydrothermal processes of weathering basalt and nacrite. All these three minerals have the
and ultramafic rocks (Sections 4.3.1.3 and 4.3.1.4). same chemical composition of {Al2(OH)4Si2O5},
and are mostly located in very small particles
2.5.8.5.5. CHLORITE GROUP (<2 mm), and rarely visible as macroscopical crys-
Chlorite group includes hydrated magnesium tals. Kaolinite has the only petrogenic signifi-
and iron hydrosilicates which make mixed crys- cance and is the most abundant mineral in this
tals of complex chemistry, whose general for- group. Dickite is much less prevalent, and nacrite
mula is given in Table 2.11. Chlorite group is very rare. Kaolinite crystallizes in triclinic, and
mostly contains Mg2þ, Al3þ, Fe2þ, Fe3þ, and dickite and nacritein monoclinic system.
some more chlorites Mn2þ, Cr3þ, Ni2þ, V3þ, Kaolinite forms small sheet like crystals or
Zn2þ and Liþ. Part of Al3þ can be replaced by clusters of white earth (clay particles with a
Fe3þ and/or Cr3þ, and part of Mg2þ and Fe2þ diameter <2 mm). Plate kaolinite minerals are
with Mn2þ and Ni2þ. Part of Si4þ sometimes visible only by electron microscopy. It becomes
can be replaced by Fe3þ, B3þ or Be2þ. Magnesium plastic in contact with water. It is produced by
chlorites are known under the name of ortho- the chemical weathering of aluminum silicate
chlorites and iron chlorite as leptochlorites. minerals like feldspar in igneous and metamor-
Chlorite is commonly found in small sheets, phic rock under the influence of CO2. Kaolinite
 2.5. OVERVIEW OF THE MAIN ROCK FORMING MINERALS 73
is an important mineral constituent of many Serpentine forms as a large rock mass mainly
clastic sediments, especially, clay, sand and pel- by pneumatolytic-hydrothermal and hydrother-
ite sediments, marl and clay (Sections 5.5.3 and mal processes of silicate minerals that contain
5.5.4). The complete pure white kaolinite clay is aluminum, especially, olivine and orthopyrox-
known as kaolin and is highly valued mineral re- enes. Special type of such rocks that contain
sources for getting porcelain (Fig. 2.16). Kaolin only serpentine is called serpentinite. Its origin
minerals are important raw material for produc- belongs to the metamorphic rocks formed in hy-
tion of refractory materials, cement, paints, rub- drothermal metamorphism.
ber, plastics, as a filler in paper production and Antigorite forms by metamorphism of amphi-
less pure clay for making pottery and bricks. boles, and are often found as constituents of
The serpentine groups, Mg3 (OH)4 Si2O5, are amphibolite and amphibolite schist.
usually known under the common name of three Serpentinite rocks are used for making orna-
serpentine minerals: lizardite, chrysotile and ments and as a valued dimension stone (espe-
antigorite (Table 2.11). The minerals are typically cially churches) due to the beautiful green
found in microcrystalline sheet and fibrous ag- color, relatively low hardness and homogeneity.
gregates. Sheet aggregates are called antigorite, The other economic importance of serpentine is
and fibrous type as chrysotile. The characteristic for obtaining asbestos that serves as thermal
color of antigorite ranges between pale, gray or insulation and electromaterial resistant to wear.
gray-green, but it changes to dark green to However, its use is reduced to a minimum today
almost black, if part of magnesium isomorphic due to the carcinogenic action.
is replaced with iron.
Lizardite is the most abundant and most 2.5.8.6. Tectosilicates
important petrogenic serpentine mineral, color Tectosilicates ([AlxSiyO2(xþy)]x
) structure is
of green as apples, and commonly found in asso- composed of interconnected tetrahedrons going
ciation with chrysotile. outward in all directions forming an intricate
framework (Fig. 2.17). All the oxygens are shared

FIGURE 2.16 Kaolindrock composed of micron fine

particles of white kaolinite. FIGURE 2.17 Tectosilicates framework.
74 2. BASIC MINERALOGY

with other tetrahedrons in this subclass. In the tetrahedron is nearly the same with an
near-pure state of only silicon and oxygen, the aluminum at its center, the charge is now a nega-
prime mineral is quartz (SiO2). Aluminum ion tive five (
5) instead of the normal negative four
can easily substitute for the silicon ion in the tet- (
4). Since the charge in a crystal must be
rahedrons. In other subclasses, this occurs to a balanced, additional cations are needed in the
limited extent but in the tectosilicates it is a major structure and this is the main reason for the great
basis of the varying structures. While the variations within this subclass (Table 2.12).

TABLE 2.12 The Most Important Petrogenic Minerals from the Group Tectosilicates

FELDSPAR GROUP

ALKALINE FELDSPARS

Orthoclase KAlSi3O8 Sanidine (K,Na)AlSi3O8

Medium-temperature monoclinic Kefeldspar High-temperature monoclinic KeNa feldspar
Microcline KAlSi3O8 Anorthoclase (Na,K)AlSi3O8
Low-temperature trilinic Kefeldspar High-temperature triclinic NaeK feldspar
PLAGIOCLASE
Isomorphic series of Albite (Ab) - Anorthite (An)
Acid or NaePlagioclase Neutral or Na/CaePlagioclase
Albite NaAlSi3O8 (Ab) Andesine
0e10% an component 30e50% an component
Oligoclase
10e30% an component

BASE OR CAePLAGIOCLASE
Labrador Bytownite
50e70% an component 70e90% an component
Anorthite CaAl2Si2O8
90e100% an component
FELDSPATHOIDES GROUP
Nepheline KNa3Al4Si4O16 Leucite KAlSi2O6
ZEOLITE GROUP
Fibrous zeolite Cubic zeolites
Natrolite Na2Al2Si3O10$2H2O Analcime NaAlSi2O6$2H2O
Phillipsite contains isomorphic admixtures K, Na, Ca, and 6H2O
SLIP ZEOLITES
Laumonitite CaAl2Si4O12$4.5H2O Heulandite contains isomorphic admixtures K, Ba, Na, Sr, Ca and
12H2O
Clinoptilolite contains isomorphic admixtures K, Ba,
Na, Sr, Ca, Mg, Fe2þ and 12H2O
 2.5. OVERVIEW OF THE MAIN ROCK FORMING MINERALS 75
2.5.8.6.1. FELDSPAR GROUP (orthoclase and sanidine) and triclinic feldspars
Feldspar group is petrogenic most important (microcline and anorthoclase). At high tempera-
assemblage of silicate minerals, as it covers tures, it is possible to form mixed crystals of
almost 58% of the Earth’s crust (Table 2.3). The isomorphic replacement of Or-component and
proportion of feldspar is extremely high in Ab-component. Slow cooling at lower tempera-
igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. tures leads to separation and mutual inter-
The chemical compositions of feldspar group growths characteristic modes of these two
represent the aluminosilicates of potassium components. Kefeldspar albite intergrowths
(Or-component), sodium (Ab-component) and known as pertite and albite intergrowths
calcium (An-component). It often forms isomor- Kefeldspar as antipertite. The hardness is from
phic mixture of sodium and calcium compo- 6 to 6.5 and the relative density of 2.55e2.63.
nents, i.e. plagioclase (Table 2.12). Potassium The color is usually white, and sometimes
and sodium component form isomorphic changes from pale pink to reddish due to admix-
mixture only in igneous rocks that crystallize at tures of iron (especially microcline). In micro-
high temperatures and the product is known as cline, K can be in small quantities of
alkali feldspar. This compound is unstable at low isomorphic replacement with Pb2þ and changes
temperatures and divides on orthoclase and to green color and is known as amazonite.
sanidine (Sa). There is only a small part of the Orthoclase (KAlSi3O8) is the monoclinic
K replacement by Na in orthoclase. The share medium-temperature Kefeldspar. It occurs in
of NaAlSi3O8 component usually is about 30% different ways, usually, by crystallization of
and can reach up to 65% in sanidine at high magma. It is an important ingredient of all acidic
temperature. The isomorphic compounds of (granite, granodiorite) to neutral (syenite)
Naefeldspar (Ab) and KeNa feldspar sanidine igneous rocks (Table 4.1). It often occurs in the
(Sa), is known as anorthoclase. pegmatite-stage crystallization of magma and
The crystallographic characteristics of feld- is the essential ingredient of pegmatite. It can
spar are divided into monoclinic and triclinic also occur by hydrothermal process and contains
system. little natrium components and is known as adu-
Monoclinic feldspars that crystallize in the lar. Orthoclase feldspar may arise from regional
monoclinic system (orthoclase and sanidine) metamorphic processes, and is a common ingre-
have a cleavage on plane side (010) and base dient in various crystalline schists (Table 6.1).
(001) pinacoid and cleavage cracks intersect at Orthoclase changes to kaolinite (Section 5.2.1.2)
right angles and are called orthoclase feldspar and sericite with the process of kaolinization
(from the Greek. “Ortho” means “vertically and sericitization, respectively.
and klasis” cleavage). Sanidine ((K,Na)AlSi3O8) is the monoclinic
Triclinic feldspars that crystallize in the high-temperature alkaline KeNa feldspar,
triclinic system (microcline, anorthoclase and which usually contains about 30%, but some-
plagioclase) also have a lateral cleavage planes times up to 62% sodium (Ab) component. It
(010) and base (001) pinacoid but their cleavage is found only in young volcanic discharges or
cracks intersect at a sharp angle of 85e86 (volcanic) rocks (rhyolite, trachyte and dacite).
(Fig. 2.18). Therefore, the Na/Ca isomorphic se- It forms by the crystallization of lava at high
ries albiteeanortite named plagioclase (from Gk. temperatures and its rapid cooling. Sanidine
Plagiosdslope and klasisdcleavage). crystallizes orthoclase during slow cooling of
lava. Sanidine, as a high-temperature alkali
2.5.8.6.1.1. ALKALI FELDSPARS The alkali feldspar, is not stable in rocks on the surface
feldspars include monoclinic feldspars or shallow under the surface of the Earth,
76 2. BASIC MINERALOGY

FIGURE 2.18 Characteristic crystal forms of feldspar: (A) cross-section through the crystal of triclinic feldspars; (B) ortho-
clase crystal twinningdCarlsbad law; (C) plagioclase crystal twinningdCarlsbad law; (D) plagioclase crystal twinningdAlbite
law; (E) orthoclase crystal twinningdBraveno law; and (F) cross-section of triclinic feldspars with polysynthetic twins.

and gradually recrystallize in orthoclase over recrystallization from feldspar, and sometimes
time. by direct crystallization from magma and hydro-
Microcline (KAlSi3O8) is the triclinic low- thermal processes. Microcline typically displays
temperature Kefeldspar stable at temperatures albite and pericline twining. This combination
lower than 500  C. It is usually formed by leads to a grid pattern (Fig. 2.19).
 2.5. OVERVIEW OF THE MAIN ROCK FORMING MINERALS 77
of SiO2, Naeplagioclase with three Si4þ ions have
more silicon than Caeplagioclase with two Si4þ
ions. Naeplagioclases belong to acid plagioclase
and Caeplagioclases belong to basic plagioclase
(Table 2.12). In fact, pure albite contains 68.7%
SiO2, and a pure anortite only 43.2% SiO2.
Plagioclase is usually found in the form of
granular aggregates in kaolinite, while well-
formed crystals are rare. Special features of
plagioclase crystallization occur from the
magma and lava. It has a tendency to format pol-
ysynthetic twinning (Fig. 2.18(F)) and zonal
FIGURE 2.19 Photograph of thin section microcline
showing the grid structure of twining under cross-polarized structure due to the crystallization sequence
light. from more basic to the acidic crystals twinning.
Plagioclase zone formation, especially those in
Microcline is an essential component of many the volcanic rocks is reflected in the fact that
rocks, especially granite, syenite, pegmatite (Ta- from the center to the edge of the crystals formed
ble 4.1) and gneisses (Table 6.1). In granite, sye- plagioclase are of acid composition, i.e. with less
nite and pegmatites, i.e. acidic, neutral and core An-component. It can be clearly observed as a
igneous rocks, microcline is commonly found zonal darkening of the grain due to changes in
together with feldspar. If the rocks are geologi- the optical properties of this phenomenon.
cally very old, microcline cannot be found with Plagioclase occurs at high and low tempera-
feldspar because eventually orthoclase is recrys- tures, where high temperature creates disordered
tallized in microcline. Microcline is a regular and and low-temperature forms ordered crystal
essential ingredient of sandstone, especially feld- lattice. Plagioclase forms at high temperatures
spar arenaceous rocks and feldspar graywacke are significantly less stable than plagioclase
(Sections 5.5.3.2 and 5.5.3.3). forms at lower temperatures. Plagioclase,
Anorthoclase ((Na,K)AlSi3O8) is a crystalline particularly high-temperature type, is relatively
solid solution in the alkali feldspar series, in which
the sodiumealuminum silicate member exists in
larger proportion. It typically consists of 10e36%
of KAlSi3O8 and 64e90% of NaAlSi3O8. TABLE 2.13 Plagioclase Minerals and Their
Compositions

2.5.8.6.1.2. PLAGIOCLASE FELDSPAR SERIES Plagioclase Minerals and Their Compositions

Plagioclases are triclinic feldspars that form a com-
% NaAlSi3O8 % CaAl2Si2O8
plete isomorphic compounds which are the final Mineral (%Ab) (%An)
members of the Naeplagioclase albite NaAlSi3O8
(Ab) and Caeplagioclase anortite CaAl2Si2O8 (An) Albite 100e90 0e10
(Table 2.13). In albite one of the four Si4þ ions is Oligoclase 90e70 10e30
isomorphic substituted with one Al3þ ions, and
Andesine 70e50 30e50
one free (
) valence is related to Naþ ion. In anor-
tite, two of the four Si4þ ions are isomorphic Labradorite 50e30 50e70
replaced with two Al3þ ions, while the remaining Bytownite 30e10 70e90
two (
) valence neutralize one Ca2þ ion. The acid-
Anorthite 10e0 90e100
ity and basicity of silicates define with the amount
78 2. BASIC MINERALOGY

easily influenced by water and weathering. It Leucite (KAlSi2O6) crystallizes in cubic system,
generates kaolinite and sericite, and under certain and usually has well-developed free, colorless,
conditions metamorphosed in clusters of zoisite, white or pale-gray crystals in the form of cubic
epidote, albite, quartz and actinolite known as icositetrahedra. It is a high-temperature mineral
sosirite. High-temperature basic plagioclases of which crystallizes in alkalis lava rich and poor
volcanics (basalts and diabase) are replaced in hy- in silicon. It is never found together with quartz.
drothermal processes with low-temperature acid It is often associated with nepheline and alkali
plagioclasedalbite (albitization). Such rocks are feldspar, alkali pyroxene and analcime. It can
known as spilites (Table 4.1). be found in young volcanic rocks rich in K and
Plagioclase minerals are extremely wide- poor in SiO2, and in intrusive rocks only located
spread and abundant. It is an essential or impor- in alkali syenite. It is a regular ingredient of
tant constituent of many igneous, metamorphic younger alkaline effusive rocks, for example, in
and sedimentary rocks (acidic, neutral and basic, lava of Vezuves, clinkstones, trachyte and tuff
pegmatite igneous rocks, amphibolite schist and (Table 4.1). It is an unstable mineral that quickly
gneiss, feldspar sandstone, siltstone and shale destroys into the clay minerals on Earth’s
(Tables 4.1 and 6.1)). surface.

2.5.8.6.2. GROUP FELDSPATHOIDS 2.5.8.6.3. ZEOLITES GROUP

The feldspathoids are a group of tectosilicates The zeolites includes hydrated alumosilicates
and alkali alum-silicate minerals which resemble of alkali (Na and K) and earth-alkaline (Ca, Ba,
feldspar, but have a different structure and much and Sr) elements. The group is represented by
poor in silica content and alkali-rich elements large number of minerals of different chemical
like sodium, potassium and lithium. Feldspa- composition, but with similar properties. The
thoids occur in rare and unusual types of basic feature of their chemical composition is
igneous rocks. The main minerals of the feldspa- the water content, which is in adsorption and
thoids group are nepheline and leucite (Table poorly connected to the grid (zeolite water).
2.12). Such water zeolites are losing when heated, but
Nepheline (KNa3Al4Si4O16) (along with the va- water is easily readmitted in its lattice. Zeolite
riety known as eleolite) is the most widespread crystallizes in different morphological forms, in
of all feldspathoids. It crystallizes in the hexago- different crystal systems: cubic, orthorhombic
nal system. It usually has the form of a short, six- monoclinic and hexagonal. All, however, have
sided prism terminated by the basal plane. It is very similar properties: usually colorless or
found in compact, granular aggregates, and gray due to impurities, the relative density of
can be white, yellow, gray, green, or even red- 2.1e2.4 and weakly resistant to chemical
dish color (in the eleolite variety). The hardness weathering.
is 5.5e6, and the specific gravity between 2.56 Zeolites arise from the secretion of aqueous
and 2.66. It is often translucent with a greasy solutions. It is often found in crevices and cav-
luster. It is characteristic of alkali rocks as neph- ities of younger igneous rocks. Zeolites are com-
eline syenites and gneisses, alkali gabbros, in mon constituents of soil, where it occurs as
sodium-rich hypabyssal rocks, tuffs and lavas, colloidal weathering products of various min-
and pegmatites, as a product of sodium metaso- erals. Petrogenic most important zeolites are
matism. Nepheline has economic importance as given in Table 2.12.
a raw material in chemical industry, leather tan- Natrolite is very common fibrous zeolite, end-
ning, and manufacture of glass, ceramics and member of isomorphic series of NaeCa zeolites.
paints. It crystallizes in the orthorhombic system and
 FURTHER READING 79
occurs as needle or radial crystals, particularly in It occurs in cavities of effusive rocks (especially
basalt. in the basalt).
Laumontite, heulandite and clinoptilolite are
monoclinic zeolite. It usually crops up as pris- FURTHER READING
matic (laumontite), plate or wedge shape (heu-
landite and clinoptilolite). Laumontite occurs in Reading of text books authored by Pirsson,33
igneous rocks, typically as a product of hydro- Dana9 and Rösle38 will be an intelligent
thermal exchange, and in sedimentary rocks as approach to step into the theme of Mineralogy
conversion of plagioclase. and Petrology. The fundamental concepts of
Analcime and phillipsite are cubic zeolites, ex- mineralogy and petrology are explained by
ists in collective community with other zeolites. Gaines et al.21 and Klein et al.27