MODULE BIOSL 3: EVALUATE

TRANSPORT OF SUBSTANCES IN
PLANTS & ANIMALS
Learning Outcome: BIOSL 3.2 – Analyse transport system in humans.

Performance Criteria: PC - 3.2.1 to 3.2.7

TRANSPORT IN HUMANS (PC 3.2.1 – 3.2.7)

 Mammals, just like plants need a transport

system to move substances around their body.
 Nutrients have to be taken to the body cell and
tissues where these are used and waste
products released.
 The waste products released have to be
transport to area where they can be eliminated
as these may be toxic to the cells if their
concentration increases.
 In order to do the above, mammals have a
circulatory system which consist of the heart
(pump), blood vessels (tubes) and the blood
(fluid) where these substances are found.

Function of the human circulatory system

• To move nutrients, gases and wastes to and from cells throughout the body, and to
stabilize body temperature, pH such that cells can carry out their functions. In other
words the circulatory system provides a rapid mass flow of materials around the body
over distances where diffusion could be slow.
• It regulates the body’s temperature and increases blood flow to meet demands during
exercise.
• This system also sends parts of the immune system (white blood cells and antibodies)
to fight off foreign substances upon their invasion. Should injury or bleeding occur, it
sends clotting cells and proteins to help stop bleeding and promote healing.
  An efficient circulatory system must have the pump (heart) which brings
about momentum.
 It must have the fluid which is pumped or circulated around the body.
 There must be vessels/tubes through which the fluid/blood flows as it is
pumped.
 The human circulatory system is made up of the heart and blood vessels
(capillaries, veins and arteries)
The Blood Vessels

The main blood vessels are;

Aorta – main artery carrying oxygenated

blood from the heart to the rest of the body
Vena cava - carries deoxygenated from the rest
of the body back to heart.
Pulmonary vein – carrying oxygenated blood
from the lungs to the heart
Pulmonary artery – conveys deoxygenated from
the heart blood to the lungs
Hepatic artery – carries blood the liver
Hepatic portal vein – conveys blood rich with
absorbed food nutrients from the alimentary
canal
Hepatic vein – carries blood from the liver
towards the heart
Renal artery – conveys blood to the kidneys
Renal vein – carries blood from the kidneys
Double Circulation

Pulmonary Circulation:
 Pulmonary circuit: “Pulmo” is a prefix which
comes from Latin which means lung or
something to do with the lungs/breathing. In
this blood flow, deoxygenated blood leaves the
right ventricles through the pulmonary artery
to the lungs.
 In the lungs carbon dioxide is removed and air
rich in Oxygen is introduced so as a result the
blood is oxygenated.
 The oxygenated blood leaves the lungs through the pulmonary vein into the left
atrium.

Systemic Circulation:
 Systemic Circuit: Systemic means throughout
the body/or something that involves the
whole body.
 Oxygenated blood leaves the left ventricle
through the left ventricle through the aorta
which branches severally to other organs
where respiration takes place.
 In this circuit flow, oxygen is used and CO2 is
produced and the blood becomes
deoxygenated.
 Deoxygenated blood leaves the organs through the vein which eventually joins into
the vena cava which takes blood to the right atrium.
The Heart Structure

Facts about the heart

 The human being heart is located between the lungs in the chest.
 It is made up of the cardiac muscles
 The heart weighs about 300 g in males and 250g in females.
 It depends on the size of an animal
 It is almost the same size as your clenched fist.
 Beats about 2 5000 million times in an average lifetime
 It pumps about 340 million litres of blood in an average lifetime.
 Beats about 75 times at rest and about 175 times during a vigorous activity.
 The heart is responsible for pumping blood to all parts of the body through blood
vessels.
External Anatomy

• Size of a closed fist

• Shape:
– Apex: Blunt rounded point of
cone
– Base: Flat part at opposite of
end of cone
– Located in thoracic cavity in
mediastinum.

Coronary Blood Vessels

 Coronary arteries: transports blood with

Oxygen and nutrients (glucose, amino acids,
vitamins, mineral ions, hormones, and
antibodies) to the cardiac muscles.
 Coronary veins: transports blood with carbon
dioxide and other waste products (urea, uric
acids, nitrogenous compounds, excess salts &
used hormones).
Internal Anatomy

 The heart has 4 chambers.

 The 2 upper chambers are known as the atria (singular: atrium) and they have thin
walls.
 There are 2 lower chambers called the ventricles and have much thicker muscular
walls.
 The wall of the left ventricle is much thicker than the wall of the right ventricle.
 The heart is divided into 2 halves by a septum.
 The right side of the heart receives deoxygenated blood (blood with low oxygen
content and high Carbon dioxide levels) and pumps it to the lungs.
 The left side of the heart receives oxygenated
blood (blood high in oxygen content) from the
lungs and pumps it to other parts of the body.
 The septum separates oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood.
 The heart is a double pump.
 The left atrium and left ventricle form one
pump.
 The right atrium and right ventricle form
another pump.
 Blood flow through the heart is controlled by
4 sets of valves.
 The Tri-cuspid valve lies between the right atrium, and the bicuspid valve lies
between the left atrium and the left ventricle.
 Semi-lunar valves are found between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery,
and the left ventricle and aorta.
 These valves ensure one flow of blood.
 Blood is supplied to the heart muscle by coronary arteries.
 These arteries start at the base of the aorta, large blood vessel leaving the left ventricle.
This takes about 4% of the total blood output of the heart.
Heart Valves
• Atrioventricular valves
Tricuspid
Bicuspid or mitral
• Semilunar valves
Aortic
Pulmonary
• Prevent blood from flowing back

Blood Flow within the Heart (in and out of the heart)
Blood Vessels

a) Arteries

 Have a smaller lumen

as compared to veins
 Have thick walls made
of many fibrous elastic
tissue
 Arteries divide into arterioles (smaller vessels) which have less elastic tissue but more
muscle fibres than the larger arteries.
 Largest artery is called the aorta

b) Veins

 Largest vein is called

the vena cava
 Have a wider lumen
 Have thinner walls
with fewer fibrous &
less elastic tissues.
 Have valves
 Veins divide into venules (smaller vessels)

c) Capillaries

 These are tiny vessels which are one cell thick (have diameter of about 0.001mm)
 They are semi-permeable
to allow tissue fluids and
gases to escape through
them.
 Blood flows very slowly in
the capillaries.
The Blood

Blood is a tissue which is a liquid state and it circulates through the system which has the
following functions;

• 1. Transport nutrients to cells and remove wastes.

• 2. Regulation of temperature, pH, osmotic pressure, glucose, calcium...
• 3. Protection: fight infection (white blood cells
The amount of blood in a healthy person is about 5 litres, forming about 8% of the body
weight. The blood is composed of 45% solid components, the blood cells and 55% liquid
component the blood plasma.

Components of the blood

Blood is made up of the following

four parts/components:

1. Red blood cells (erythrocytes)

2. White blood cells (leukocytes)
3. Plasma
4. Platelets (Thrombocytes)

Red Blood Cells (erythrocytes)

Function:

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Structure:

Biconcave shape: …………………………………………………………………………………..

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Flexible cytoplasm: ………….……………………………………………………………………..

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Haemoglobin: ……….……………………………………………………………………………..

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No Nucleus: ………………………………………………………………………………………..

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Disc Shape: …………..……………………………………………………………………………..

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White Blood Cells

General Function:

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Lymphocytes

Function:

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Phagocytes

Function:

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Structure:

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Blood Plasma

Plasma: it is a pale yellowish clear liquid, composed of water,

o Proteins (fibrinogen, albumen, prothrombin)
o End products of digestion (fatty acids, glycerol, glucose, amino acids)
o Minerals sodium chloride, sodium hydrogen carbonate
o Excretory products such as urea, non-functional hormones, dead cells, lactic acid, uric
acid
o Dissolved gases, oxygen, carbon dioxide (in the form of hand nitrogen
o Others such as vitamins

Functions of the blood plasma

 Acts as a medium of transport and transports dissolved nutrients (such as glucose,

amino acids e.t.c) and waste products such as urea and some gases such as carbon
dioxide.
 Plasma proteins help in maintenance of the osmotic pressure between the blood and
the tissue fluid, so that the exchange of materials between the blood and the cells can
be facilitated.
 Plasma proteins act as buffers/shields in the blood so that the pH of the plasma is
almost slightly alkaline (pH 7.4).
The high content of water in the plasma makes blood suitable for the transport of heat from
metabolically active organs such as the liver to parts which are cold and this helps to maintain
body temperature at 37 oC.

Thrombocytes/Platelets

Platelets/Thrombocytes: Small fragments of cytoplasm which fall/chip off from large cells.
Produced from the red bone marrow of short bones such as ribs and vertebrae.

Function of platelets

- Facilitate blood clotting, which is a defence

against diseases and excessive blood loss.
- They close the wound during clotting which
prevents the entrance of microorganisms that
may cause diseases.
Wound Healing:
Exchange of substances between tissue fluid and capillary

 The blood pressure in the capillaries is at low pressure to allow substances to diffuse
into the tissue fluid.
 Substances such as glucose, amino acids, O2 e.t.c are moved to the cells through the
capillaries.
 The expelled fluid is similar to the plasma in composition but contains little or no
plasma protein as there are larger molecules hence cannot easily diffuse through into
the capillary walls.
 This fluid occupies between the walls of the living tissue hence it is called tissue
fluid.
 From this liquid, cells extract glucose, amino acids and O2 for their living processes
such as respiration.
CO2 is released from those cells during respiration and dissolves into the tissue fluid are they
will diffuse the CO2 into the capillaries to be transported to the lungs.

Practice Question:

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Cardiac Cycle

• Heart is two pumps

that work together,
right and left half

• Repetitive contraction
(systole) and
relaxation (diastole)
of heart chambers

• Blood moves through

circulatory system
from areas of higher
to lower pressure.

• Contraction of heart
produces the pressure

Blood Related Diseases

Leukaemia/cancer of the blood

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Stroke
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Haemophilia

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Anaemia

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Cardiac Arrest

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Coronary Heart Disease

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Hypertension

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Immunity

• The condition in which an organism can resist diseases.

• The resistance to the onset of a disease after infection by harmful microorganisms (e.g.
bacteria, fungi e.t.c.,) or internal parasites.

• This is the ability of an organism to resist infectious diseases.

• It involves the recognition of a foreign body by the lymphocytes and them releasing the
antibodies to fight the foreign particles/bodies.

There are two main forms/types of immunity:

1. Innate (natural) immunity

2. Acquired immunity
Innate Immunity

1. Present naturally at birth hereditary

2. Acquired during fetal development

3. Inborn type of immunity which can be inherited from the parent.

4. This includes;

a. physical barriers such as skin, mucus membrane, hairs in the nose which
prevents the entrance of microorganisms

b. secretions e.g. sweat and tears

c. Active protection by phagocytes in blood and antibodies made by

lymphocytes as well as blood clotting by platelets.

Acquired Immunity

• A natural or artificially acquired immunity

• Lymphocytes are stimulated to produce antibodies this can also happen through
vaccination.

• A vaccine containing, small weak pathogen or dead cells are introduced to the body to
stimulate the production of specific antibodies that will prepare the body for any
attack by the strong pathogen.

• Germs produce antigens which trigger the response of white blood cells and it is
through the vaccination that white blood cells will be ready to combat such
microorganisms.

Blood Groups

 Antigens: chemical structures imparting specific properties to the surface of the RBC

 Antibodies: protein substance developed in response to foreign body substances.

 Agglutinogen: Any substance that acts as an antigen to cause agglutinin production.

 Four main blood groups A, B, AB and O. They differ because their red blood cells
have different proteins called antigens on their cell surface membrane and different
antibodies on the plasma.
Four Blood Groups

a. Blood group A: Has A antigens on the RBC surface, has anti-B antibodies in the
plasma, genotypes AA & AO = Phenotype A and individual in this blood group can
donate blood to A and AB and can only receive blood from A and O.

b. Blood group B: Has B antigens on the RBC surface, has anti-A antibodies in the
plasma, genotype BB & BO = Phenotype B

c. Blood group AB: Has A & B antigens on the RBC surface, has NO antibodies in the
plasma, universal Recipient: can receive Type A, Type B, Type AB, or Type O blood,
there is NO antibodies in plasma to react with antigens and the genotypes: AB =
Phenotype AB

d. Blood group O: Has NO antigens on RBC surface, has anti-A & anti-B antibodies in
the plasma, universal Donor: can be given to any blood type  no antigens on the
RBCs, Genotype OO = Phenotype O

Blood Groups Compatibility

• Blood transfusion occurs between a

Donor or giver of blood and recipient or
blood receiver.

• A successful blood transfusion can only

take place when the donor’s blood is
compatible/well-matched with the
recipient’s blood.

• If the blood is not well-matched this

might result, red blood cell breakdown
or haemolysis or red blood cell clumping
or agglutination which blocks the
circulatory system and can cause death.
Lymphatic System

• The lymphatic system is a network of lymphatic vessels and lymph nodes in different
areas of body that maintains homeostasis as well as immunity of our body.

• Lymphatic system returns fluids that have leaked from the blood vascular system
back to the blood to maintain the blood volume.

• The lymphatic system consists of:

 Lymph

 Lymphatic vessels

 Lymph nodes

 Lymphoid organs and tissues

Lymph

• Lymph is a clear watery fluid that circulates through the lymphatic vessels.

• Once the interstitial fluid drains into the lymphatic vessels, it is called lymph. So
lymph is identical in composition to interstitial fluid.

Formation of Lymph

• As blood circulates through the body, most components of blood plasma such as
nutrients, gases, and hormones filter through blood capillary walls to form interstitial
fluid and reabsorbed back by venous capillaries.
• The excess filtered fluid (about 3 liters per day) drains into lymphatic vessels and
becomes lymph. ie. the interstitial fluid enters into lymphatic vessels is called lymph.

Lymph Vessels

• Lymph vessels are thin walled, valved structures that carry lymph.

• Lymphatic vessels begin as lymphatic capillaries, which join up to form lymphatic

vessels.

• Larger lymphatic vessels unite to form lymphatic trunk.

• Lymphatic trunk opens into two large lymphatic duct – right lymphatic duct and
thoracic (left lymphatic) duct.

• In small intestine, specialized lymphatic capillaries called lacteals absorb dietary lipids
into lymphatic vessels and ultimately into the blood. The presence of these lipids
 causes the lymph draining from the small intestine to appear creamy white. Such
lymph is referred to as chyle.

• Tissues that lack lymphatic capillaries include avascular tissues (such as cartilage, the
epidermis, and the cornea of the eye), the central nervous system, bones, teeth,
portions of the spleen, and red bone marrow.

Lymph Nodes

 A lymph node is a small, bean-shaped

organ that serves as a filtering and
processing center for immune system.

 It filter lymph before it is returned to the

blood.

 Located along lymph vessels.

 About 600 lymph nodes in body.

 Usually occur in groups.

 Lymph nodes are major sites of B, T and

other immune cells

 It can be seen widely in cervical,

auxiliary and inguinal regions

Flow/Transport/Circulation of Lymph

• Lymphatic capillaries have greater permeability than blood capillaries. Greater

pressure in interstitial fluid opens lymph valves and fluid enters into lymphatic
capillaries.

• Lymph passes from lymphatic capillaries into lymphatic vessels and then through
lymph nodes.

• Later drains into lymphatic trunk.

• Lymph passes from lymphatic trunks into two main ducts, the thoracic duct and the
right lymphatic duct, and then drains into venous blood at the junction of internal
jugular and subclavian veins.
Lymph Flow Regulation

• The milking action of active

skeletal muscles.

• Pressure changes in the thorax

during breathing.

• Pulsations of nearby arteries

promote lymph flow.

• Rhythmic contraction of
smooth muscle in the walls
lymphatic vessels.

• Valves in lymphatic vessels

prevent backflow.

MODULE BIOSL 4: EVALUATE

REGULATION AND CONTROL IN
PLANTS AND ANIMALS
Learning Outcome: BIOSL 4.1 – Analyse homeostatic processes in humans.
Performance Criteria: PC - 4.1.1 to 4.1.5

HOMEOSTASIS (PC 4.1.1 – 4.1.5)

• You are exposed to ever changing environmental conditions. For example, you may
walk out of an air conditioned room into the hot summer sun.
• However, the cells in your body work best when their surroundings are kept constant.
Your body has many mechanisms that keep the cells surroundings constant even
though your external environment is changing.
• Cells are surrounded by a tissue fluid through which all materials pass in and out of
the cells. Some scientists consider the tissue fluid as the internal environment.
• This is homeostasis.
• The processes and activities that help to maintain homeostasis are referred to as
homeostatic mechanisms.
• All living things have a state of an active equilibrium/balance.
What is homeostasis?

Homeostasis comes from the Greek where homeo = same; stasis = standing/steady

 Homeostasis is the term we use to describe the constant state of the internal
environment.
 The maintenance of a constant internal environment in the body.
 Refers to any process that living things use to actively maintain fairly stable
conditions necessary for survival
 It is the maintenance of a stable or constant cellular environment or constant internal
environment.
Body cells work best if they have the correct

 Temperature
 Water levels
 Glucose concentration
Your body has mechanisms to keep the cells in a constant environment.

• All chemical reactions are controlled by enzymes and therefore the enzymes need
constant conditions or environment so that they can metabolise reactions in the
body.
• A slight change in conditions such as pH and temperature may slow down or stop
enzyme activity.
• Therefore, the advantage of homeostasis is to provide optimal conditions in which
organisms can live in the characteristic of homeostasis.

For example; Warm blooded animals are capable of maintaining the constant body
temperature of 37 degrees Celsius despite changes in the external temperature.

Organs involved in homeostasis

a. Skin (Temperature regulation)

b. Kidney (Water regulation)
c. Liver (Glucose regulation)
d. Lungs (Gaseous exchange)
e. Brain (Coordination)
f. Pancreas (Glucose regulation)
BODY TEMPERATURE REGULATION

• All mammals maintain a constant body temperature.

• Human beings have a body temperature of about 37ºC.
• E.g. If your body is in a hot environment your body temperature is 37ºC
• If your body is in a cold environment your body temperature is still 37ºC

Skin Structure

Functions of Parts of the Skin Structure:

Epidermis:

• Malphigian layer: The inner most layer of the epidermal layer, contains brown
pigment (melanin) which protects the genetic material against
Ultra-violet rays. It also replaces dead cells from the cornified
layer.
• Granular layer: Cells produced by the Malphigian layer which move then die
forming the cornified layer. They also are new cells which
undergo cell division.
• Cornified layer: Consists of dead cells. It is the outer most layer of the
epidermis which protects against water loss, from entry of
microbes and protects the body from mechanical, thermal and
chemical change.
Dermis:

• Blood supply: Involved in temperature regulation (vasoconstriction and

vasodilation)
• Elastic fibres: Gives the skin its elastic features
• Sebaceous glands: Secrete sebum which is a lubricant
• Sweat glands: Produce sweat as an excretory waste, cools the body and
removes excess salt
• Hair follicles: Involved in heat control
• Erector muscles: Controls the position of the hair, upright or flattened
• Receptors (nerves): Detect environmental changes such as temperature, pressure
pain and touch
• Lymphatic vessels: Transport excess fluid out of the skin

Endodermis:

Subcutaneous layer: Layer which contains the fat layer which is used as a heat
insulator and also absorbs mechanical shock energy.

Temperature Control Processes:

Mechanisms to COOL DOWN the Body:

 Sweating: When your body is hot, sweat glands are stimulated by the
hypothalamus to release sweat.
The liquid sweat turns into a gas (it evaporates)
To do this, it needs heat.
It gets that heat from your skin.
As your skin loses heat, it cools down

 Vasodilation: Your blood carries most of the heat energy around your body.
There are capillaries underneath your skin that can be filled with blood if you
get too hot.
This brings the blood closer to the surface of the skin so more heat can be
lost.
 Skin Hairs: The hair on the skin also lays flat so that it cannot trap ambient/environment.
Mechanisms to WARM UP the Body:

 Vasoconstriction: This is the opposite of vasodilation

The capillaries underneath your skin get constricted (shut off).
This takes the blood away from the surface of the skin so less
heat can be lost.
 Piloerection: This is when the hairs on your skin “stand-up” .
It is sometimes called “goose bumps” or “chicken skin”!
The hairs trap a layer of air next to the skin which is then
warmed by the body heat
The air becomes an insulating layer.
 Shievering: Increased rate of metabolism: metabolic reactions release a lot of
energy and this result in chemical energy from food or stored from
fats being used up rapidly.
Muscles produce the heat energy first by contracting and then
involuntary by shivering.

Role of the Brain in Temperature Regulation:

 Sensory receptors which are

sensitive to changes in
temperature are called
thermoreceptors. The skin has
heat and cold receptors.
 When the temperature
increases, the heat receptors are
stimulated.
 Impulses are produced by the
receptors and transmitted by
the nerves to the hypothalamus
(part of the brain) enabling a
person to feel the heat and cold
sensations.
 The hypothalamus contains the temperature control centre which detects
temperature changes inside the body. Skin receptors detect temperature changes at
the skin surface.
The hypothalamus contains two temperature control centres, one for detecting cooling and
the other for detecting warming. The anterior part of the hypothalamus contains neurones
that are sensitive to warmth and this monitors blood passing through it. When neurons (nerve
cells) are activated by the increase in temperature, nerve carry impulses that cause sweat
glands to increase sweat production, the blood vessels dilate and to reduce the activity of the
adrenal gland.

When the cooling centre in the hypothalamus is activated, nerves which run to the sweat
glands and blood vessels produce the opposite effect.

GLUCOSE REGULATION

Role of the Liver & Pancreas in Glucose Regulation:

• The liver is able to control the blood sugar to keep it constant at levels required by
the body.
• As blood passes through the hypothalamus in
the brain, the level of glucose is measured.
• If the blood sugar level is higher than normal
especially after a meal full of carbohydrates,
a signal is send to the isolated cells of
Langerhans at the pancreas to release a
hormone known as Insulin. Insulin will join
the circulatory system and blood take it to
the liver were it stimulate the liver cells to
convert excess glucose to glycogen.
• Glycogen is then stored by the liver and body muscles for future use.

Glucose ……… Insulin ………. Glycogen (In liver cells)

• If the blood sugar level is lower than normal, a signal is send to the isolated cells
of Langerhans at the pancreas to secrete glucagon. Glucagon is taken by the blood
to the liver were the liver cells are stimulated to convert the stored glycogen back
to glucose.
 Glycogen ……….. Glucagon ……… Glucose (In liver cells)

• Sugar Diabetic people are not able to

produce Insulin from the pancreas
therefore not able to convert excess
glucose to glycogen. The excess
glucose is excreted by the kidneys;
because of this they usually feel tired
and hungry as they run short of energy.

WATER REGULATION (Excretion)

• Metabolism – all chemical changes occurring in a cell or living organism. This

includes reactions that build up (anabolic) or breaks down (catabolic) substances.

• Excretion – removal of unwanted products from the body such as:

• Waste products of chemical reaction(s) e.g. CO2, urea, nitrogenous waste

• Excess salts & water taken in with diet

• Spent/used hormones and

• Drugs or other foreign substances taken in the alimentary canal and absorbed
by the blood

• Defaecation – removal of faeces/undigested food during egestion in humans.

• Egestion – the removal of undigested food, in the form of faeces, through the anus
e.g. cellulose.

NOTE: Secretion is different from excretion as it is the release of a useful substance such as
an enzyme or hormone from cells.

Importance of Excretion

• Because if these waste products remain in the organism they will become toxic or
poisonous to the organism by damaging its tissues.

• Also, excretion is necessary to maintain a balance in the body (homeostasis).

Excretory Organs in Animals

• Lungs: remove CO2

• Kidneys: remove urea, other nitrogenous waste from the blood, excess water, salts,
hormones & drugs

• Liver: yellow-green pigment from the breakdown of Hb is excreted with bile into
small intestine & excreted with faeces this pigment gives faeces its brown colour. Also
produces urea

• Skin: salt & urea are excreted in sweat as a response to an increase in temperature

Excretory Organs in Plants

• What are the excretory organs in plants?

• Leaves - stomata

• Plants don’t need such elaborate organs like animals. Why?

• Because their metabolism isn’t fast.

• Why?

• Immobile

• What are some examples?

CO2 from respiration.

• CO2 not used by chloroplasts during photosynthesis is excreted through the stomata
via diffusion.

O2 from photosynthesis.

• Some is recycled for respiration but unused O2 is excreted through the stomata.

Water from photosynthesis

The Urinary System

• Kidney – main organ

• Size – each is 12 cm long by 7 cm

wide

• The left kidney is slightly higher than

the right

• Bean-shaped and red located at the

back of the abdominal cavity behind
the intestines.

• Put hand on hips – thumbs indicate

location of kidneys

• Kidneys receive “dirty” blood from renal artery while the renal vein takes
cleansed/filtered blood away from kidneys to the heart.

• Nitrogenous & other waste flow down through the ureter to the bladder.

• The ureter connects each kidney to the bladder (muscular bag @ bottom of kidney)

• Kidney: filters blood, excretes nitrogenous waste, excess water and salts as urine

• Ureter: transports urine from kidney to urinary bladder

• Urinary Bladder: temporary store urine

• Sphincter muscle: controls the flow of urine from bladder to urethra

• Urethra: carries urine from bladder to the outside of the body

Kidney Structure

Three main parts:

• Cortex

• Medulla - pyramids

• Nephrons

• Pelvis
Functions:

• Contains about 160km of blood vessels &

more than a million nephrons/kidney
tubules

• Two areas: darker outer region-cortex;

paler inner region-medulla

• Cortex contains many tiny blood vessels

which branch from renal artery.

• Cortex also contains nephrons which run

through the medulla.

• Medulla is connected to ureter (Fig. 12.3 Ali)

• Medulla consists of several cone-shaped areas called pyramids which point inwards
towards the concave side of the kidney i.e. into the pelvis

• Urine drains from tips of pyramids (at the pelvis) into funnel-shaped spaces formed
by the top of ureter

• Ureter carries urine to the bladder

The Nephron

In each kidney there around 1 million nephrons.

Each has 5 parts:

1. Bowman’s capsule

2. Proximal convoluted tubule

3. Loop of Henle

4. Distal convoluted tubule

5. Collecting duct
Functions of Parts of the Nephron:

• Blood supply to the nephron starts as an

afferent arteriole which supplies blood to
the glomerulus.

• The glomerulus is a knot of blood

capillaries found within the bowman’s
capsule.

• When blood has gone through the

glomerulus it is carried by an efferent
arteriole to two other capillary structures:

1. Capillary network serving proximal and distal convoluted tubules.

2. Capillary network serving the loop of henle called the vasa recta.

Ultrafiltration: separates small soluble molecules from the blood plasma.

Selective Reabsorption: useful products like glucose are reabsorbed back into the blood.

Secretion:

Ultrafiltration

• This happens under pressure.

• Small molecules including water, glucose,

urea and salts are filtered from the knot of
capillaries (glomerulus) into the Bowman’s
capsule, separating them from large
molecules.

• The special structure of the glomerulus and

the Bowman’s capsule allows ultrafiltration
to take place.

• There are 3 layers the molecules need to get through:

1. Wall of capillary

2. Basement membrane

3. Wall of Bowman’s capsule

 • Blood enters the glomerulus
at high pressure through the
efferent arteriole from the
renal artery.

• Pressure kept high due to

afferent arteriole being
narrower, and so it creates a
damming effect.

• Pressure forces water and solutes through the 3 barriers between the capillary and
nephron; endothelial cells of the capillary, basement membrane and between the
podocytes.

• Endothelium and podocytes are coarse filters, but the basement membrane is the
fine filter stopping large molecules into the nephron.

• Blood cells and proteins will not fit through.

Where is the Pressure from?

• Most pressure comes from hydrostatic pressure of the blood in the glomerulus.

• Narrow effect of the efferent arteriole amplifies pressure.

• Water potential in blood produced by colloidal plasma proteins also increases

pressure.

• The pressure can be changed by changing the diameter of the afferent and efferent
arterioles.
Selective Reabsorption

• This allows useful products back

into the blood.

• All the glucose, most salt and

water are reabsorbed in the
proximal convoluted tubule.

• Small amounts of water and salt

are reabsorbed in the distal
convoluted tubule.

• Remaining water is reabsorbed in the collecting duct.

• Glucose (and salts) is reabsorbed by active transport in the proximal convoluted

tubule (PCT).

• The PCT has a single layer of cells, the membranes facing the lumen have microvilli
to provide a large surface area.

• They have many mitochondria to provide the energy for active transport.

• Vitamins, amino acids, sodium ions and water are also reabsorbed in the PCT.

• Water is reabsorbed passively by osmosis following the movement of salt.

Reabsorption at the Loop of Henle

• Its main purpose is to act as a

countercurrent exchange that increases the
solute concentration in the medulla of the
kidney.

• This then creates an osmotic gradient

which water can be withdrawn from the
collecting duct if needed.

• This would then make the urine very

concentrated.

• In the loop of henle an osmotic gradient from low to high conc. of salts is produced
in the tissue fluid of the medulla – this allows water to be reabsorbed through the
collecting duct to control the concentration of urine.
In the descending loop:

• Impermeable to salts

• Permeable to water

• Water leaves by osmosis (due to the low water potential created by the ascending
limb)

• Water reabsorbed into the blood of the vasa recta filtrate of descending limb becomes
more concentrated as it descends

In the ascending loop:

• Impermeable to water

• Actively pumps out Na+ and Cl- ions

• Creates low water potential in tissue fluids in the medulla

• Filtrate of ascending limb becomes more dilute as it rises

• The high salt conc. built up in the medulla by the loop of henle is vitally important
for osmoregulation- the homeostatic control of body water

Osmoregulation

• This is the homeostatic control of body water.

• Most water is gained by drinking and food.

• Most water is lost in the urine, other losses by sweating, faeces and keeping exchange
surfaces moist (lungs etc).

• It uses negative feedback. (remember the

flow chart from before)

• Receptors that detect changes in water

are in the hypothalamus, at the base of
the brain.

• The posterior lobe of the pituitary gland

acts the coordinator.

• The collecting ducts of the kidney act as

the effector.
Anti-diuretic Hormone (ADH)

• The permeability of the walls of the

collecting duct can be changed by
hormones.

• The proximal convoluted tubule is also

subject to some hormonal control

• Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) makes the

walls of the collecting duct permeable so
water can be reabsorbed.

• The amount of water reabsorbed is

controlled by a feedback system.

• Due to reduced water intake, sweating, taking in lots of salt.

• The concentration of sodium chloride in the blood indicates the volume of water in
the body.

• Hypothalamus detects concentration of sodium chloride, water content is low, the

receptors in the hypothalamus that detect this are called osmoreceptors.

Nerve impulses are passed to the posterior pituitary gland. Pituitary gland releases
ADH into blood. ADH increases permeability of DCT and CD to water. More
water is reabsorbed from the tubules into the medulla. More water absorbed into
the blood. Very concentrated urine produced. Consequently, the water potential of
the blood now rises, and so less ADH is produced. This is why it is called negative
feedback.

The Negative Feedback Drop Flow Chart

Kidney Failure

• Sometimes the kidneys can fail to perform

their function because of infections or physical
damage.
• One of the symptoms that show that the
kidneys are not functioning well is that the
chemicals (urea, creatinine, uric acid and
ammonium ions) that should be excreted
remain in the blood.
• When their levels in the blood increases, they become toxic and the individual might
die.
• There are two ways of saving one’s life; performing a kidney transplant or using an
artificial kidney (dialysis) machine.

Dialysis Machine

• The natural kidney regulates body fluid composition by filtration, reabsorption and
secretion, an artificial kidney machine can only filter not reabsorb or secrete.
• A patient undergoing kidney dialysis has their blood drawn from an artery in the arm
and passing through the tubing in the dialysis machine.
 • The tubing has partially permeable walls and is bathed in a specially controlled
dialysis fluid, which is a similar composition to the blood plasma but does not contain
any waste products. So this means that;

 Waste products such as urea are more concentrated in the blood than in
the dialysis fluid, so they diffuse out of the blood and into the dialysis
fluid.
 Useful products such as glucose and salts do not diffuse out of the blood
because the concentration of these substances is the same in the dialysis
fluid and the blood.
 Large molecules, such as blood proteins and red blood cells, are too large
to pass through the dialysis tube wall.
1. The tubing inside the dialysis machine is long, coiled and narrow, providing a large
surface area to volume ratio to increase the rate of diffusion.
2. The dialysis fluid is also warmed close to the blood temperature, which increases the rate
of diffusion and ensures that the patient’s blood is not cooled down through its passage
through the machine.

GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN THE LUNGS (CO2 & O2)

• Respiratory system plays an important role

in gaseous exchange in Human beings.

• It involves inspiration/inhaling (breathing

in) and expiration/expiring (breathing out).

• It is referred to as external respiration

because there is exchange of gases with the
environment and it involves breathing out
CO2 and breathing in O2.

• Air is filtered through the cilia hairs found

in the nostrils and the mucus found in the
nasal cavity which traps dust and bacteria.

• Breathing is brought by the movement of the ribs and the diaphragm which
alters/changes the volume of the chest cavity and changes the pressure of the air in
the lungs.

• Air breathed in is known as inspired or inhaled air and air breathed out is known as
exhaled/expired air.
Respiratory System

• Nostril – Air enters and leaves through this

opening.

• Nasal cavity – air is warmed, moistened,

filtered by hair and the dust in the air is
trapped by mucus here in the nasal cavity.

• Soft palate and Epiglottis – shut off the nose

and trachea respectively during swallowing.

• Larynx – (the voice box), contains vocal cords

made of fine filaments and it vibrates when air
passes through it to produce sound.

• Glottis – A ring opening into the trachea.

• Trachea – A tube strengthened with a ring of cartilages to it from collapsing. The

inner walls of trachea is lined with;

o cells which produce mucus

o Hair called cilia – which “beats” / moves to
force the mucus towards the pharynx where
it can be swallowed voluntarily.

• Bronchus – a tube branching from the trachea, and is similar in structure to the
trachea. It directs air to the lungs.

o Bronchus branch into smaller microscopic tubes called bronchioles which

lead to a sac like structure called the Alveolus.

• Alveolus – Is a collapsible air sac found all over the lung. Alveoli increase the surface
area for the exchange of gases. Each alveolus is surrounded by a network of blood
capillaries. Cells in the alveoli are very thin.

• Intercostal muscles – These are two sets of muscles found between the ribs. The
external intercostal muscles contract to raise the ribcage during inspiration in order to
increase the lung capacity whilst the internal intercostal muscles contract lower the
ribcage during expiration in order to squeeze air out of the lungs.

• Pleural membrane and Pleural fluids – Lubricates ribs and lungs to prevent damage
during movement.
 • Diaphragm – a muscle sheet at the lower end of the chest cavity which can contract /
relax to alter the volume of the chest cavity.

Nasal Passages

• Air is drawn into the body via the nose or mouth.

There are advantages to breathing through your
nose:

o the air is warmed so that it is closer to

body temperature
o tiny hairs and mucus in the nose filter the
air, preventing larger dust and pollen
particles reaching the alveoli
o mucus moistens the air, making it easier for the alveoli to absorb.

Breathing Mechanisms

• Breathing is the mechanism that pumps air into and out of the lungs of a mammal.

• It occurs in two phases; Inspiration and expiration.

• Action of breathing occurs in the following:

o Intercoastal muscles (Intercoastal muscles: there are 2 types of intercoastal

muscles; Internal and external intercoastal muscles)
o Diaphragm

Breathing Mechanisms: Inhalation

• when one breathes in, the diaphragm contracts and

flattens

• The external intercoastal muscles contracts and the

internal muscles relax

• As a result the ribs move up and out, so the thoracic

volume increases.

• The air pressure in the thorax decreases and falls

below external air pressure and air rushes into the
lungs.
Inhalation Summed Up:

The chest cavity changes shape and size. The intercostal muscles contract which causes the
rib cage to expand and pushes out the sternum (chest/breastbone). The diaphragm will
contract and will change shape from a concave or dome shape to a flattened shape. The
pressure inside the chest cavity will be reduced and therefore allows air to be sucked into
the lungs. The air we breathe in is high in oxygen and nitrogen but low in carbon dioxide.

Breathing Mechanisms: Exhalation

• When one breathes out the diaphragm relaxes and

domes upwards the thorax

• The external intercostal muscles relax and the

internal muscles contract.

• As a result, the ribs move down and in, so the

volume of the thorax decreases

• The pressure in the thorax increases and rises above

external air pressure air is forced out of the lungs.

Inhalation Summed Up:

The process is virtually reversed. The chest cavity changes in shape and size. The intercostal
muscles relax, allowing the rib cage to drop downwards and inwards. The diaphragm
relaxes and regains its concave or domed shape and this decreases the volume of the chest.
The pressure inside the chest will subsequently increase and force air out. The air exhaled
is high in nitrogen and carbon dioxide.
Gaseous Exchange in the Alveoli

• The alveoli are the functional units for the respiratory system.

• This is where gaseous exchange takes place.

• The alveolus provides a respiratory surface area.

• The alveoli are formed through the branching of the bronchioles.

• They are sac like structures and sometimes referred to as air sacs.

Adaptation of the Alveoli

• There are many alveoli in the lungs which

creates a large surface area for gas exchange.

• The wall/epithelium wall of the alveolus is

one cell thin to allow easy diffusion of gases in
and out of the alveolus.

• Alveolus secretes a solution called surfactant

solution, which eases the wall tension hence
minimizing lung inflation efforts.

• The alveoli are elastic, to increase inspirational capacity.

• Alveoli are surrounded by a network of blood

vessels (capillaries) which deliver
deoxygenated blood from the pulmonary
artery and collect oxygenated blood from the
alveoli.
Respiratory Diseases

Bronchitis

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Lung Cancer

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Asthma

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