MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 29

SESSION 5: TYPES OF GI PIPE FITTINGS

G.I pipe means “Galvanized Iron”. In G.I pipe, iron or steel pipe is coated with zinc
(Galvanization). This coating process is useful in protecting iron or steel metal from
deterioration or rusting. By means of this process, iron metal is protected from corrosion
and as a result, the life and durability of the GI pipe increases. Zinc coated iron pipes
are broadly used to carry water. Apart from this, GI pipes are mainly used for plumbing
purposes in building construction.

GI pipes available in market are available in sizes ranging from 8 to 100 mm in

diameter. Based on the thickness, these pipes are generally available in three types.

1. Light (Class A) - The identity of this pipe is that it is marked with yellow colour.
(Thickness – 2 mm)
2. Medium (Class B) - The identity of this pipe is that it is marked with blue colour.
(Thickness - 2.65 mm)
3. Heavy (Class C) - The identity of this pipe is that it is marked with red colour.
(Thickness - 3.25 mm)

Plumbing - Information about Tapping Process and Types of Tap and Dye–

Ø Tap –Many times nuts, bolts, screws need to be used while assembling any machinery.
Seamless turning of inner part of nut
and outer part of screw or bolt to form
grooves is called as threading or
tapping and continuous groove thus
formed is called as thread. During
large-scale production in a factory, the
threads are made using machine.
However, during job making or repair
work in a workshop, the threads are
made manually. They are of ‘V’ size.
Taps and dies are used to make
thread. Fig 18 - Tap

Tap is a cutting tool used to make threads in inner part of a job. Tap is made from
high carbon steel (HSS). It undergoes the process of hardening and tempering. Hand
tap always comes in a set of three. These three taps are known as first, second
(middle) and third (or plug or bottom). Four or five threads present at the end of first
ta, that leads to an easy grip in the hole. First tap is used as the initial step of
threading. Two or three threads present at the end of second tap are narrow. The
second tap is used after the use of first tap. In case of the third tap (plug / bottom),
only the first thread is narrow, while rest of the threads possess required
measurements. This third tap is used to mould right shape to the thread.
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It is always advisable to hold the tap at right angle with the job and rotate it in forward
direction for half (50%) to ‘quarter to one’ (75%) of a full turn. To cut the chips rotate it
in reverse direction for quarter (25%) to half (50%) of a full turn.

Care and precautionary measures to be taken during tapping

1) Use lubricant during tapping.
2) Tightly hold the tap in tap wrench.
3) Choose right size of the tap and the hole for which you want to perform threading.
4) Ensure that the hole tapping is to be done is straight.
5) Hold the job tightly in the vice.
6) Always hold the tap at right angle to the job.
7) Rotate the tap in forward direction for half (50%) to ‘quarter to one’ (75%) of a full
turn. To cut the chips rotate it in reverse direction for quarter (25%) to half (50%) of a
full turn.

Threading Die (Die Piece &Die Stock)

Threading Die is used for threading on the cylindrical part of iron rods. This die is also a
cutting tool, and the process of threading by this tool is called as ‘Dyeing’. Die looks like
a circular disc and is made up of High Speed Steel (HSP), Alloy Steel or Tool Steel. Main
types of die are as follows:

1) Solid Die –This die is a round disc having a threaded hole of appropriate size at its
centre. Solid dies are available in different shapes and matching to holes of different
sizes. Thread type and shape is mentioned on it for easier identification. Based on the
application (use) and shape of job, Solid dies are fitted in the diestock at the time of
threading.
2) Split Die –A groove is made in the split die. By means of this groove, the die is fitted
in the diestock and one can operate the screw as per need to perform threading until
full depth.
3) Two Piece Die –This die is divided into two pieces. They are called ‘Die Bits’. Both
pieces have 'V' shaped threads. By fixing the die piece in die stock, threads are made
with the help of the screw by doing adjustments. This is used for threading on a big
cylinder.
4) Die Nut –Die nuts are square or hexagonal in shape. It is useful for convenient
threading. Four to six grooves are made in these die nuts to expel the excess material
being drilled out during threading. They are fitted in wrench or spanner and used for
rethreading the damaged threads. They are also used to clean existing threads of a
job.
5) Die Plate –This is a rectangular strip made up of High Speed Steel (HSS) and it is cut
at the centre along a straight line in different shapes.
6) Die stock – The tool in which die is firmly fixed during threading is called as Die
Stock. Die stock is made up of steel. Die stock is divided into two types.

a. Solid Die Stock –Solid die stock is designed in one piece and has circular hole in the
centre. In this, split/solid die is mounted and threading is accomplished. Screw
arrangement is provisioned to hold die.
b. Adjustable Die Stock –Adjustable die stock is available in two shapes: Square and
Round. Threads are made by fixing die set in it. In this case, too, screw arrangement
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 31

is provided to hold the die and to adjust the depth of the thread according to
requirement.
Care and precautionary measures to be taken while using die / Performing
threading operations –

Fig 19 - Adjustable Die Stock Fig 20 - Solid Die Stock

1) The surface of the cylinder should be clean and straight during outside
threading.
2) Use coolant (cutting oil) while using die.
3) Hold the job tightly in the vise on the table.
4) Rotate the tap in forward direction for half (50%) to ‘quarter to one’ (75%) of a
full turn. To cut the chips rotate it in reverse direction for quarter (25%) to half
(50%) of a full turn. This helps to cut the chips easily.

Selection of Activity –Threading and Joining operations of G. I. Pipe –

Choose one of the useful tasks mentioned below or any task useful for school:
1) If there is a leakage in school's water tap, then fix it by means of threading.
2) Provide threading practice to all students with the help of rods and dies
available in 6, 8 or 10mm size.
3) Join water connection pipeline to domestic taps in the town.
4) Threading on G.I. pipe of half inch size
5) Drilling to iron strip and angle, and do threading of suitable size using tap.

PRACTICAL EXERCISE

Activity 1:

Preparation of Activity –
1) Keep raw material for threading and tapping ready.
2) Check the condition of tools and instruments and make them available. Ex.
G.I. Pipe, Cutting Oil, G.I. Coupling, G.I. Elbow, G.I. Tee, G.I. Union, G.I. Cross,
G.I. Bend, White Lead Paste, Jute, Steel Tape, Teflon Tape, Hacksaw, Pipe Die
Set, Pipe Vise, Oil Can, Pipe Wrench of 12 or 14-inch size; etc.
3) Prior to the threading and tapping demonstration, aware students about
functions and uses of different plumbing tools. This will help them to correlate
the information during demonstration.
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4) Identify places where threading, tapping, and plumbing is used. Later, arrange
a visit to those places for students and give them information about
actual/practical use.

Desired Skill Acquisition and Development –

A) Threading to rod and pipes
B) Threading using tap range
C) Use of die and tap as per appropriate size
D) Proper and safe application of all the tools used during plumbing work.

Procedure - Threading to ½ inch G.I. Pipe –

1) Gather the information about tools and instruments used during plumbing
2) Fix a die set of diameters ½ inch in diestock
3) Hold a pipe of diameter ½ inch in the jaw of vise firmly
4) Cut the pipe of required length.
5) Place the threading die on pipe, rotate the die clockwise and complete first cut
6) Rotate threading die a little bit in anti-clockwise direction and complete
threading using die by increasing the cut. Rotate adjusting screw to increase
the depth of thread.
7) Check the completion of threading with the help of socket/coupling.

Procedure – Joining of ½ Inch G.I. Pipe –

1) Keep required no. of pipe pieces ready by threading using die to join the pipe.
2) Wind the Teflon tape on external threads of pipe. Fix two pieces of pipes on
inner thread of coupling and tighten them by rotating with pipe wrench.
3) Similarly fix the pieces of pipe in Elbow, Tee, Bend, Union and Cross and
tighten the threads by rotating with pipe wrench.
4) Apply sealing paste on pipe threading and wind jute over it.
5) Attach a suitable coupling on the pipe and tighten it by rotating with pipe
wrench
6) Thus, complete the connection of pipes.

Necessary care and precautionary measures to be taken during threading

and joining of ½ inch G. I. Pipe –
1) Before cutting any pipe, assess the amount of pipe that would fit inside
couplings and increase in the overall length of pipe due to addition of
couplings.
2) Ensure that die is placed at a right angle with pipe.
3) Rotate the die in to-and-fro (means, half to quarter-to-one rotation forward and
quarter rotation backward) so that material will be cut properly.
4) Use oil while dyeing.
5) Do not give jerks to die while dyeing.
6) Clean the die after use.
7) Do not cut threads more than the actual requirement.
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8) Apply a white sealing paste on the pipe thread, wind jute or Teflon over it and
then assemble it.
9) Ensure that the pipe couplings do not remain loose.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Subjective Questions
1) What is G.I Pipe?
2) What are the three types of GI pipes?
3) What is the precaution required while tapping?
4) What is Solid Die Stock?
5) What is Die Stock and mention its types?
6) Explain in brief.
1) Solid Die 2) Die Nut 3) Two Piece Die
What Have You Learnt?
On completion of this session, students will be able to:
· Carry out GI piping by carrying out treading, Connect pipes using
appropriate coupling
· Describe use of different piping fitting used in GI piping
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 34

SESSION 6: WELDING TECHNIQUE & WELDING JOINT

TEST

INTRODUCTION

Welding means joining. In this operation, two or more metal parts are joined
together with the application of extreme (high intensity) heat. This joint is strong
and permanent in nature. A specific filler material is used to join these metal
parts. This joining process is called as ‘Welding’. Initially, the metal is melted by
heating with electric arcs or gas and joint is made with the help of an electric /
filler rod. Nowadays welding is done using modern technology such as laser
welding or electron beam welding. Generally, arc welding and gas welding is
commonly used in small and medium-scale industry.
(Students are expected to observe the practical; Demonstration should be
given only by teacher)

Arc Welding – Arc welding is a well-

known, old, and conventional method.
In this welding method, which is
based on the principle of heating, heat
is generated using electric current to
induce welding. This is the most
popular and prevailing method; where
in metal pieces are joined together
with the help of electrodes through
heat is generated by forming electric
arcs. In this process, electrode acts as
heat conductor and filler metal.
Fig 21 - Are welding
Gas Welding –In this method, welding is done using gas. Heating in this process
is mainly done by combined proportionate combustion of Oxygen and Acetylene.
Mixed welding gas of Argon and Carbon dioxide (Co2) is used during gas welding.
T he machine by which the heat is
generated is called ‘Gas-gun’. These
guns are connected to the pipes for
electric connection and the availability
of gas to generate a specified amount
of heat. In this method, metal filler is
used externally. In gas welding
methods, the specific ingredient,
which is used to strengthen metal
joints, is called as ‘Filler Material’ or
‘Filler Metal’. Generally, filler materials
used are of two types. Fig 22 - Gas welding
1) Filler rod 2) filler wire
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Gas Welding Technique – In this method, you may find three types of flames.
Since the temperature and properties of these three flames differ, we can use
appropriate flame for different metals as per the metal properties.
Types of Flame –
1. Carburizing Flame
2. Neutral Flame
3. Oxidizing Flame

1. Carburizing Flame –This flame is used for metals like Aluminium that tend to
oxidise quickly. This is because the carbon present in this flame forms a
coating layer on the metal and protects it against oxidation. Similarly, this
flame is used in cases where the amount of carbon in the metal is needed to be
increased or you wish to harden the metal. The amount of Acetylene gas is
more while Oxygen gas is low in this flame. You may attain a temperature of
3100°C using this flame.

2. Neutral Flame –This flame is used for metals having high melting points such
as mild steel, copper and cast iron. This flame generates temperature of
3200°C. Both the gases are supplied in equal proportion in this flame.

3. Oxidizing Flame –Oxidizing flame is used for welding, brazing and for metal
oxides having low melting temperature (melting point). This flame provides the
temperature of 3300°C.In this method, flux is used for all metals except mild
steel. The main purpose of using flux is to retain metal properties without any
changes due to application of heat. However, flux is not used for mild steel as
the neutral flame itself acts as flux.

Uses –
1. All metals and alloys can be properly welded by this method.
2. Brazing and gouging can be done effectively

Electric Arc welding technique -

Electrodes (Welding Rods) – An arc is induced between the job and the electrode
during electric arc welding. Electrode is nothing but a thin metal rod having flux
coating. Flux improves welding and prevents any adverse effect of climate on the
welding run. The rods that does not contain a chemical coat (flux), is called as
‘Bare Electrode’ or ‘Core Wire Electrode’.
The type of electrode depends on the amount of flux coating or its chemical
composition.
E.g. If there is substantial coating, it is called as ‘Heavy Coating Electrode’ and in
case of low flux coating, it is called as ‘Light Coated Electrode’.

Function of Flux –
1. Avoids any adverse effects on the welding due to external (Atmospheric) factors
and forms the gas shield surrounding the arc.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 36

2. Maintains the welding arc.

3. Helps to purify the metal and prevents it from burning
4. Protects against spatter (i.e. droplets of molten material generated during
welding)
5. Acts as a coat on welding metal & thus helps to cool down the job gradually
and the job does not deteriorate
6. Increases the speed of welding and melts the metal more

Electrode Selection –
Generally, the rod (electrode) has following characteristics:
Characteristics –
1. Ability to maintain uniform Arc / flame
2. To keep the welding run smooth and uniform
3. Accelerate the welding speed
4. Minimize the spatter
5. Enhance welding strength
6. Remove the slag easily (Slag means solid remains of flux - after weld area cools
off)

To induce above characteristics in welding, consider things mentioned

below while selecting electrode (rod):
1. The properties of metal on which welding is to be done
2. Diameter of rod
3. Type of the joint
4. Welding position
5. Current and polarity of welding
6. Load speed (proportion)
7. Time required to complete the job

Welding Joint Inspection - The operator or welder completes the welding joint.
However, he should be convinced that it is perfect post job completion. Because if
the job is to be used at the place where there could be a lot of load on it or if the
strength is required and if the job or its any part is not ready for the same, then it
could be very harmful. This would definitely lead to loss of property, but at times,
it may lead to loss to life, too. E.g. Construction of a bridge.

To avoid this, any job or part is tested and inspected. There are several methods
of inspection for welding jobs. Some of them are as given below –

1) Paraffin Test – Using this test, we can see the cracks on bead. Paraffin oil is
painted with a brush on bead surface and it is allowed to dry. Post drying,
slack lime is spread on the surface. Cracks are clearly visible once the lime
dries.
2) Visual Test – During this type of inspection, the bead size is assessed by
gauge. We can assess the defects on bead by naked eyes. Therefore, we can
identify defects like overlap, undercut, spatter; etc. In addition, you can locate
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 37

the cracks, if any. An intelligent inspector can narrate the salient features and
defects of a joint using this method.
3) Magnetic Test (Magnetic Particle Inspection) – By using this test, defects
such as cracks, slag-inclusion, blowhole; etc. can be identified in the welded
metal. In this non-destructive method, iron powder is spread over the metal
surface. Later on, a magnetic flux (current) is passed through the welded
ferromagnetic metal through two powerful magnets. The defective location
tends to generate a magnetic pole inducing a tendency to attract iron powder
and yields a collection of iron powder covering the defective area leading to
detection of defect.
4) X – Ray Test – This is also a non-destructive method to identify defects
present inside welded metal. Defects like cracks, incomplete penetration, slag-
inclusion, weld cavity; etc. can be identified by this method. X -Ray is passed
through the metal. X - Ray image is generated by exposing the metal to
photographic plates. The density at the defective location tends to be less and
that leads to darker representation in the X- Ray image. Thus, the defect can
be easily identified. This test is used to test important jobs.
5) Stethoscope Test – This non-destructive method uses stethoscope. A job
under inspection is hammered using a hammer and the sound generated
during hammering is assessed using stethoscope to check whether there are
any defects. Non-defective area sounds like a bell while sound generated at
defective location is different. To use this method effectively, one should have
thorough knowledge of distinguishing variation in sound. A skilled inspector
can detect defects within a joint by means of sound.
6) Ammonia per sulphate Test: If we mix one part Ammonium Chloride and nine
parts water and rub the mixture on welded metal using a piece of cloth at room
temperature, defects in the weld can be easily detected.

Practical:- (Students are expected to observe the practical; Demonstration

should be given only by teacher)
Welding Run using Arc Welding, Corner Joint Welding –
Selection of Activity – Select one of the following jobs or any job useful to
school:
1) Prepare a trivet
2) Prepare a gas trolley stand
3) Table, chair, cot, rack, wheelbarrow, trolley; etc.

Preparation of Activity –
1) Once the activity is finalized, assemble the material to complete the activity

2) Welding Tools – Ensure that welding tools like welding machine, angle, electric
holder, welding cable, steel tape, earthing cap and wire, welding rod, welding
screen, hand gloves; etc. are in good shape.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 38

3) Job drawing should be ready. Accordingly, the material can be cut for
demonstration.

Desired Skill –
a) Cutting of raw materials (Angle, Plates or Rod)
b) Straighten angle or rod
c) Run welding
d) Tack welding
e) Ability to work using safety tools in line with adherence to safety guidelines

Welding Safety Measures –

In order to be safe, as welder needs to safeguard himself/herself from elements
mentioned below:

Welding Radiation –Welding emits intense lights, infrared and ultraviolet rays.
Hence, a welder should use helmet or hand screen to avoid any adverse effect of
radiations on eyes.
It also protects eyes from hot, tiny slag particles and sparks and prevents
affecting face.
Burns – Due to high temperature involved in welding activity, jobs tend to
become hot and that may lead to burns & wounds. To avoid this, following
precautionary measures should be taken:
1. User leather gloves during cutting and welding
2. Use appropriate hand tools. Avoid direct physical contact of any organ with
the job.
3. Use good quality shoes.
4. Use goggles for protecting eyes during slag chipping

Electricity Supply – Always ensure that welding wires are not open or loose.
Welding site should not be wet. Rod holders and cables should be in good
condition. In case you get an electric shock, follow these instructions:
1. Move the object (that led to electric shock) away from body/welding site
2. Call a doctor or send the injured person to doctor
3. Give mouth to mouth resuscitation (CPR – Cardio Pulmonary
Resuscitation)
4. Lay the shock affected person horizontally on ground
5. Do not crowd the site. Ensure to supply fresh air

Fumes – In case of few metals, welding generates poisonous fumes and gases. It
may be hazardous to the worker. So, during welding related to metals like zinc,
brass, bronze; etc.; ensure two main things: 1. Welding site should be completely
ventilated. 2. Use mask during welding.

Explosion and Fire –

In these cases, ensure following precautions:
1. Do not store inflammable and explosive material near welding site
2. Keep well-maintained fire extinguishers nearby welding site
3. Switch off all electric buttons post completion of welding
4. After post welding job completion; ensure that none of the objects is hot.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 39

Safety Rules and Regulations –

1. Do not operate welding machine without adequate information and proper
training.
2. Before connecting the machine to electric supply, get the electric connection
inspected from electric division.
3. While working in welding division, always use boots, hand gloves, leader apron
and hand-screen for safety.
4. User chipping hammer to remove welding slag during welding.
5. Use safety goggle during chipping.
6. Based on the job size, use 30-35V and 60-200A current.

Necessary care and precautionary measures to be taken during welding –

1. Do not bend welding rod after attaching it holder
2. Do not connect earthing and holder to each other. Connect earthing to job
only during welding.
3. Do not change current while the machine is in operation.
4. Use screen during welding
5. Conduct strike welding first and later on conduct run welding
6. Do not conduct chipping while the job is hot. Clean the job using a wire
brush.
Practical - Welding – Single V – Butt joint – (Students are expected to
observe the practical; Demonstration should be given only by teacher)

Objective –
1) Learn welding of Single V – Butt Joint by arc
2) Acquire the welding technique in flat position

Preparation of Activity –
1) Mild Steel (M. S.) strip: 100 x 50mm x 6 mm – 2 no. s
2) Mild Steel (M. S.) electrode rod 4 mm (flux coated) – 3 no. s
3) Keep the job material together after selection of job.
4) Welding Tools – Ensure that welding tools like Welding Machine, Electric
Holder, Welding Cable, Clamp, Steel Tape, Earthing Cap and Wire, Welding
Rod, Welding Screen, Hand Gloves, Chipping Hammer, Wire Brush, Hand
Gloves, Leader Apron etc. are in good condition.
5) Job drawing should be ready. Accordingly, the material can be cut for
demonstration.

Desired Skill –
a) Acquire skill of welding of V shaped plate in flat position

Procedure –
1) Do beveling to one side of each plate. Maintain 1 mm root face and 1.5 mm
root gap.
2) Set 190 A current on the transformer present on the machine for electrode rod
having 4 mm diameter
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 40

3) Do tacking to give support to both ends where welding is to be done

4) On same current, complete angle-welding run for the electrode rod having 4
mm diameter at an angle of 70 to 80 degree.
5) Remove slag using chipping hammer and clean the job using wire brush.

Necessary care and precautionary measures to be taken during

demonstration –
1) Use welding tools appropriately. Use hand screen during welding and
chipping.
2) Incorrect angle of welding electrode will not place the molten metal at desired
place.
3) Complete angle-welding run for the welding electrode at an angle of 70 to 80
degree. This will prevent penetration.

PRACTICAL EXERCISE

Activity 1:

Welding - Open Corner Joint using Arc

Objective –
1) Open corner joint welding
2) Acquire the welding technique in flat position
Preparation of Activity –
1. Mild Steel (M.S.) strip: 100 x 50 x 6 mm – 2 quantities.
2. Mild Steel electrode rod 4mm (flux coated) – 4 quantities.
3. Keep the job material together after selection of job.
4. Welding Tools - Ensure that Welding Machine, Electric Holder, Welding Cable,
Clamp, Steel Tape, Earthing Cap and Wire, Welding Rod, Welding Screen,
Chipping Hammer, Wire Brush, Gloves, Leather Apron etc. are in good shape.
5. Job drawing should be ready. Accordingly, the material can be cut for
demonstration.

Procedure -
1. Scrub the surface and edges of strips.
2. Set 190 A current on the transformer present on the machine for electrode rod
having 4 mm diameter
3. Hold the welding electrode in holder.
4. Complete the welding by stringer beading method, starting from one end to the
cracker end, without disturbing the welding rod.
5. Remove slag using chipping hammer and clean the job using wire brush.

Like all the above procedures and other demonstrations, safety rules should be
strictly followed and precautions and care should be taken during all the
demonstrations.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 41

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Subjective Questions
1) What is welding?
2) Describe in detail the major two type of welding.
3) What is metal filler?
4) Mention the types of metal filler.
5) Prepare the flow chart for the activities done during welding job

What Have You Learnt?

On completion of this session, students will be able to:
- Understand welding techniques & its use.
- Understand different types of welding joints (- T-fillet, open corner, single
V, butt joint)
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 42

SESSION 7: BASIC TECHNIQUES IN BUILDING

CONSTRUCTION (BASIC CONCEPTS IN
CONSTRUCTION)

Building construction has high significance in human civilization. In ancient

times, creativity and skill used to be expressed through civil construction. At that
time stones and bricks were the primary construction material. Over the period,
man started to use timber, iron, and cement in construction. While living in
natural habitat, he studied structural
details and composition of natural
resources and used them in building
construction. (Skeleton method and fibrous
method). Though fibrous materials are
flexible, they have good tensile strength. By
adding fibrous material in brittle material,
the brittleness can be reduced to a
substantial level. Mortar, being brittle,
breaks easily. However, adding chicken
wire mesh in mortar gives rise to Ferro-
cement having better strength.
Fig 23 - Ferro-cement

What is Ferro-cement?
Ferro-cement is a new innovative construction material. In this, a skeleton is
created using cement mortar, metal rods and mesh.

Following are the ingredients of Ferro-cement –

· A mixture of cement, sand, mortar, water
· Metal rods
· Skeleton of weld mesh and chicken mesh
· Coating material

Benefits of Ferro-cement –
1) Ferro-cement is used as a primary raw material in the basic skeleton of new
construction.
2) Any shape/form model can be created using Ferro-cement
3) No need of skilled labour
4) Light weight and long lasting, if necessary care is taken
5) Has earthquake resistant capability

Drawbacks of Ferro-cement –
1) If the metal rod skeleton in the Ferro-cement is not coated with mortar
properly, then corrosion may happen due to its contact with air.
2) Ferro-cement is difficult to join using screws, welding, or nails.
3) Large number of workers is required while using Ferro-cement. If the workers
are not skilled, the duration and expenditure of work increases.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 43

4) It is more difficult and time consuming to form a skeleton of metal rods and
weld mesh-chicken mesh.

Preparation method for Ferro-cement –

· Creating a model of a specific structure
· Form the skeleton of metal rods and weld mesh – chicken mesh
· Plastering

Where is Ferro-cement used?

1) House construction
2) Marine construction
3) Agriculture related constructions
4) Industrial structure
5) Road transport construction

Fig 24 - Construction in ferro cement Fig 25 - Structure of home

Using ferro cement

PRACTICAL EXERCISE

Activity 1:

Project / Practical:-
Construction – Preparation of Ferro-cement sheet

Preparation - Selection of Activities –

1. Make a round or square lid for school water tank or public tank in town.
Prepare Ferro-cement tank having a storage capacity of 200 litres of water.
2. Coba construction for school porch
3. Prepare Ferro-cement sheets (as per various sizes). E.g. Wall construction,
partition, toilet wall; etc
4. Construct square wash basin
5. Construct dust bins

Desired Skills –
1. Ability to use shearing machine/ hacksaw frame
2. Ability to cut a 6-mm rod/ bar. Frame welding or tying frame with metal wire.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 44

3. Cutting of Weld mesh, chicken mesh

4. Tying mesh binding with wire
5. Preparation of mortar in appropriate quantity
6. Applying mortar on mesh
7. Use of plastering trowel or masonry trowel
8. Acquire knowledge of curing
9. Conduct curing

Material – M.S. round bar, Welding rod, Chicken mesh, Binding wire, Cement,
Sand, Water, Polythene Paper; etc.

Instruments– Anvil, Measuring Tape, T-Square, Welding Machine, Sieve, Mortar

Pan, Bucket; etc.

Tools –Chisel, Hammer, Mesh Cutter, Plier, Plastering Trowel, Masonry Trowel;
etc.

Procedure –
1. Break the round bar into 4 pieces as per mentioned measurement.
2. Then weld all four pieces in right angle to each other to form a square frame.
3. Cut the chicken mesh as per mentioned measurement.
4. Then tie the chicken mesh on the given rods of square frame using binding
wire.
5. Prepare mortar by mixing sand, cement, and water in a proportionate manner.
6. Spread polythene paper on plain ground and place the chicken mesh bound
square frame on it.
7. Apply mortar on frame with the help of masonry trowel.
8. Roll and distribute the mortar evenly across frame using rods.
9. Spread and level the mortar with the help of plastering trowel.
10. After approximately two hours, cover it with wet jute bag.
11. Sprinkle water (i.e. curing process) on the prepared Ferro-cement sheet for a
minimum of 7 days to a maximum of 14 days.

Precautionary Measures –
1. Cut the chicken mesh slightly larger than the frame. Design the flowchart for
Ferro-cement.
2. Tie the chicken mesh firmly to frame so that it does not come out after
application of mortar over it.
3. Filter sand being used for mortar and wash it before use.
4. While preparing mortar, first mix sand and cement thoroughly using masonry
trowel. Then keep adding water in it gradually.
5. Place the frame slightly above the floor to apply mortar of equal thickness on
both sides of the frame.
6. Cut edges of the sides of Ferro-cement sheet neatly so that it gets square
shape.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 45

7. Do not sprinkle too much water on mortar on first day.

Do you know this?

1. Based on shape, masonry trowel has different types. E.g. Square, Heart; etc.
2. Plastering trowel is made up of either wood or iron. According to the nature of
work, plastering trowel of various lengths is used.
3. The mixture of cement and sand is called as mortar. While preparing the Ferro-
cement items such as sheet, tank etc. mixing ratio is 1:3 or 1:4 and for
finishing it remains as 1:1.
4. While preparing mortar, half liter of water is used per 1 Kg cement. This is
called as ‘Water Cement Ratio’. The strength of mortar depends on this ratio.
Due to excess water, minute granules of cement are washed away.
5. Mixing of water to cement leads to a chemical reaction resulting into hardening
of cement. However, it takes 20 to 21 days to acquire full strength to cement.
Therefore, cement should be kept wet for first 28 days by sprinkling water after
regular intervals. This process is called as ‘Curing’. The duration of curing
varies depending on job width, job type, geographical condition, etc.
6. If there is no soil present in sand, if Roding is done appropriately and if
covering is done properly, cracks no crack formation occurs in job.
7. In Ferro-cement technique, iron is used along with cement. Due to iron, tensile
strength of the Ferro-cement increases along with pressure (load carrying
capacity). Unlike R.C.C. technique that used more amount of iron, Ferro-
cement uses only iron frame and chicken mesh. This effectively reduces width
of the sheet. Hence, it is very light in weight and inexpensive, too.
8. If you wish to create exact replica in the die of original item (e.g. Washbasin,
Cement sheet etc.); then only cement is used instead of mortar. Water and
cement are mixed in equal quantity. In this jute cloth is used as binder (to
support the cement).

Activity 2:

Practical - Constructing a Water Tank (Cement) – Water Storage Capacity –

250 Litres
Benefits & Use –
1. It does not get corroded as it is made up of cement.
2. More durable than iron tank
3. It can be easily repaired and there is flexibility to increase or decrease height
4. It is very easy to construct
5. Easy to construct even for large dimensions

Let’s divide process of tank construction in 4 parts –

1) Skeleton/Structure 2) Weld mesh – Chicken mesh with jute cloth
3) Mortaring 4) Curing
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 46

Following material is required to construct the tank –

1) M.S. Rod 2) Socket 3) Angle 4) G.I. Wire 5) Weld mesh 6) Cement 7)
Chicken mesh 8) Sand 9) Jute cloth 10) Water

Costing
1. Observe diagram given below. Based on the information provided, prepare
material list, and calculate approximate costing to construct the job displayed
in the drawing.

Name of the Rate Price

Sr.No. Quantity of Material
Material (Rs.) (Rs.)
1 6mm Rod 0.270 kg 30/kg 8.10
2 Chicken Mesh 1 Sq. Ft. 3/Sq. Ft. 3.00
3 Welding Rod 1 Piece 1/Piece 1.00
4 G.I. Wire 2 metre 1/metre 2.00
5 Sand 0.0025 M ³ 1000/m³ 2.50
6 Cement 1.083 kg 4/kg 4.33
Total 20.93

Wages and Overhead: 25% of Material Cost 5.25

Total Cost 26.18
Approximate cost of constructing the job displayed in the drawing will be Rs.
26.00

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Subjective Questions
1) Describe the problems faced during construction using Ferro-cement and its
remedies.
2) Calculate the approximate costing of raw material used for Ferro-cement sheet.
3) Calculate the approximate costing of Ferro-cement sheet based on the cost of
raw material used, wages, indirect costs etc.
4) Measure the length, width and thickness of the sheet and calculate its volume.
Accordingly determine the material required for the work of cubic metre.
5) What is Ferro-cement?
6) Describe the advantages and disadvantages of Ferro-cement.

7) What is the mixture of cement and sand called?

8) What is the total curing time required for cement?

9) What is the name of material used along with cement in the Ferro-cement
technique?
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 47

What Have You Learnt?

On completion of this session, students will be able to:
· Prepare concrete sheet and Ferro cement structures
· Describe what is Ferro cement and state its applications
· Describe advantages of Ferro cement.
· Describe the safety precautions to be followed when preparing a Ferro
cement structure
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 48

SESSION 8: MAKING OF RCC COLUMN

The way skeleton of bones supports other delicate organs in the body of living
organisms, RCC (Reinforced Cement Concrete) is used to strengthen the
foundation of the building. Cement concrete possesses good compressive
strength; however, its tensile strength. Therefore, iron are placed along with
concrete wherever tension is anticipated. It
is called as R.C.C (Reinforced Cement
Concrete). Due to higher amount of
strength in R.C.C. columns, they are
durable and construction becomes long
lasting. It is economical and it is easy to
construct. It is useful for heavy load
bearing structures. In this lesson, we are
going to learn the skill to build R.C.C
columns that are very useful in building
construction.

Fig 26 - R.C.C. Column

Construction – Making of R.C.C. Column
Preparation – Selection of Activity –
1. Construct R.C.C. Columns of 3m height for a compound.
2. Do concrete work for school. (E.g. Foundation, constructing steps).
3. Construct pillars of 6 feet to 8 feet light for a shed.

Desired Skills –
1. To handle construction material
2. To cut torsion bar
3. To bend 6mm bar
4. To construct a column
5. To cut wooden planks and to make wooden box
6. T0 know concrete composition
7. Prepare concrete
8. Pour concrete in mould
9. Knowledge of curing
10. Conduct curing

Material – Torsion bar, Round bar, Binding wire, Wooden planks, Nails, Cement,
Sand, Gravel, Water etc.

Instruments - Anvil, Measuring Tape, T-Square, Sieve, Mortar Pan, Bucket, Jute
bag etc.

Tools – Chisel, Claw Hammer, Plier, Shovel, Trowel, Plumb bob etc.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 49

Procedure –
1. Cut the torsion bar into 4 pieces using chisel as per given measurement.
2. Cut the round bar using chisel as per given measurement.
3. Bend the round bar at right angles and prepare a square / rectangular frame.
4. Bind these square frames to the torsion bar using binding wire at the distance
of 19 to 20cm from each other.
5. Join four wooden planks with each other at right angles vertically to form a
frame/mould. Around the column frame.
6. Prepare concrete by mixing gravel, sieved sand, cement, and water on an iron
sheet.
7. Erect the wooden frame/mould vertically on a flat surface of concrete base and
put some concrete at its bottom.
8. Insert a mould (frame) of bars at the centre of wooden frame/mould.
9. Keep pouring concrete gradually into the wooden frame/mould until the
column is full of concrete.
10. Next day, remove the wooden planks.
11. Wrap the column with jute bags and sprinkle water on it till 28 days.

Precautionary Measures –
1. Maintain the height of torsion bar pieces 10 to 15 cm more than the column
height.
2. While preparing square frame, keep the torsion bar joint at centre along
length.
3. Ensure that two bars should overlap for 2 to 3 cm on each other near joint of
two bars.
4. Keep torsion bar inside square frame.
5. While building the structure; ensure that the frame joints remain on different
sides.
6. Keep the wooden planks’ frame/mould2 to 4 cm larger than the steel frame
structure for covering purpose.
7. Check whether all corners of frame/mould are at right angle to each other,
using plumb bob.
8. Use only three wooden planks in case the mould needs to be placed
horizontally.
9. While preparing concrete, first mix gravel, sand, and cement thoroughly with
the help of a shovel. Once they are mixed cohesively, add water to the mixture.
10. Initially fix the structure in concrete firmly.
11. While pouring the concrete, keep levelling it with screed bar intermittently.
This will ensure uniform spread of concrete settles across entire structure.
12. Take utmost precaution to ensure that wooden planks and column corners are
not disturbed. This may lead to distortion of frame structure.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 50

Do you know this?

1. Due to plumb bob’s weight, its string remains at right angle with the ground
level.
2. The mixture of cement, sand and gravel is called as concrete. Concrete is used
to lay foundation of machines, R.C.C. columns. For the machine foundation,
the ratio 1:4:8 of this mixture is used and for the R.C.C. columns, the ratio
remains 2:3:6.
3. Iron is used in R.C.C (Reinforced Cement Concrete). When iron is not used in
concrete, it is called as P.C.C., meaning ‘Plain Cement Concrete’.
4. Torsion bars which are spiral in structure are used in R.C.C. structure. It
provides better grip for cement on iron bars. Round bars are elastic and hence
they are used to form square frames.
5. Torsion bars of 8mm, 10mm, 12mm and 16mm thickness and round bars of
6mm thickness are used for R.C.C. structure.
6. The vertical structure of R.C.C. is called as a ‘Column’. The structure of
column is made to bear the load. Horizontal structure is called as a ‘Beam’.
The structure of beam is made to bear stress.
7. If one column is to be erected above another column, then to engage bars of
first column into second column, keep them outside the width of bars.
8. The labour charges for R.C.C. structure are calculated as per running feet.

Cement is prepared from the reaction of following elements: Calcium,

Aluminium, Magnesium and Silicon, with Oxygen and Hydrogen. Out of these,
oxides of Calcium, Magnesium, Aluminium and Silicon are abundantly available
in nature. The combination of these mixtures is deeply heated in kiln. During the
heating process, water present in the mixture evaporates and it attains melted
state and thus, forms a composition. After sufficient cooling process, it is
converted to fine powder form. It is called as ‘Portland Cement’. When it is mixed
with water, its different molecules form bonds with the water molecules. Due to
this chemical bond, cement attains strength. However, cement is always used to
join different items with each other. Mixing of cement with sand and gravel leads
to formation of concrete. Though the cement portion in this mixture is relatively
low, due to its bonding ability, entire concrete hardens like a rock. If already
hardened cement is mixed with water, it doesn’t provide any strength. So, always
ensure that cement is not exposed to the moisture in air that may lead to its
hardening. Therefore, before actual use, cement should be stored in the dry area
above ground (away from wet surface).

Mortar and Concrete

Mixture of different stone particles, sand and gravel is bonded together with the
help of cement. The cavity between stone particles is filled with cement. To reduce
the cost of cement, different sized particles (sand, gravel) are combined. Mortar is
mixture of cement and sand. ‘Concrete’ is mixture of cement, sand and gravel.
As concrete consists of bonded pieces of stone, it becomes very strong.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 51

Fig 27- Mortar Fig 28 - Concrete

Characteristics
1. Post chemical reaction, cement becomes hard and it remains as is in water.
2. Cement does not deteriorate or rust in normal climate condition. The structural
part that is supposed to have tensile strength or sustain load, iron structures
are used along with concrete as a support.
3. Cement concrete is neither affected by normal heat nor gets burnt. However, it
may burst due to major fire.
4. Cement is bad conductor of electricity and heat.
5. If water content in the cement mortar is high, then after curing cavities are
formed leading to weakening of
cement.

Example – Inspect the diagram

given below and using the
available information, list down
the material to construct the job
and estimate the approximate cost
to construct
it.
Answer -
To construct R.C.C - Flow Chart
– Constructing R.C.C. Column

Sr.No. Name of Material Quantity of Material Rate (Rs.) Price (Rs.)

1 8 mm Rod 4.79 kg 30/kg 143.70
2 6 mm Rod 0.81 kg 30/kg 24.30
3 Welding Rod 10 no. s 1/piece 10.00
4 Gravel (1/2 inch) 0.0675 m³ 1000/m³ 67.50
5 Sand 0.03375 m³ 1000/m³ 33.80
6 Cement 23.625 kg 4/kg 94.50
Total Material Cost 373.80
Wages and Overhead Charges: 25% of Total Material Cost 93.45
Total Cost 467.25
MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 52
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 53

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Subjective Questions
1. What is R.C.C.?
2. Describe the problems faced during R.C.C. construction and its remedies.
3. Calculate the volume of column by measuring its length, width, and height.
Accordingly, Calculate the cost of material required for 1 m³of construction.
4. What are the ingredients of cement? Explain the concept of mortar and
concrete.
5. Describe the uses of RCC column.

What Have You Learnt?

On completion of this session, Students will be able to:

· Identify materials used in Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC)work
· Perform Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC)work to prepare column as per
given specifications
· Describe what is an RCC work and its applications
· Describe function of Torsion bar
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 54

SESSION 9: COSTING OF CONSTRUCTION

INTRODUCTION
Last year while providing demonstrations in some departments, we have learnt to
calculate costing of raw material used, Light bills, wear and tear of used
machineries, wages and overhead charges, potential profit amount. We have
learnt to calculate the overall costing by adding all expenses for items like
job/agricultural material/deposits-expenses/food items/light fittings etc.
In this class, you are expected to prepare the budget of initial estimate for project
jobs related to material/agricultural material/deposits-expenses/food items/light
fittings in all the four departments. After project completion, you are supposed to
calculate the actual cost and attach it to project report.

Construction of Cement Tank –

1) Diagram mentioned below depicts a cement tank constructed without using
steel structure.
Calculate the cost of construction using
information given below:

1. Mortar ratio 1:3

2. Cement: Rs.350/bag (Rs.50/kg)
3. Sand: Rs.1500/m³
4. Cement: 1.4 kg/ltr
5. Wages and overhead charges: 30 % of
total material cost Fig 29

Dimensions of the material required to construct water tank –

= (Outer dimension of tank) - (Inner dimension of tank)
= (Length * Width * Height) - (Length * Width * Height)
= (1.2 *0.7 * 0.6) – (1.1 * 0.6 * 0.55)
= (0.504) – (0.363)
= 0.141 m³

Costing –
Quantity of Price
Sr. No. Name of Material Material Rate (Rs.)
Sand (3 Parts) 0.141 Rs.
1 159
X (3/4) 0.106 m³ 1500/m³
2 Cement (1 Part)
0.141/3 = 0.0353 m³
(1 m³ = 1000 liter)
0.0353 * 1000 =
35.30 liter
Measurement 1 liter
= 1.4 kg
35.3 * 1.4 kg/liter
= 49.42 kg 49.42 kg Rs. 7/kg 345.94
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 55

Total Material Cost 504.94

Wages & Overhead Charges: 30% of Total Material Cost 151.48
Total Cost Rs. 656.42

The approximate cost to construct a water tank as mentioned in above

diagram will be Rs.874.

2) Study the given diagram and using

provided information, calculate the
approximate cost to construct the job.

1. Angle – 20 * 20 * 3 mm = Rs. 40/kg

2. Plywood (10 mm thickness) = Rs.36/ sq.ft.
3. Screw = Rs. 0.50/Piece
4. Welding Rod = Rs. 2/Piece
5. Depreciation and Wages: 25% of total
material cost
6. Angle – 20 * 20 * 3 mm = 0.874 kg/m

Fig 30

Price
Sr.No. Name of Material Quantity of Material Rate
(Rs.)
1 Angle 20 * 20 * 3 mm 600 * 4 = 2400
300 * 4 = 1200
400 * 4 = 1600
2400 + 1200 + 1600 = Rs. 40/kg 181.60
5200
5200 mm = 5.2 m
5.2 * 0.874 = 4.54 kg
2 Plywood (Thickness 10
MM) 300 mm = 1 ft. Rs. 36/sq.
36.00
300 * 300 = 1* 1 = 1 sq. ft.
ft.
Rs.
3 6.00
Welding Rod 3 Pieces 2/Piece
Rs.
4 4.00
Screw 8 Pieces 0.50/Piece
Total Material Cost 227.60
Wages and Overhead Charges: 25 % of Total Material Cost 56.90
Total Cost 284.50
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 56

Fig 31
The approximate total cost to construct a job as mentioned in above diagram is
Rs.284.50.

3) Study the given diagram and using given information, calculate the
approximate cost to construct the job.
1. Baton of 2 Inch – Rs. 6/ft.
2. Plywood (12 mm Thickness) = Rs. 40/ Sq. ft.
3. Tack nails (3 Inch) = Rs. 60/kg
4. Wages & Overhead Charges: 25 % of material cost

Price
Sr.No. Name of Material Quantity of Material Rate
(Rs.)
1 Baton (2 Inch) 1000 * 3 = 3000
250 * 4 = 1000
500 * 4 = 2000
3000 + 3000 + 2000 = Rs. 6/ft. 120
6000 mm
(300 mm = 1 ft.)
8000 mm = 20 ft.
Plywood (12 mm 1100 * 600 = 660000
2 Thickness) (90000 mm = 1 sq. ft.) Rs. 40/ft. 293.20
660000 mm = 7.33 sq.ft.
3 Nails (3 Inch) 0.250 kg Rs. 60/kg 15.00
Total Material Cost 428.2
Wages and Overhead Charges: 25 % of Total Material Cost 107.05
Total Cost 535.25
The approximate total cost to construct a job as mentioned in above diagram is
Rs.535.25.

What Have You Learnt?

On completion of this session, students will be able to:
· Calculate the cost of different practical jobs
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 57

SESSION 10: PLASTERING AND PAINTING

After completion of any construction work, it is required to paint the

construction. Final finishing is provided to a construction with the help of
processes like plastering, painting, varnishing; etc. The main objective of final
finishing is to protect the building or surface of an object from changing climatic
factors of atmosphere like rain, humidity, and temperature. Processes like
plastering, painting are beneficial to enhance durability of construction. In this
chapter, we are going to learn the various processes being used to provide final
finishing to a building post completion of construction.

PLASTER:-
Plastering is essential during construction of a
building or a house to achieve uniformity and
neatness for all walls from interior and exterior
sides. Let us understand what is meant by ‘Plaster’
first. Plaster means a soft and pasty coat of a
mixture of sand, water, cement, and other
ingredients (that provide strength to construction)
being given to internal and/or external surface of
walls and ceiling. Fig 32 - Plaster
Walls and ceiling need to be given two coats of plaster. The base coat (initial coat)
may vary from 9 to 15 mm while the top coat (final coat) consists of 2 to 5 mm
thickness. The ratio of sand to cement is kept as 1:3 to 1:6 and 1:4 to 1:6 in both
coats, respectively. Base coat of plaster consists of thick and solid layer of
mixture. After completion of base coat, the cement applied on wall surface is
spread using a flat wooden plank, also known as ‘Wooden Float’. The top coat is
applied before the base coat dries completely. This helps to form a firm and
cohesive bond between both coats (base coat & top coat).
Following are the types of plaster;
viz. Cement Plaster, Earthen Plaster (a mixture of clay and cow dung),
specialized waterproof plaster, specially designed stucco plaster (primarily used
for exterior walls). Generally, we use cement plaster. However, in rural area, in
some cases, the traditional earthen plaster made up of a mixture of clay and cow
dung is still used. Similarly, in urban area, Plaster of Paris is used abundantly.

Benefits of Plastering –
1. There are multiple benefits of plastering. It eliminates roughness and
unevenness of wall and ceiling making them uniform.
2. Plastering helps to cover up the sub-standard material used during
construction.
3. It helps to protect the building from external detrimental sources like rain,
dust;
4. Any shortcomings or minor faults induced during construction can be covered
up by plastering.
5. The gaps and roughness between brickwork can be corrected by plastering.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 58

6. Plastering provides final finishing to construction wherein a uniform surface is

created to enhance a building’s look as per need and in desired proportion.
This helps to paint the walls, draw paintings, or hang posters effectively
enriching the overall look of the walls.
7. Plaster is strong and durable by nature. It doesn’t contract or expand with
changing climatic conditions. Plaster sustains firm grip of walls.

Precautionary measures to be taken while selecting plastering material –

1. Plaster should always be soft, non-absorbent, fire resistant, washable, immune
to change in climatic temperature
2. It should not contract post drying and application on wall
3. Plaster should hold a firm and uniform grip on the wall

Following things should be considered while selecting plastering material in

relation to factors that may affect plastering material –
1. Availability and d durability of binding material to be used with plaster
2. Roughness and expected uniformity of the surface where plaster is supposed
to be applied
3. Current climatic condition at the application area of plaster according to the
changing atmospheric situation
4. Surface of wall/ceiling (interior or exterior)

Types of Plastering –

1. Earthen Plaster – This is the cheapest

option of plastering. Primarily, mud (wet
clay) or cow dung is used to plaster walls of
homes. In this method of plastering, clay,
cow dung, grass and marginal amount of
sand is mixed and used for wall plastering.
Before plastering, these walls are watered
and made wet so that the plastering coat is
applied smoothly and induce firm grip of
plaster on the wall. Fig 33 - Earthen Plaster

2. Cement Plaster – Cement is the primary

material for exterior wall plastering.
Cement is predominantly used to plaster
dug land, uniform levelling of walls.

3. Lime Plaster –Lime plaster is produced by

mixing lime and sand in 1:1 ratio and
crushing it fine in mortar mill to form a
uniform material of plaster. Fig 34 - Lime Plaster
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 59

4. POP – Plaster of Paris is a type of plaster derived from

quick setting Gypsum (i.e. calcium sulphate
hemihydrate). On heating Gypsum, water evaporates
and the residual material is known as ‘Plaster of Paris or
POP’. POP is highly water-soluble and its mixture with
water is used to plaster walls conveniently. As
mentioned, POP is water-soluble and hence is not
recommended to be used for plastering of exterior walls.
A mixture of POP and lime is used to prepare
decorative/artistic objects, false ceiling, and as a filler
for wall cracks and holes.
Fig 35 - Plaster of Paris

Precautionary measures to be taken during plastering –

Before we begin plastering, it is necessary to clean the application area (walls
and/or ceiling).
· The wall (or ceiling) that needs to be plastered should be cleaned first and kept
moist appropriately.
· Ensure that the application area is free from grease, oil, or dust.
· During plastering, 2 to 3 layers are applied on the wall after a stipulated time
interval. Ensure that thickness of each layer is not more than 12 mm.
· Before beginning plastering, fill up all the holes that were done during
construction of wall.
· After applying plaster on wall, check whether it is spread as a uniform layer,
using a plumb bob.
· After applying plaster on wall, extract excess water by absorbing it with a
sponge.
· Inspect the plaster mixture thoroughly. Remove large stones, wire, threads, or
foreign material, if any.
· Leave the plastered surface as is for at least 12 hours so that the plaster is set
firmly.
· Before commencing painting or finishing process, leave the plastered wall as
is, to dry for at least 24 hours.
· Check whether dried scales or flakes of plastering material do not come out
from the surface (i.e. desquamation).
· Due to uneven proportion of plastering material, many times hairline cracks
appear on the walls. To avoid this, ensure that all ingredients in the plastering
mixture are taken in proper proportion.
· To avoid cracks on the surface of plastered wall, ensure that the plastered wall
doesn’t dry immediately after plastering.
· Ensure that white dots don’t form on the plastered surface due to mineral
contents of plastering material.

Painting means applying coat of a paint on the wall or ceiling. In the process of
painting, a liquid paint material is applied as a final finishing material on a
plastered wall. Post completion of plaster, painting needs to be done for walls,
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 60

ceiling of the building, and wooden furniture, metal items in the house. Applying
a coat of paint to items mentioned above is known as ‘Painting’. After completion
of construction, painting needs to be done so decorate the building. Painting is
needed so that the plastered walls in the house look attractive and beautiful.

Necessity of Painting –
· The main objective of painting is to prevent any adverse effects of changing
climatic factors of atmosphere (like rain, humidity, change in temperature, etc.)
on the constructed building and its surface.
· Along with the walls and ceiling, painting needs to be done also for wooden
furniture and metal items in the house.
· Due to painting, household items and building look attractive.
· Painting protects wooden furniture and metal items from rusting and termite
that may occur due to exposure to climatic factors like humidity and chemical
reaction with oxygen (called as oxidation).

Characteristics of Good Paint –

· A good paint spreads on the wall uniformly and does not consist of clots, dirt,
or foreign material.
· A good quality paint can be easily handled by a brush
· A good quality paint is not injurious to human body.
· A good quality paint is available at reasonable rate in market.
· A good paint looks majestic, radiant, and attractive on the wall and lasts long
(remains durable).
· Being fire retardant and antifungal is also characteristics of a good quality
paint

Following ingredients are present in paint –

· Base – This is the solid component present in the paint. This is the main
ingredient that spreads on the wall surface. The base material defines quality
of paint. This ingredient defines paint’s quality of durability and uniform
spread on the wall surface.
· Binder – This is a liquid component present in the paint that is mixed with the
base component, helping it to spread uniformly all over the wall surface. As it
helps the wall surface to hold the paint, it is known as ‘Binder’. It adds luster
to the paint and it protects the wall from water and humidity (i.e. the act of
waterproofing).
· Refined pure linseed oil is used as binder in paint.
· Paint driers like red lead, lead acetate, cobalt are added to paint to promote or
accelerate the curing or hardening or drying of paint.
· Coloring Pigments – These are added to paint to give it a specific colour or
tone.
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Minimum 3 coats are applied during painting.

· The first coat is known as ‘Primer’. This protects the wall surface from erosion.
· The second coat is known as ‘Undercoat’. This coat helps to make the wall
surface uniform.
· The third coat is known as ‘Finishing Coat’. This coat helps the wall surface to
become neat, clean, uniform, majestic, attractive, and radiant.

Precautionary measures to be taken during painting –

· It is necessary to have the application area of painting ventilated. If the room is
not adequately ventilated, it may lead to stuffy (bad odour) experience and
leave stains of paint on the wall surface.
· It is necessary to protect the painted wall from water and direct sunlight. A
continuous exposure to direct sunlight or water may fade the paint.
· If the quantity of oil (binder) in the paint is excess or the surface is wet during
painting, it may lead to occurrence of bubbles on the painted surface. To avoid
this, the wall surface should undergo uniform priming.
· To avoid any potential damage to flooring during painting, cover the flooring
with a scrap carpet.
· Inspect the target wall for any potential moistness and/or water leakage before
painting.
· Before beginning painting, scrub the wall surface with a good quality scrubber
to remove dried scales or flakes of plastering material. If a hollow sound is
heard after tapping the surface, it may be due to substandard quality of
plaster. Such plaster is prone to wear off, exposing wall to further deterioration.
· If cracks are visible on the target wall, they should be smeared over by applying
either Plaster of Paris (POP) or a mortar of cement and sand in the ratio of 1:3.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Subjective Questions
1. What is plaster?
2. Describe the advantages of plastering.
3. Mention any two types of plastering.
4. What does ‘Lime Plaster’ mean?
5. What is mean by ‘Painting’?
6. Describe the characteristics of good quality paint.
7. What are the precautionary measures to be considered during painting?
8. Paint is applied through three coats. Explain these three coats of painting.
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What Have You Learnt?

On completion of this session, students will be able to:

· Describe safety precautions while plastering with mortar
· Describe the benefits of plastering
· Describe the benefits of painting
· Function of cement, sand and water
· Plaster & paint the given area
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 125

SESSION 2: IRRIGATION & WATER CONSERVATION

METHODS
Water is an important aspect of human life. Proper planning is essential for
conservation of rain water.
Every year we store the rain water and prepare plans for water supply; but this
planning falls short because of delayed monsoon. Then the struggle for water
starts. Controlled usage of water is necessary to fulfill the needs of a growing
population.
In this chapter, we are going to learn about water conservation and irrigation
methods.

Objectives
· Understanding the need and methods of water conservation.
· Study of different irrigation

Water Conservation

The need of water-conservation: -

Freshwater contributes to only 2% of the total water on the earth. Groundwater
contributes to 11% of total freshwater.
Ground water is a very scarce and a valuable natural resource. Due to
uncontrolled usage of water, the amount of ground water is gradually decreasing.
Rain water harvesting is essential to improve the ground water level.

What is rain water harvesting?

Rain water harvesting is the method for conservation or storage of rain water.
Simply put, it means collecting the rain water from the roof tops of homes,
storing it and then using it later after purification.

Urban Areas Rural Areas

Rooftop runoff water collection Gully plug
Recharge pits Level-line dam/Contour Bund
Recharge trench Gabion Structure
Tube wells Percolation tanks
Recharge wells Check dams/Drain Dams
Recharge shafts/trenches
Dug well recharge
Ground water dams/Subsurface
dams
Ground water enrichment in rural areas:-
In rural areas, the main technique is surface spreading (let rain water soak over
maximum area) since large open surfaces of land are available for soaking.
Following methods can be used to avoid flow away from roofs, slopes, rivers,
rivulets, and drains:
Gully plugs: -
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These small dams are built using locally available stones, clay, nearby bushes
across small gullies and streams running down the hill slopes and are used to
accumulate and soak the water from streams and rills flowing down the hillside
slopes. This helps in improving the moisture level and fertility of the soil. Such
gully plugs can be built where there is a local break in slope and the flow of water
is blocked or slows down.
The system of bunds connecting places at same elevation (level-line dam) is very
useful in retaining soil moisture in the watershed for long time. Useful in low
rainfall area

Percolation tank: -
It is suitable for highly permeable land. In this water conservation method
surface water runoff is made to percolate & recharge the ground water storage.
We can provide this storage water to nearby wells. The objective of these kind of
tanks is to facilitate water absorption and recharge levels of ground water.

Recharge pits:-
With the help of recharge pits we can store rain water. We can use this water
conservation method in area where surface
rocks are permeable.
The recharge pits are constructed 1-2 meters
wide and 2-3 meter deep.
The pits are then filled with boulders (5 to 20
cms), gravel and coarse sand, so that the silt
content that will come with runoff water will
be easily removed.

Fig 10 - Recharge pits

For the buildings with smaller roof areas, the
pit can be filled with pieces of broken bricks
and gravel. To maintain the water recharge rate, it is essential to periodically
clean up the silt and other waste materials from the top layer of sand.
What is rain water harvesting?
Rain water harvesting is a process of storage the water from rain fall and then
using it later at appropriate time. Simply put, it means collecting the rain water
from the roof tops of homes, storing it and then using it later after purification.

Why rain water harvesting?

Today, scarcity of quality water has become a major problem. Available sources
drinking water are depleting. Considering this, it is essential to enrich the
available natural sources of water. The rain water is left unused and lost as run
off. Therefore, rain water harvesting is necessary.

Benefits of rain water harvesting:

· Rain water harvesting can become a supplement for other sources of water
supply. (e.g. groundwater or municipal water)
· The areas without water supply Rain water harvesting has a ability to build or
for farming.
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· Recourse of pure, chemicals free and high quality water.

· Reduced flood situations
· Prevention of topsoil loss

Irrigation-
Water supply is very important for crops. Crops cannot grow without water.
Compared to seasonal crops, the roots of fruit bearing trees go deep
underground. Since fruit crops are perennial they need continued water supply
even after rainy season. Crops can utilize only 50% of the water supplied, the rest
is wasted by seepage in the ground and by evaporation. Also, due to
overwatering, all the water cannot get soaked into the ground and soil becomes
marshy, saline, and infertile (non-cultivable). It also results in a lot of wastage of
water and reduction in crop production. Water is scarce and its utilization must
be monitored strictly and scientifically. Water must be used cautiously and
appropriately and watershed development programs must be undertaken to
increase the water level underground and in wells.
Instead of traditional/conventional water supply methods modern irrigation
techniques must be adopted. Nowadays various modern irrigation facilities are
available. Using these modern technologies for irrigation the crop production can
be increased multi-fold. For horticultural purpose, if advanced irrigation systems
are used instead of traditional methods, water is saved and supplied to a larger
area of the farms. It also reduces the risk of pests and diseases and increases
yield. There are two types of irrigation methods for fruit crops – traditional and
modern. Instead of using an irrigation method because it is common in the area,
appropriate method should be chosen depending on the soil condition and crop.
Before deciding the irrigation system to use it is essential to study the type of soil,
availability of water, type of crop, water supply mechanism, and cultivation
method. In this chapter, we are going to study various types of irrigation
methods.

Types of irrigation systems:

Irrigation methods

Traditional methods
Modern methods

Ground Surface irrigation Drip Irrigation

Sprinkler Irrigation Subsurface Irrigation

Check Basin Irrigation Plant basin Irrigation Furrow Irrigation Pot Irrigation
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Traditional Methods: -

1. Check Basin Irrigation :

Check basin irrigation method is used for levelled fields where ample water is
available. In this method, there is a probability of wastage of water due to seepage
in drains and of water logging. This method is used
for crops cultivated at low interval distances like
bananas, papaya. In this method, the whole field is
divided into basins. The basins are connected
through drain type flow ways. There is a possibility of
excess water accumulation and damage to the crops
due to water logging.

Fig 11 - Check Basin Irrigation

2. Furrow Irrigation :
In this irrigation method, furrows are made between two rows of trees and water
is supplied via the furrows. The local fruit orchards do not use this method of
irrigation. This method is recommended for fruit orchards with medium quality of
soil. Water should be released slowly in these
furrows, so that instead of flowing away it
will seep into the nearby soil. For small fruit
trees, the water from the furrows on both the
sides is sufficient. As the trees grow, the
number of furrows between the two rows of
trees is increased for supplying the required
amount of water.

Fig 12 - Furrow irrigation

The furrows should be long and there should be 5 feet distance between the
furrows. If the ground had slope, the furrows should be made across the slope.
The slop should not be more than 0.6 %. In this method water is wasted by
evaporation. This method is not suitable for dry sandy/desert soil.

3. Pot Irrigation :
In southern India, in saline soil farmers place an earthen pitcher filled with water
at the base of the tree. This is a very easy and cost-effective method for supplying
water to trees on unlevelled surfaces. This
method needs more manual labour. It provides
all the same benefits of drip irrigation. This
method is very good for saving the trees in areas
with shortage of water. A hole is made at the
bottom of the earthen pitcher and it is filled with
coconut husk so that water drips slowly at the
root of the trees and supplied the required
moisture.
Fig 13 - Pot irrigation
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Modern methods: -
1. Drip Irrigation :

In this method, small amount of water as per

the type of crop is supplied with the help of
narrow pipes of diameter 12 – 16 mm. A
computerized sensors can be used to measure
soil moisture or soil water content and schedule
drip irrigation. Water can be supplied directly to
the base of the trees using this cost-effective
irrigation method. There are different
mechanisms used for this. Fig 14 - Drip irrigation

In drip irrigation, mainly a network of main pipe, sub main pipes and laterals is
created. The water undergoes filtration before coming in the drip pipes. The main,
submain and lateral pipes are made of plastic and they have perforations at
regular intervals which supply water at the roots. This is the most superior
method of irrigation which results in high quality crop yield in minimum amount
of water, minimum expense, and short time intervals. Drip irrigation give high
levels of crop growth. In addition, liquid fertilizers can be supplied via the drip
irrigation system. This system is very beneficial for orange, Chikoo, lemon,
pomegranate, pineapple, coconut, guava, mango, papaya, banana, spices, and
vegetables.

Ø Properties of drip irrigation: -

1. Water is supplied at low speeds
2. Water is mostly supplied as per need
3. Water is supplied at the base of the trees closer to the root system
4. Water is supplied at low pressure.

Ø Benefits of drip irrigation: -

1. Efficient utilization of available water
2. High level of crop growth and significant increase in yield
3. Reduced risk of damage from underground salts
4. Easy and efficient use of fertilizers and other chemical solutions
(insecticides)
5. Less nuisance of weed and time saved in maintenance
6. Less electricity and manual labour needed

Ø Limitations of drip irrigation: -

1. Accumulation of salts near the roots
2. The roots grow in a limited area
3. High cost of initial investment
4. Possibility of blockages in the perforations on the pipes
5. Risk of damage to the plastic pipes
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2. Sprinkler Irrigation :
In this method water is sprinkled under high pressure through pipes. This
method is convenient for areas affected by high levels of soil erosion and uneven
ground levels.
Water can be supplied effectively to uneven ground with this method and the
expense to level the surface can be avoided.
Small plants and fully-grown trees both can be
watered appropriately. Fertilizers can be
provided via the water. The couplers can be
easily attached or detached, so the lightweight
pipes can be easily moved and connected as
required. Even if the ground has uneven slopes
the pipeline can be setup as needed. The
automatic sprinklers are attached on these
pipes at convenient intervals.
Fig 15 - Sprinkler irrigation
After the pump is started, the water is lightly sprinkled adding moisture to the
soil. Sprinklers of various heights are readily available, so this method can be
used for any kind of crops. The method of connecting the pipes is easy. Even one
worker can supply water to a large area with this method. Though the initial
investment of this system is high, it proves to be cost effective considering the
amount of water saved and the increased yield. This irrigation system is useful
for fruit trees of moderate height e.g. guava, pomegranate, pineapple. In the
initial days of the cultivation in a fruit orchard, this system can be used for
irrigation.

Ø Benefits of sprinkler irrigation: -

1. Wastage of water during transport is avoided
2. Effective area under cultivation can be doubled
3. Large amount of water is saved
4. This method can be easily utilized in areas with sandy, erosion-prone soil and
uneven ground levels.
5. Fertilizers and insecticides can be provided via the sprinkler system

Ø Drawbacks of sprinkler irrigation: -

1. Wastage of water if the climate is hot and dry
2. Electricity is necessary to supply water
3. Hi cost of initial setup
4. There is a need for technical personnel to run this system
5. Useful for only certain types for fruit crops

3. Subsurface Irrigation or Bi-wall irrigation :

This method is suitable for fruit orchards. Before supplying water using this
system, sand and screen filters are required to filter the water. Water soluble
fertilizers are effectively supplied directly at the roots via the bi-wall tubes. This
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method is also called as “Bi-wall method”. For the crops cultivated in rows and in
confined areas (vegetables, tomatoes, sugarcane, pineapple, bananas etc.)

Ø Benefits of bi-wall irrigation: -

1. Wastage of water by evaporation is avoided
2. Avoids damage to roots caused by water logging
3. Land area is not wasted as there is no need to have furrows
4. Very low maintenance, complete utilization of water and fertilizers is achieved

4. Bubbler Irrigation :
Some fruit trees can have a different type of root structure. So, there is a slight
change done in the drip irrigation system. Instead of drip supply, water is given
as a higher volume adjustable flow directly at the base of the trees. Bubbler
system has one fundamental difference – in this method the sub pipes bring
water to each tree, and there is a lateral pipe at the base of the tree which
provides water in a basin around the tree. Water is supplied at the speed of 225
litres per hour. In this method, the speed of water supply is significantly higher
than the rate of absorption, so the water is accumulated and a small basin
around the tree is necessary.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Subjective Questions
1) Explain the need for water conservation?
2) Describe the methods of water conservation in urban and rural areas.
3) Explain the concept of recharge pit?
4) Explain the traditional methods of water conservation?
5) Write detailed information about percolation tanks?
6) Explain the concept of Rainwater Harvesting with a diagram?
7) Explain the benefits of rainwater harvesting?
8) Explain the pot irrigation method?
9) Explain the modern methods of irrigation?
10) Differentiate between drip irrigation and sprinkler irrigation?

What Have You Learnt?

On completion of this session, students will be able to:
· Demonstrate the knowledge and application of different irrigation and
water conservation methods
· Identify various irrigation methods
· Demonstrate installation and maintenance of drip/sprinkler irrigation
system
· Demonstrate various water conservation methods (bund, rainwater
harvesting, trenching etc.)