VCE Physics Units 3&4

Complete Course Notes

2024–2025

Rei Rogu and Alwin Wang

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Title: VCE Physics Units 3&4 Complete Course Notes
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Preface
Hey everyone, welcome to Physics Units 3&4!
In these Notes, we’ll be trying our best to help you throughout the year. In
keeping with the focus of the new Study Design, we’ll be providing you with all
the resources we have, including things from our own notes. These Notes aren’t
supposed to overwhelm you in any way, so we’ve tried to flag the especially
important concepts where relevant.
We really encourage you to use your textbook, study notes, and of course pay
attention in class to your teacher in conjunction with using these Notes to get
the most out of Physics this year.
All the best!

— Rei Rogu and Alwin Wang

Copyright © 2023 InStudent Publishing Pty. Ltd. iii

Contents
I Unit 3: How do fields explain motion and electricity? 1
1 How do physicists explain motion in two dimensions? 2
1.1 Laws of motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.1 Newton’s first law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.2 Newton’s second law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.3 Newton’s third law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.4 Circular motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.5 Applying uniform circular motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.6 Modelling natural and artificial satellites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.7 Solving vertical circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.1.8 Projectile motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.1.9 Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.1.10 Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2 Relationships between force, energy, and mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.2.1 Momentum–impulse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.2.2 Work done . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.2.3 Conservation of energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.2.4 Mass–energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.2.5 Application: fusion in the Sun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2 How do things move without contact? 19
2.1 Fields and interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.1.1 The field model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.1.2 Gravitational fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.1.3 Electric fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.1.4 Magnetic fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.2 Effects of fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.2.1 Acceleration on a charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.2.2 Path of electric charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.2.3 Gravitational fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.2.4 Types of fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.2.5 Potential energy changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.3 Application of field concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.3.1 Gravity and satellites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.3.2 Interactions of magnets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.3.3 DC motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.3.4 Particle accelerators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3 How are fields used in electricity generation? 35
3.1 Generation of electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.1.1 Magnetic flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.1.2 Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.1.3 Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.1.4 Photovoltaic cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.2 Transmission of electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.2.1 AC voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.2.2 Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.2.3 Transmission loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.3 Reducing power loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

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II Unit 4: How have creative ideas and investigation revolutionised thinking in
physics? 48
1 How has understanding about the physical world changed? 49
1.1 Properties of mechanical waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
1.1.1 Energy transfer of waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
1.1.2 Measurements of waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
1.1.3 Interference of waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
1.2 Light as a wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
1.2.1 Electromagnetic waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
1.2.2 Electromagnetic wave spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
1.2.3 Standing waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
1.2.4 Diffraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
1.2.5 Young’s double slit experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
1.3 Light as a particle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
1.3.1 Photoelectric effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
1.3.2 Incident radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
1.4 Matter as particles or waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
1.4.1 Diffraction patterns of photons and electrons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
1.4.2 De Broglie wavelength of matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
1.5 Similarities between light and matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
1.5.1 Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
1.5.2 Quantisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
1.5.3 Atomic absorption and emission spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
1.5.4 Quantised states of atoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
1.5.5 Single photon/electron in Young’s double slit experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
1.6 Einstein’s theory of special relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
1.6.1 The Michelson–Morley experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
1.6.2 Einstein’s two postulates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
1.6.3 Proper time and length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
1.6.4 Time dilation and length contraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
1.6.5 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
1.7 Relationship between energy and mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
1.7.1 Einstein’s mass–energy equivalence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
2 Practical investigation 71
2.1 Ideas and investigation design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
2.2 Science communication and scientific posters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
2.2.1 Title . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
2.2.2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
2.2.3 Methodology and methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
2.2.4 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
2.2.5 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
2.2.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2.2.7 Communication statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

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III Final exam 76
1 Tackling the exam 77
1.1 Question types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
1.1.1 Short answer questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
1.1.2 Long answer calculation questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
1.1.3 Explanation questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
1.2 Reading time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
1.3 Writing time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
1.4 What to do before your exam ends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
1.5 How to use assessment reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
1.6 What exam mark do I need for... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
1.7 What can I do right now? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
1.8 What should I do between now and then? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

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 Part I

Unit 3: How do fields explain motion

and electricity?

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 How do physicists explain motion in two dimensions?

Area of Study 1

How do physicists explain motion in two

dimensions?
1.1 Laws of motion
1.1.1 Newton’s first law

K EY P OINT :
Definition: “Every object maintains its current state of being at rest or travelling with a constant velocity
unless a net force greater than zero is acting on it.”
Area of Study 1 – How do physicists explain motion in two dimensions?

In plain English, Newton’s first law is an explanation of why objects can travel through space even though
no force acts upon them. For example, when a tennis ball is thrown (ignoring air resistance) it will continue
on even though it has left the thrower’s hand. This is the first half of the definition.
When an unbalanced force (net force 6= 0) acts upon this tennis ball, namely gravity, the motion of the ball is
altered so it travels in an arc instead of a straight line. An unbalanced force is the equivalent of a non-zero
net force (modern definition). This is the second half of Newton’s first law.
This law is also known as The Law of Inertia.

1.1.2 Newton’s second law

K EY P OINT :
Definition: “The acceleration of a body experiencing an unbalanced force is directly proportional to the
net force and inversely proportional to the mass of the body.”

This is a very wordy summary of Newton’s experiments. He found that the acceleration increased linearly
as the net force increased and decreased linearly as the mass increased.
1
A mathematical representation of this phenomenon is: a ∝ Σ F and a ∝ m . A much more simple repres-
entation is: force equals mass times acceleration.

Net Force (Σ F or Fnet ) = Mass (m) × Acceleration (a)

1.1.3 Newton’s third law

K EY P OINT :
Definition: “When one body exerts a force on another body (action force), the second body exerts an
equal force in the opposite direction on the first (the reaction force).”

This is one of the more straightforward laws in terms of wording. The important points to keep in mind are
that the forces are equal but in opposite directions acting on different objects. Once those are set in your
mind, you can simply remember Newton’s third law as: for every action there is an equal and opposite
reaction.
In order to identify an action–reaction force pair three things must be satisfied:
• The forces are of the same type.
• The force act on different bodies.
• The forces are acting in opposite directions.

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 1.1 Laws of motion

1.1.4 Circular motion

Centripetal acceleration
For any object that is travelling in a circle, the velocity is always tangential to the circle – it wants to ‘es-
cape’ the circle. As the object travels through the circle, clearly the direction of velocity is changing. This
indicates that there must be some sort of acceleration present that is changing the velocity even though the
magnitude of velocity (the speed) is constant. This acceleration is called ‘centripetal acceleration’ which
literally means centre-seeking because the acceleration always points towards the centre.

Area of Study 1 – How do physicists explain motion in two dimensions?

Figure 1.1: Diagram of centripetal acceleration. Velocity (v ) is tangential to the circular path, whereas
acceleration (a) acts towards the centre of the path.

We can calculate the average speed by using speed equals distance divided by time. Distance is given by
the circumference of the circle and the time is the length of time it takes to complete one revolution, known
as the period.

circumference 2π r
v = =
time T

where

v is in metres per second

r is in metres

T (period) is in seconds

The centripetal acceleration is given by:

v2
a=
r
4π 2 r
=
T2

where

a is in metres per second2

v is in metres per second

r is in metres

T (period) is in seconds

Another way to express T is the number of complete circles per second, known as the frequency. This
relationship is given as: T = 1f where f is in Hz.

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 1.1 Laws of motion

Centripetal force

K EY P OINT :
The centripetal force is not an actual force. It is the net force, the sum of all the forces that act on a body
that causes it to travel in a circle.

For example, in a roller coaster ride there may be several forces such as the track pushing against the
bottom of the cart (the normal force), frictional forces, and gravitational forces (weight forces). But, when
we sum all of these forces together, the net force points towards the centre which is the centripetal force
because it acts towards the centre of circular motion.
The centripetal force should not be confused with the centrifugal force. The centripetal force acts towards
the centre causing the circular motion (centripetal is a combination of two Latin words that literally means
‘to seek the centre’). On the other hand, the centrifugal force literally means ‘to flee from the centre’ and is
due to the apparent force that pushes a body away from the centre because of its inertia. Though this is an
Area of Study 1 – How do physicists explain motion in two dimensions?

important distinction, centrifugal force rarely appears at the VCE level.

Now, since the centripetal force is a net force, Newton’s second law can be applied to model circular motion.
Recall that Fnet = m × a.

∴ Fnet = Fc = m × ac

where

Fc is the centripetal force

m is the mass

ac is the centripetal acceleration

Since we know what the centripetal acceleration is, we can substitute in for ac :

mv 2
Fnet = Fc =
r
4mπ 2 r
=
T2

1.1.5 Applying uniform circular motion

In the final Physics 3&4 exam there are three main types of circular motion questions you will encounter:
• Circular motion in a horizontal plane
• Circular motion in a vertical plane
• Circular motion in a banked track
Solving horizontal circles
The key to solving horizontal circular motion is to keep in mind that the centripetal force always acts towards
the centre and that it is equal to the net force, Fnet = Fc .

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 1.1 Laws of motion

Example 1.1
A race car of mass 1, 500 kg speeds around a gravel corner at 30 m/s. If the corner is perfectly flat and
can be modelled as a semi-circle of radius 100 m, find the centripetal force acting on the car and state the
source of the centripetal force.

We can directly use our equations for centripetal acceleration:

mv 2 1, 500 × 302
Fc = =
r 100
= 13.5 kN

We know that the centripetal force is the net force and not the actual force. The only force that acts towards
the centre of the circle. So, the source of the centripetal force is friction.

Solving banked curves

Area of Study 1 – How do physicists explain motion in two dimensions?

K EY P OINT :
For banked curve questions, where an object travels in a horizontal circle on a banked track, there is a
2
shortcut formula available if friction is ignored: tan(θ ) = vgr .

To see the ‘source’ of the centripetal force, consider the image below. It can be seen that the only force that
acts towards the centre is the horizontal component of the normal force.

Figure 1.2: Banked curve example

To derive the shortcut formula for a banked curve, let up be positive in the vertical direction and left be
positive in the horizontal direction:
There is no vertical motion, so in the vertical direction:
Fnet = 0 = N cos(θ ) – W ⇔ N cos(θ ) = mg...(1)

In the horizontal direction, the net force is equal to the centripetal force:
mv 2
Fnet = 0 = N cos(θ ) – W ⇔ N sin(θ ) = ...(2)
r

If we divide the two equations, (2) ÷ (1):

mv 2
N sin (θ ) 
= r
N cos (θ ) m
g
v2
∴ tan (θ) =
gr

Tip: this formula is extremely useful in the final exam as it will save you a lot of time and it is recommended
that you have it on your cheat sheet.

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 1.1 Laws of motion

1.1.6 Modelling natural and artificial satellites

Natural and artificial satellites can be modelled as moving in uniform circular motion, which is a type of
motion in which an object moves in a circle at a constant speed. In uniform circular motion, the velocity
vector of the object is always tangent to the circle, and the acceleration vector is directed towards the centre
of the circle. The magnitude of the acceleration is given by the formula:

v2
a=
r

where:

v is the speed of the object

r is the radius of the circle

Area of Study 1 – How do physicists explain motion in two dimensions?

For natural satellites, such as the Moon orbiting around the Earth, the gravitational force between the two
objects provides the centripetal force that keeps the Moon in its circular orbit. The speed of the Moon in its
orbit depends on its distance from the Earth and the mass of the Earth.
For artificial satellites, such as those used for communication or navigation, the centripetal force is
provided by the gravitational force of the Earth, just like for natural satellites. However, the speed of the
artificial satellite can be controlled by adjusting its altitude and/or its velocity.
By modelling natural and artificial satellite motion as uniform circular motion, we can use the formulas for
circular motion to calculate various properties of the satellite’s orbit, such as its period, speed, and altitude.
Keep in mind the actual orbit of the moon will be considered to be a perfect circle for VCE purposes but it
is not quite this way in reality.
Given this assumption we can assume that centripetal force and weight force can be equated together and
as such we can derive the formula below:

R3 GM
=
T 2 4π 2

where:

T is the period of the satellite measured in seconds

R is the radius measured in metres

M mass of the central body measured in kilograms

G is the universal gravitational constant 6.67 × 10–11 m3 kg–1 s–2

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 1.1 Laws of motion

1.1.7 Solving vertical circles

Highest point
Vertical circles are much more complex to solve than their horizontal counterparts because one has to
account for the effects of gravity at various points on the circle. Thus, for VCE you only need to understand
the motion at the highest and lowest points of a vertical circle.
First consider a scenario when an object is at the top of the vertical circle. However, there are two such
possible cases. For a roller coaster, the cart could be travelling over the top of a hill, on top of the track. Or,
the cart could be performing a loop-the-loop and be dangling on the bottom of the track. Each case will be
considered separately.
Case 1: Outside the circle

Area of Study 1 – How do physicists explain motion in two dimensions?

Figure 1.3: Motion on on a vertical plane at highest point.
From the diagram, it’s evident that there are only two forces that act on the object: the normal force and the
weight force. Remember that the centripetal force is not a force that acts on the object, it is the net force.

K EY P OINT :
For an object on the ‘outside’ of the circle on the top, we can write the equation of motion as follows. In
this equation, down is taken as positive (remember to be consistent with your sign convention!)

Fnet = Fc = W – N
mv 2
= mg – N
r
mv 2
⇔ N(up) = mg –
r

An interesting scenario often used in questions is when the object is travelling fast enough to lose contact
with the circular path it is travelling on and flies off into mid air. To solve such scenarios, we must understand
that the normal force would be zero as it leaves the surface because there is no more contact. Therefore,
we would plug N = 0 into our equation and solve.

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 1.1 Laws of motion

E XTENSION :
We can easily derive a shortcut formula for such a scenario, although (as always) I stress the necessity
of knowing how to tackle questions from scratch without the need for shortcut formulas.
mv 2
We know that from above, N(up) = mg – . Now plugging in N = 0:
r

v 2
m

0 =
m
g –
r
√
∴v = gr

Thus, to find the minimum speed for an object to leave the surface we don’t actually need to know its
mass! All that is required is the radius of the track.
Area of Study 1 – How do physicists explain motion in two dimensions?

Case 2: Inside the circle

From the diagram, it’s evident that again there are

only two forces that act on the object: the normal
force and the weight force. The normal force is act-
ing downwards because the track is above object,
so the contact surface is on top of the object. As
the normal force acts perpendicular to the surface,
it acts straight down. Remember that the centripetal
force is not a force that acts on the object, it is the
net force.

Figure 1.4: Motion on a vertical plane when W and

N are acting downwards.
K EY P OINT :
For an object on the ‘inside’ of the circle at the top, we can write the equation of motion as follows. In
this equation, down is taken as positive (remember to be consistent with your sign convention!)

Fnet = Fc = W + N
mv 2
= mg + N
r
mv 2
⇔ N(down) = – mg
r

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 1.1 Laws of motion

Lowest point
The next scenario we consider is when the object is at the bottom of the circle. However, we will only
consider the case when the object is ‘inside’ the circle, because the object is rarely ever on the outside,
dangling from the bottom.

Area of Study 1 – How do physicists explain motion in two dimensions?

Figure 1.5: Motion on a vertical plane at the lowest point.
From the diagram, it’s evident again that there are only two forces that act on the object: the normal force
and the weight force. Remember that the centripetal force is not a force that acts on the object, it is the net
force.
K EY P OINT :
For an object on the ‘inside’ of the circle at the bottom, we can write the equation of motion as follows.
In this equation, up is taken as positive (remember to be consistent with your sign convention!)

Fnet = Fc = N – W
mv 2
= N – mg
r
mv 2
⇔ N(up) = + mg
r

1.1.8 Projectile motion

The term ‘projectile motion’ is used to describe any object that is launched or dropped at a given velocity
and allowed to travel unhindered. Unless stated otherwise, air resistance is neglected and the only force
that acts on the object is gravity.
This means that we can use our constant acceleration formulas as the net force is gravity which is
constant (if the object is close to the Earth’s surface). To accurately include air resistance in our calculations
would be beyond the scope of VCE Physics.

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 1.1 Laws of motion

Methods of solving
For almost all projectile motion questions, we split up the motion into the vertical and horizontal planes
and solve respectively. As the time taken to travel in the vertical and horizontal directions is the same, we
can use it for both sets of equations.

K EY P OINT :
Using the following formulas which come from the constant acceleration formulas, we can substitute in
information from the question to solve for the required unknowns.
Work in either the vertical or horizontal direction then use the time value to solve for the unknowns in the
other direction.

Time is the only variable which is the same on both the horizontal and vertical plane of a projectile motion,
thus it can be thought of as a bridge that connects the two planes.
Area of Study 1 – How do physicists explain motion in two dimensions?

Initial launch:

initial velocity = u with angle = θ

uV = u sin(θ )
uH = u cos(θ )

Vertically, gravity is the only force, so a = –g (since gravity acts down).

vV = uv – gt
1
xV = uV t – gt 2
2
2 2
vV = uV – 2gxV
1
xV = (vV + uV ) t
2

Horizontally, no force acts, so a = 0.

vH = u H
xH = u H t

Remember that time is constant, so tV = tH . Also recall that to find the velocity from vV and vH :
q
v = vV2 + vH2
 
–1 vV
θ = tan
vH

K EY P OINT :
Projectile motion questions are very common on the final exam and it would be a great idea to include
some of these formulas on the cheat sheet as the questions are allocated a lot of marks. In VCE you will
be asked to interpret qualitatively but not quantitatively the effect of air resistance on projectile motion.
This means you are required to state that air resistance will reduce the path of the projectile motion, so
a projectile will reach a smaller height and have a shorter range.

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 1.1 Laws of motion

1.1.9 Energy
Another way of describing motion is to consider the amount of energy an object has at a particular point
in space and at a given time. We can use energy calculations to solve for quantities such as velocity. It is
important to keep in mind that energy is a scalar quantity measured in joules (J).
K EY P OINT :
Remember: a scalar variable represents a magnitude. A vector variable represents both a magnitude
and a direction.

Kinetic energy (KE)

K EY P OINT :
Kinetic energy is the energy due to motion. To change the kinetic energy of an object, an external
unbalanced force must be applied.

Area of Study 1 – How do physicists explain motion in two dimensions?

Kinetic energy is calculated as:

1
Ek = KE = mv 2
2

where

KE is in J

m is in kg

v is in m/s

Gravitational potential energy (GPE)

K EY P OINT :
Gravitational potential energy is the energy stored in an object because of its position above some
datum/reference point (usually taken as the Earth’s surface). To change the gravitational potential en-
ergy, the height of the object must be changed.

Gravitational potential energy is calculated as:

Ug = GPE = mgh

where

GPE is in J

m is in kg

g is in m/s

h is in m

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 1.1 Laws of motion

Elastic potential energy (EPE)

A force must be applied in order to stretch or compress (deform) an object. An ideal spring is an elastic
material whose length changes directly proportional to the force applied.
Hooke’s Law can be used to find the relationship between the force applied and the stretched length. Note
that x is the change in length, sometimes written as ∆x, not the final length. The equation for Hooke’s Law
is:
F = –kx

where

F is in N

k is in Nm–1

x is in m
Area of Study 1 – How do physicists explain motion in two dimensions?

Elastic potential energy, also known as strain potential energy is the energy stored in an object because it
has the ability to return from a deformed (stretched or compressed) state. To return to its neutral position,
the external stretching or compressing force must be released.
For an ideal spring that obeys Hooke’s Law, we can directly calculate the elastic potential energy given that
we know the value of k . Note that x is the change in length, sometimes written as ∆x, not the final length.
The equation for elastic potential energy is:
1
Ue = EPE = kx 2
2
where

EPE is in J

N is in Nm–1

x is in m

1.1.10 Momentum
Momentum is ‘mass in motion.’ It is a vector quantity calculated as the product of velocity and mass of an
object, and has the same direction as the velocity of the object. The greater the momentum of an object,
the longer the time taken for it to come to a stop due to some external force.
Momentum has units of kg m/s or N s.
p = mv

where

p is in kg m/s

m is in kilograms

v is in metres per second

The law of conservation of momentum dictates that when two or more objects collide the momentum before
the collision is equal to the momentum after the collision. There are three kind of collisions that appear in
VCE Physics:
• Two objects coming from opposite directions collide and stick together after the collision.
• Two objects coming from the same direction collide and stick together after the collision.
• Two objects coming from opposite directions collide and do not stick together after the collision or
move in opposite directions.

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 1.1 Laws of motion

Figure 1.6: A collision between two objects where they stick together after the collision.

A collision is elastic if the sum of the kinetic energies of the bodies involved in the collision remains the

Area of Study 1 – How do physicists explain motion in two dimensions?

same before and after the collision. A collision is inelastic if the sum of the kinetic energies of the bodies
involved in the collision are not the same before and after the collision.
To compute the kinetic energy of each object, the classical Newtonian formula of kinetic energy is used
which is:

1
KE = mv 2
2

where

m is mass in kg

v is velocity in ms–1

If the energies are not the same, the total kinetic energy would be higher before the collision and less
afterwards. This is due to miscellaneous loss of energy in the form of heat, sound energy, etc.
Impulse
Impulse is primarily defined as change in momentum but there are two formulas used to calculate it as
shown below:

I = ∆p
= m∆v
=F ×t

where

∆ denotes change

m is mass in kg

v is velocity in ms–1

F is force in newtons (N)

t is time in seconds (s)

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 1.1 Laws of motion

Crumple zones in cars

Cars and other motor vehicles have what are called crumple zones, which in essence are simply parts of
the car that can easily be crumbled into pieces. At first it may not seem obvious why manufacturers do this,
but there is a safety reason behind it. In order to understand this, let’s analyse our formula for impulse and
let rearrange by making force (F ) the subject:

I
F =
t

where

I is impulse in Ns–1

t is time in s
Area of Study 1 – How do physicists explain motion in two dimensions?

As we can tell, an increase in the denominator t would result in a lower force being applied when two objects
collide. That is, if the time of a collision increases, then the force applied to each of the respective bodies
will reduce for the same change in momentum (which is another definition of impulse).

Figure 1.7: Crumple zones in cars.

K EY P OINT :
Crumple zones are a practical application of the theory of impulse and momentum and as such it is
necessary to understand it as it may appear on SACs or your exam. A lot of students lose marks on this
topic simply because they neglect the practical components.

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 1.2 Relationships between force, energy, and mass

1.2 Relationships between force, energy, and mass

1.2.1 Momentum–impulse
In a collision, an object experiences a force for a specific amount of time that results in a change in mo-
mentum, causing the object to slow down or speed up. This change in momentum is equal to the impulse
applied to the object. This can be expressed mathematically as:
I = pfinal – pinitial = ∆p

We can actually prove this using Newton’s second law, F = ma. Using the constant acceleration formula:
v – u 
F =m
t
Ft = mv – mu
I = pfinal – pinitial

Area of Study 1 – How do physicists explain motion in two dimensions?

So, the formula for impulse can be written as:

F ∆t = m∆v

where:

F is force

∆t is change in time

m is mass

∆v is change in velocity

1.2.2 Work done

K EY P OINT :
Work in Physics relates to the concept that energy is transferred or transformed when a force acts on a
body causing a change in displacement. To indicate that work has been done, simply state that: work
has been done on the object by the external force.

There are cases when a force is applied but no work is done by an external force. For example, if the final
displacement is zero, then by definition no work was done as there was no change in displacement.
If the force acts at right angles to the displacement, then no work is done because the force did not cause
the change in displacement.
To calculate the work done on an object, we can determine the change in energy (e.g. kinetic energy) or
the displacement multiplied by the force component acting parallel to the displacement.
W = ∆E = x · F cos (θ )
where W is in J, E is in J, x is in m, F is in N and θ is in degrees

W and E are in J

x is in m

F is in N

θ is in degrees

If the force is non-constant, then the work done is found by estimating the area under a force–time graph.

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 1.2 Relationships between force, energy, and mass

Work is known as the product of force and distance, where the force vector in the formula is being applied in
the same direction as the displacement of the object. However, it is crucial to understand that work is also
the area under a force–distance graph. Force is usually on the y -axis, measured in newtons, and distance
is on the x-axis, measured in metres. The units have to be newtons and metres. If not, then you have to
convert them yourself.
Area of Study 1 – How do physicists explain motion in two dimensions?

1.2.3 Conservation of energy

K EY P OINT :
“Energy cannot be created or destroyed, it can only be changed from one form to another.”
Note that is is only in classical physics (i.e. not in special relativity, as we will discuss later!).

Mechanical energy the is total of all kinetic and potential energies. In a frictionless system, the mech-
anical energy is constant.

KE + GPE + EPE = constant

1 1
mv 2 + mgh + kx 2 = constant
2 2

In a system where friction is not negligible and cannot be neglected, the total mechanical energy will not
stay constant. Energy is not destroyed, it is transformed into less useful forms.
K EY P OINT :
Energy loss is when energy is degraded into less useful forms such as heat, sound, or permanent
deformation (such as a permanently crushed Coke can).

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 1.2 Relationships between force, energy, and mass

Elastic potential energy can be calculated as the area under force–distance graph, which can include ideal
springs obeying Hooke’s law. The graph below is of a spring that obeys Hooke’s law.

Area of Study 1 – How do physicists explain motion in two dimensions?

Gravitational potential energy can also be calculated as the area under a force–distance graph in much the
same way.

1.2.4 Mass–energy
In addition to non-absolute time and length, Einstein’s relatively indicates that mass is also not absolute.

K EY P OINT :
The rest mass of an object is the mass measured at rest, denoted by m0 .
When moving at a speed v , the mass of the object is given by:

m = γ m0

Now, γ ≥ 1 and increases as v increases, as the velocity of an object approaches the speed of light
its mass approaches infinity. This means that an infinite amount of energy would be required to continue
accelerating the mass. Do not forget the relationship between the Lorentz factor and speed as depicted in
the diagram below. As the speed of an object increases, the Lorentz factor will reach infinity. When the
speed of an object is zero, the object is at rest (γ = 1), hence there is an intercept on the graph.

Figure 1.8: The relationship between the Lorentz factor and the speed of an object.

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 1.2 Relationships between force, energy, and mass

Mass and energy are equivalent giving rise to Einstein’s most famous formula:

E = mc 2

For example, if one gram of matter is completely converted to energy, the amount of energy released would
be 9 × 1013 J – a tremendous amount!
K EY P OINT :
As mass and energy are no longer considered separately, it is the total mass–energy of a system that is
conserved.
E = E0 + KE
. . . where E is the total energy, E0 is the rest mass energy E0 = m0 c 2 and KE is the kinetic energy.

Suppose an object is travelling at very low speeds, then

Area of Study 1 – How do physicists explain motion in two dimensions?

KE = E – E0 = mc 2 – m0 c 2 = γ m0 c 2 – m0 c 2
⇒ KE = (γ – 1) m0 c 2

For low speeds of v , this is very close to the kinetic energy in our classical physics:

1
KE = mv 2
2

1.2.5 Application: fusion in the Sun

A fission reactor, such as that in a nuclear power plant, involves ‘splitting’ a larger atom such as uranium
into two smaller ones. However, in a fusion reactor the opposite occurs – two smaller atoms are combined
into a single larger atom. Both of these processes create large amounts of energy by converting some
mass into energy according to E = mc 2 .
Our Sun, like any star, began as a large cloud of gas that contracted under its own gravity. At its core,
hydrogen atoms (the majority of the gas) are subject to immense pressures, about 100 billion times greater
than the air pressure on the surface of the Earth. This is enough to force two proton together even though
they repel each other.
Four hydrogen atoms (four protons) are required for fusion which produce a helium particle (two protons and
two neutrons). The mass “lost” (i.e. the difference in mass between a helium particle and four hydrogen
particles) is approximately 4.77 × 10–29 . Although this is a tiny mass, it equates to 4.29 × 10–12 J per
reaction. There are around 9 × 1037 reactions per second occurring in our Sun which equates to a near-
ridiculous amount of energy being produced!

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 How do things move without contact?

Area of Study 2

How do things move without contact?

2.1 Fields and interactions
2.1.1 The field model
In VCE Physics, we deal with what’s known as ‘classical fields.’ These are gravitational fields and electro-
magnetic fields. A field is the assignment of a physical quantity at each point in space and time around it.
A scalar field only assigns a value. A vector field assigns a value and a direction.
In summary, a field can be thought of as a 3D region of space surrounding a particular body. This region
exerts a force on another body with a certain property that interacts with the 3D region of space. There are
three main types of fields that you will be dealing with in VCE Physics:
• Gravitational

Area of Study 2 – How do things move without contact?

• Electric
• Magnetic
The most common example of a field would be a weather forecast on television. For example, the temper-
ature at various locations across Victoria would be a scalar field as we are being told a specific value for
temperature at various locations (i.e. points in space). If the temperature at each location was shown over
a 24 hour period, then the value of temperature would also change depending on the time of day (i.e. points
in time).
Alternatively, we could consider the wind on a weather forecast. Not only would we be shown the strength
of the wind, for example 20m/s, but also the direction, for example from the the south. The speed and
direction of the wind would change depending where we are in Victoria and what time of day it is (i.e. points
in space and time).
For both of these examples it is possible to create mathematical models, albeit very complex ones, in order
to describe the field. Luckily for us we will be looking at much simpler models.

2.1.2 Gravitational fields

K EY P OINT :
A gravitational field is the force of gravity per unit of mass. The direction of the field is towards the centre
of the mass.

For example, consider the Earth and the Sun. There is a gravitational attraction between the two, meaning
the Earth is attracted to the Sun and vice versa.
The strength of the gravitational field is given by:

F
g=
m

where

g is the gravitational field strength (m/s2 or N/kg)

F is the force due to gravity (N)

m is the mass of the object (kg)

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 2.1 Fields and interactions

In order to find the force on two masses, we use Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitational Attraction:

GMm
F =
r2
where

G is the gravitational constant 6.67 × 10–34 m3 /(kg s2 )

M is the mass of the first object (kg)

m is the mass of the second object (kg)

r is the distance between the two centres of the two objects

Notice the difference between these formulae and those of an electric field!

2.1.3 Electric fields

An electric field is the electric force per unit charge. The direction of the field is is from positive to negative.
Area of Study 2 – How do things move without contact?

For example, suppose there is a positive charge, such as a proton. This proton will have a radially outwards
pointing electric field. If there is a nearby proton, it the two will be repelled. If there is a nearby electron, the
two will be attracted.
The strength of the electric field is given by:
F
E =
q
where

E is the electric field in N/C or volts/m

F is the electric force in Newtons

q is the charge in Coulombs

In order to find the force between two charges, we use Coulomb’s law:

kQq
F =
r2
where

k is Coulomb’s constant 8.99 × 109 Nm2 /C2

Q is one charge in C

q is the second charge in C

r is the distance between the centres

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 2.1 Fields and interactions

2.1.4 Magnetic fields

Shapes of magnetic fields
The following Figure 2.1 shows the field lines of a typical bar magnet. The key things to note are that the
magnetic field lines never cross; they leave the north pole and enter the south pole; and they are much
closer near the ends of the magnet (poles), indicating that the magnetic field is stronger nearer the poles.
The field lines do continue in the magnet, but it is not essential to show these unless you are specifically
asked to.

Area of Study 2 – How do things move without contact?

Figure 2.1: Field lines of a bar magnet
K EY P OINT :
When drawing magnetic field lines, always keep in mind that:
• Lines start from the north pole and end at the south pole (the lines actually continue inside the
magnet, forming a closed loop).
• The tangent to a field line at any point gives the direction of the field at that point.
• The direction of a field is the direction of the force acting on a north pole, such as a small compass,
at that point.
• The stronger a magnetic field is, the closer the lines are.
• The lines of a magnetic field never intersect.

There are also some other conventions for describing fields that you will need to understand. These con-
ventions are shown in Figure 2.2:
• A cross is used to represent a magnetic field going into the page.
• A dot is used to represent an arrow coming out of the page.
• The image of an arrow can be used to help you remember: the dot is like the head of the arrow
shooting towards you and the cross is like the tail feathers as it shoots away.

Figure 2.2: Conventions for drawing field lines in 3D

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 2.1 Fields and interactions

Right hand grip rule

This rule is an important one that you will need to get your head around before your SACs and exam! Let’s
look at the key components of this rule. For a straight, current-carrying wire:
• The thumb points in the direction of the current.
• The fingers curl in the direction of the magnetic field.
• The field is stronger closer to the wires, so magnetic field lines are drawn closer.
Area of Study 2 – How do things move without contact?

Figure 2.3: Illustration of the right hand grip rule

Note: the right hand grip rule is sometimes called the screw rule.
Right hand grip rule for solenoids
The right hand grip rule works in reverse too! For a looped, current-carrying wire with many turns:
• The thumb points in the direction of the magnetic field.
• The fingers curl in the direction of the current.
Outside the solenoid, the magnetic field lines are very similar to that of a bar magnet. However, the field
lines do pass through the solenoid and should be shown.

Figure 2.4: Magnetic field lines in a wire loop Figure 2.5: Right hand grip rule for a solenoid

In Figure 2.4 we see a face-on depiction of the coil. Around the outside, the magnetic field is coming out of
the page, while the field is going into the page within the coil.
In Figure 2.5 we see a side-on depiction of the coil. It looks much like a typical bar magnet, where the north
pole is on the right and the south pole is on the left. If you do need to draw the magnetic field lines for a
solenoid, you almost always need to show the field lines within the coil as well, which is not required for bar
magnets.

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 2.1 Fields and interactions

Right hand slap rule

The right hand slap rule, also known less violently as the right hand palm rule, is used to predict the force
on a current-carrying wire. For a straight, current-carrying wire:
• The thumb points in the direction of the current.
• The fingers point in the direction of the magnetic field.
• The palm “slaps” in the direction of the force.
We know that a current-carrying wire will have its own magnetic field, which we can find using the right
hand grip rule. Figure 2.6 shows how these fields would look. Originally, on top of the wire (current going
into the page) the magnetic field lines act in the same direction so these ‘join up.’ The lines below the wire
are acting in opposite directions, so they would make this unusual ‘bunched up’ pattern. You will most likely
never have to draw this yourself, but it is included so you can see where this force is coming from.

Area of Study 2 – How do things move without contact?

Figure 2.6: Force on a current-carrying wire

Figure 2.7 shows a diagram of the right hand slap rule. Always remember to use your right hand, or you
will get the opposite direction for the force if you use your left hand.

Figure 2.7: Illustration of the right hand slap rule

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 2.2 Effects of fields

2.2 Effects of fields

2.2.1 Acceleration on a charge

K EY P OINT :
The magnitude of the force on a charge, q, moving with a velocity v at an angle θ to the direction of a
magnetic field is given by:
Fq = qvB sin (θ )

Clearly, the force on the charge is greatest if the path is perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field.

2.2.2 Path of electric charges

For each electric charge, it is important to keep it in mind that the movement of a charge can be considered
as a current.
However, it is especially important to remember that (conventional) current is defined as the movement of
a positive charge. Thus, if a positive charge (i.e. a proton) moves to the right, then this is treated as current
flowing to the right. However, if a negative charge (i.e. an electron) moves to the right, then this is treated
Area of Study 2 – How do things move without contact?

as current flowing to the left.

Thus, it is now possible to use the right hand slap rule in order to determine the direction of the force.

Figure 2.8: Path of a charged particle

Here, Figure 2.8 shows the path of an electron in an electric field. Because the electron initially travels
towards the right, it is the equivalent of a current moving to the left. Using the right hand grip rule, the force
that acts on the charged particle is downwards. This causes the path of the charge to curve in a circle.
Using our knowledge of circular motion, it is possible to relate the force on the charged particle to quantities
of the path:

Fc = Fnet = qvB
mv 2
= qvB
r
mv
∴r =
qB

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 2.2 Effects of fields

2.2.3 Gravitational fields

For two bodies, we can find the gravitational force as:

GMm
Fg = where G = 6.67 × 10–11 Nm2 kg–2
r2

where

Fg is the force due to gravity

G is the universal gravitational constant

M is the mass of the first body (usually the bigger one)

m is the mass of the second body (usually the smaller one)

r is the distance between the centres of the two bodies

When we use g ≈ 10 m/s2 in the equation W = Fg = mg, this is a special circumstance when the object is

Area of Study 2 – How do things move without contact?

close to the Earth’s surface.

E XTENSION :
The reason why g ≈ 10 is because we approximate the final result after we plug in the numbers for
an object on the surface of the Earth (note that the Earth isn’t exactly spherical, its radius is different in
different places, so we use the accepted average radius).

GMm
Fg =
r2
6.67 × 10–11 × 5.98 × 1024 × m
W =
(6.37 × 106 )2
mg ≈ m × 9.8

From the formula for the Universal Gravitation, it’s clear that as the distance between the centre of two
bodies, r , increases the attraction due to gravity, Fg , decreases as we are dividing by a bigger number. All
else equal, doubling the distance r would reduce the force due to gravity Fg by a quarter. This is known as
an inverse square law.
 2
1 Fg,2 r1
Fg ∝ 2 ⇐⇒ =
r Fg,1 r2
An alternate way to express the strength of gravity is to state the gravitational field strength.

K EY P OINT :
The gravitational field strength is the force per unit mass due to gravity, measured in N/kg. To calculate
the gravitational field strength, simply divide the force by mass (gravitational field strength is equivalent
to saying the acceleration due to gravity ):

Fg GM
g= =
m r2

Note that m/s2 and N/kg are equivalent units, meaning that they are interchangeable.

As with the force due to gravity, Fg , the gravitational field strength decreases as the distance r increases.
It is also an inverse square law relationship:
 2
g2 r1
=d
g1 r2

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 2.2 Effects of fields

2.2.4 Types of fields

There are four subtypes of fields whose definitions you need to know.
• Static field: a field that has a constant field strength.
• Changing field: the strength of the field at individual points in space do change over time.
• Uniform field: a field that has the same field strength everywhere in space. It is denoted by parallel,
evenly spaced field lines.
• Non-uniform field: a field where the field strength varies across space. It is denoted by non-parallel
field lines.

2.2.5 Potential energy changes

Earth has a radial gravitational field. This means the field is not uniform and as such, the closer an object
gets to its centre of mass the stronger the gravitational field is. Qualitatively, it means that as an object
moves closer to its centre of mass, the object will loose gravitational potential energy and gain kinetic
energy.
This would be measured quantitatively by the change in area under a force–distance graph, which is the
gravitational strength. A distance graph is slightly different, to find the gravitational strength the area would
Area of Study 2 – How do things move without contact?

have to be multiplied by mass after it is found. The graphs should have the respective units of Newtons and
m or N/kg and meters. Examples of these two types of graphs are shown below.
The first is a force–distance graph. Calculating the area underneath the graph would give the value of
energy.

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 2.3 Application of field concepts

The second is a gravitational field strength–distance graph. You need to multiply the area beneath by the
mass of the satellite to calculate the gravitational potential energy of the satellite.

Area of Study 2 – How do things move without contact?

K EY P OINT :
Keep in mind that the area between two points, such as 2 and 4 on the x-axis, would indicate the change
in gravitational potential energy to kinetic energy. Be careful when looking at the units for each axis. For
VCE Physics purposes, the area under a graph will be calculated by counting the total number of squares
and multiplying them by the area of one square. You also need to multiply by mass if the y -axis reads
gravitational field strength in N kg–1 and not just gravitational force (N).

2.3 Application of field concepts

2.3.1 Gravity and satellites

K EY P OINT :
All objects attract each other, but acceleration towards each other doesn’t need to be the same. The
attraction (gravity) force always acts from the centre of mass (i.e. the core of the Earth, not its surface).

A satellite can be any body that orbits a planet, including the moon. At a VCE level, we only consider
satellites with no propulsion system in a perfectly circular orbit.
A special type of satellite is known as a geosynchronous satellite, sometimes also called a geostationary
satellite. A geosynchronous satellite is unique due to the fact that it remains above the same point on Earth
for its entire orbit. This means its period is the same length as a day, 24 hours (or 86,400 seconds, since
the period is usually given in seconds).
Since satellites are in free fall, the only force acting on them is the force due to gravity which acts towards
the central body. Since satellites travel on a circular path, the net force acting them is equal to the centripetal
force.

⇒ Fc = Fnet = Fg

So, to solve for a satellite’s velocity, period or other quantity, the relation Fc = Fg can be used.

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 2.3 Application of field concepts

This relation Fc = Fg can be further expanded to give what is known as Kepler’s Law:

r3 GM
= = const.
T2 4π 2
where

r is the radius in m

T is the period in s

G is the gravitational constant

const. is constant only for satellites orbiting the same central body

Kepler’s law allows us to solve satellite questions faster because much of the formula manipulation has
3
already been done. However, it also tells us that for multiple satellites orbiting the same body, the ratio r 2
T
is constant. So, if one satellite was orbiting at a radius double the length of the other, its period would be
2.83 times longer.
Area of Study 2 – How do things move without contact?

E XTENSION :
The following is a demonstration of where Kepler’s law comes from (apart from, well, Kepler since it’s
named after him):

Fc = Fg
π 2 r
m
4 m
GM

= (substituting in our formulas for Fc and Fg )
T2 r2
r3 GM
=
T2 4π 2
The right hand side is constant if all the satellites are orbiting the same planet. Otherwise, the value for
M would change and the right-hand side would no longer be constant.
You’ll also notice that interestingly the the mass of the satellite cancels, meaning that its path is not
influenced by its mass.
Note that circular motion (the right-hand side) will be covered in much more detail later on!

If we substitute in different formulas for Fg then we can arrive at different equations of motion. Note they
are all independent of the mass of the satellite! Some of the more useful ones are listed here:

GM v 2 4π r
a=g= = = 2
r 2r r T
2π r GM √
v = = = rg
T r

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 2.3 Application of field concepts

2.3.2 Interactions of magnets

Hopefully at some time during your life, you’ve had the joy of playing with magnets: trying to force two north
poles together, pulling a north pole and a south pole apart, or using magnets to pick up paper clips. We will
look a bit further into why these phenomena occur.
K EY P OINT :
When drawing field lines or thinking about how magnets will act, it is good to keep in mind:
• Interactions between magnets are based on the shape and properties of their magnetic fields,
which can be visualised by drawing magnetic field lines. The arrows indicate the direction of the
field line and the density of field lines will be proportionate to the strength of the magnetic field.
• Like poles repel and opposite poles attract.
• The Earth is in fact a giant magnet, but its magnetic poles are the opposite of its geological poles.
So, the geological North Pole is a magnetic south pole, which is why the north end of a compass
points towards it and vice versa for the geological South Pole.

Electric fields can also be uniform or radial (non-uniform). An example of a uniform electric field would be the
field between two oppositely charged plates. In this scenario the electric field lines are uniformly distributed.

Area of Study 2 – How do things move without contact?

However, if we look at an atom, the negatively charged electrons will rotate around the positively charged,
which creates a radial electric field.
• Field strength in a radial field is still calculated using the inverse square law:

kq kq1 q2
E = whereas force is F =
r2 r2

• Field strength in a uniform field is calculated using the following formulas:

E = Vd or F =E ×q

In a radial field, given that the field becomes stronger towards the centre of the body, the change in energy
(otherwise known as work) is the area under a force–distance graph (we covered this with gravitational
fields). However, if the electric field is uniform, the value of work can be calculated using the following
equation:

W =q×V

Figure 2.9: Interactions of two magnets

The image shows two north poles acting at an angle to each other. Since the field lines do not cross, when
they come close to each other, they ‘bend away’ from each other. So, at around point X, the magnetic field
will actually be zero! This point has been rather exaggerated, but it will occur in real life even if it is a tiny
point. The general idea is to get you thinking about how field lines will behave.

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 2.3 Application of field concepts

The following image shows the Earth’s magnetic field and a bar magnet. Now, we could draw field lines,
but another way to find the magnetic field is to use vector addition. At the marked point, the magnet would
have a magnetic field acting to the east, and the Earth’s field would be acting to the north. So, when we
add these two together the resultant field is pointing north east, as shown.
Area of Study 2 – How do things move without contact?

Figure 2.10: Vector sum of field lines

K EY P OINT :
You can add these diagrams to your exam cheat sheet because drawing field lines when two magnets
are at an angle is a very common question on the final exam. Having these diagrams noted down will
help you during the exam while you’re under pressure.

Figure 2.11: Magnetic fields of like and opposite poles

This figure shows two like poles and two opposite poles. For the like poles, it is clear that the magnetic
field lines have to ‘bend away’ from each other, as magnetic field lines never cross other lines. Because of
this interaction of field lines, we have the outwards pushing force. For the opposite poles, the field lines will
actually ‘join up’ as they can form continuous lines, instead of having to ‘bend away’ from each other. So,
they will have an inwards pushing force.
This is just a general idea of why likes repel and opposites attract! You don’t need this for your exam, but
you may be called upon to draw the magnetic field lines or describe the direction of the magnetic field at a
specified point.

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 2.3 Application of field concepts

2.3.3 DC motors
Force on a current-carrying wire
We know the direction of the induced force, so we also need a method of calculating the magnitude of the
induced force.
The magnitude of a force on a current-carrying wire induced by a magnetic field is given by:

F = nIl B

where

F is the resultant force (measured in newtons, N)

n is the number of coils of wire

B is the magnetic flux density (measured in tesla, T, where T = N m-1 A-1 )

I is current (measured in amps, A)

Area of Study 2 – How do things move without contact?

l is the length of the wire (measured in metres, m)

K EY P OINT :
Be careful as it is very common for exam questions to give measurements in different units rather than
the one required for the formula to work. You need to be especially careful with length (l ) as it is often
given in cm rather than m.

Rotation of the coil (armature)

A direct current (DC) motor is essentially a coil of wire in a near-constant magnetic field. There are more
complicated motors available, many of which have multiple ‘arms’ for efficiency, but we only need to look at
a single flat coil for VCE.
When the coil is initially in the horizontal position, the forces on the each side side of the armature act
in opposite directions due to the magnetic field. This causes a turning effect (torque). To determine the
direction of rotation, we use the right hand slap rule for each side.
K EY P OINT :
Despite the fact that most of the time you won’t have to deal with an armature that has more than one
coil, it is entirely possible for it to appear on the exam. Also be careful as n can mean the number of
coils around an armature or it can be interpreted as the number of turns. This is because if you turn the
same coil multiple times on itself that would mimic the effect of adding an entire coil on the armature.

Figure 2.12: Turning effect on a coil in a DC motor

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 2.3 Application of field concepts

Example 2.1
Consider the coil ABCD in Figure 2.12. Suppose that each of the sides AB, BC and CD have a length of
0.8 m. If the magnetic field has a strength of 0.5 T and the current flowing is 1.5 A, calculate the force on
the sides AB, BC, and CD.

Side AB: F = IlB → F = 0.5 × 1.5 × 0.8 = 0.6 N

Side BC: The current is parallel to the field, so the force is zero.
Side CD: F = IlB → F = 0.5 × 1.5 × 0.8 = 0.6 N

So, the forces are: 0.6 N upwards on the side AB, 0 on the side BC, and 0.6 N downwards on the side DC.

K EY P OINT :
Note that for the final exam it is sufficient to explain the lack of force on the BC side of the coil via the
right hand rule. The scientific explanation behind it is very complex and it requires some university level
physics and maths as a reference to the dot product (for the curious minds that want to have a look at
it). However, even if you know the proper answer behind the lack of force, it is best for your answer to
Area of Study 2 – How do things move without contact?

match Year 12 standards and for it to be short and concise.

Function of a commutator (split ring)

As the coil rotates between the horizontal and vertical position as shown in Figure 2.13:
• The magnitude of the force on the coils stays then same, since F = nIl B and n, B, I,l remain con-
stant.
• The direction of the forces on the sides of the coils stay the same, mening the force on the side
rotating up still acts upwards and the force on the side rotating down still acts downwards.
• The turning effect (torque) decreases as the coil rotates and is zero when the coil is vertical, since
the side on the top wants to go up and the side on the bottom wants to go down. At this point, the
coil would oscillate and come to a stop in the vertical position.

Figure 2.13: Rotation of a coil in a field

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 2.3 Application of field concepts

So how do we make sure that the coil keeps on turning? We use a commutator to flip the direction of the
current when needed. The role of a split-ring commutator is to reverse the direction of the current in the
coil to keep the motor turning in the same direction. It achieves this because:
• The coil is connected to the power supplies by the use of brushes, so the connections from the coil
to the power supply can be ‘flipped’ without any tangling of wires as shown in Figure 2.14.
• As the coil swings through the vertical point, the connections are reversed so the current flows in the
opposite direction.
• The reversal of current means that, according to the right hand slap rule, the direction of the forces
are reversed, so the side on top will want to continue rotating downwards and vice versa for the side
on the bottom.
This reversal of current has to occur every half turn when the coil passes through the vertical position.

K EY P OINT :
Almost every year there is a question in the exam about the use of a commutator in a DC motor. A
definition like the one above doesn’t take up that much space on your cheat sheet, especially if you type
it up, and can provide you with a safety net for your exam.

Area of Study 2 – How do things move without contact?

Figure 2.14: Purpose of a (split ring) commutator

In order to find the direction of the force that is acting on each side of the coil, you must first know the
direction of convectional current. It is very important to understand the difference between the following:
• Convectional direction: current flows form the positive terminal to the negative terminal.
• Real direction: current flows from the negative terminal to the positive terminal because electrons
can move freely whereas protons cannot.

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 2.3 Application of field concepts

K EY P OINT :
For the purpose of using the third right-hand rule, it is important to use the convectional direction of
current in order to place your hand in the right position and find out the direction of the force acting on
the coil. This is a common mistake that is made on the final exam because students confuse the two all
the time. Potentially, a similar diagram to the following can be added to help you as well:

The direction of current indicated is that of The direction of current indicated is that of
Area of Study 2 – How do things move without contact?

conventional current and the forces acting on real current, which results in the wrong
the coil indicate that the coil will turn direction of force being applied on the coil
clockwise. and the final answer would indicate an
anticlockwise rotation which is the incorrect
answer.

2.3.4 Particle accelerators

The final section of this Area of Study is particle acceleration as an example of uniform circular motion. A
particle accelerator exerts a force on a particle to speed it through a field.
Electrons can be accelerated by an electric field between two parallel charged plates (one positive, one
negative). The force is given as:
qV
F = qE =
d
where

q is the charge on the particle

E is the field strength

V is the potential difference between the plates

d is the distance between the two plates

In addition, the change in kinetic energy if the particle starts at rest is given by:

1
∆KE = qV = mv 2
2

We will discuss particle accelerators in more detail on page 69.

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 How are fields used in electricity generation?

Area of Study 3

How are fields used in electricity

generation?
3.1 Generation of electricity
3.1.1 Magnetic flux
Whilst B measures the magnetic field intensity, there is another quantity that interests us: magnetic flux.
Magnetic flux is defined as:
Φ = B A⊥

Area of Study 3 – How are fields used in electricity generation?

where

Φ is the magnetic flux (measured in T m2 or Weber, Wb)

B is the strength of the magnetic field (measured in tesla, T)

A⊥ is the effective area perpendicular to the field (measured in square metres, m2 )

Note that in many textbooks or formulas the ⊥ is omitted, so A represents the effective area.
Flux can be imagined as the number of field lines going through the effective area (which in itself represents
the area that the magnetic field lines go through or the area enclosed by the coil), and can be seen in
Figure 3.1. The magnetic flux is always greatest when the coil is perpendicular to the magnetic field, since
this is when A⊥ is a maximum – the effective area is just the area of the coil. The magnetic flux is zero
when the coil is parallel to the magnetic field, since A⊥ u 0 as only the side of the coil points into the field,
barely any field lines are cut.

Figure 3.1: Effective area

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 3.1 Generation of electricity

E XTENSION :
The magnetic flux can be found by calculating:

Φ = B A⊥ = BA cos (θ)

where

Φ is the magnetic flux (measured in T m2 or Weber, Wb)

B is the strength of the magnetic field (measured in tesla, T)

A is the area of the coil (measured in square metres, m2 )

θ is the angle between the field lines and the coil

Area of Study 3 – How are fields used in electricity generation?

This is interesting because it shows us how to calculate the magnetic flux of a rotated coil, but this is not
required knowledge in the Study Design, so there’s no need to memorise this.

3.1.2 Induction
Faraday’s law
This is a key law that can be expressed both in words or maths symbols, so you should try to familiarise
yourself with both!
Faraday’s law states that: “The magnitude of the induced electromotive force (EMF) is equal to the negative
rate of change of the magnetic flux.”
The average EMF is given by:
∆Φ ∆ (BA)
εaverage = –N = –N
∆t ∆t
where

εaverage is the average EMF induced (measured in volts, V)

∆Φ is the change in magnetic flux (measured in T m2 )

∆t is the change in time (measured in seconds, s)

In the second equation, we substitute in Φ = B A to show that a change in Φ can be caused by a change in
magnetic field strength B and/or a change in the effective area A.
For a rotating coil, there are several interesting features:
• The formula for n coils is given as:
∆Φ
εaverage = –N
∆t
• The minus sign indicates the direction that the current will flow in (recall that conventional current
flows from positive to negative).
• The shorter the time taken, the larger the EMF produced.

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 3.1 Generation of electricity

Flux–time graphs
Given a magnetic flux–time graph, we can apply Faraday’s law:

∆Φ rise
εaverage = –N = –N = negative gradient of flux vs time graph
∆t run

So, we can see that only when EMF is changing (i.e. the gradient is not zero), there is an EMF produced.
Note: the negative sign on the equation can be left out when the final EMF is calculated as it is not
necessary. It is used to indicate direction but it has no impact on the magnitude. When answering a
question about the particular voltage generated, simply giving the magnitude is enough. Also do not forget
that the epsilon symbol is the same as EMF, which is the same as voltage. They are different symbols
indicating the same thing, which means ε = EMF = V .

Area of Study 3 – How are fields used in electricity generation?

Figure 3.2: Example of a flux–time graph and an EMF–time graph

Example 3.1
For Figure 3.2, explain the relation of the flux and EMF produced. Refer to any relevant laws.
The relevant law we will use is Faraday’s law: εaverage = –N ∆Φ
∆t . We can see that the EMF produced is
essentially the negative gradient of the flux vs time graph:
• When the flux is constant, the change in flux is zero. So the EMF is zero.
• When the flux is increasing, it has a positive gradient. So, the EMF is negative.
• When the flux is decreasing, it has a negative gradient. So the EMF is positive.
The first EMF spike is the largest, because the gradient (rate of change) of the flux is the largest. The
second spike is the smaller because the gradient (rate of change) is smaller.
Lenz’s law
Lenz’s law appears relatively simple on the face of things, but you need to take care when solving these
questions as they can become quite complicated.

K EY P OINT :
Lenz’s Law states that: “The induced current in a loop will be in such a direction that its magnetic flux
will oppose the change in magnetic flux that produced it.”
It is a specific use of conservation of energy and Newton’s third law. We use Lenz’s law in combination
with the right hand grip rule in order to find the direction of the current in a loop.

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 3.1 Generation of electricity

Solving using flux

The following table outlines the ‘opposing flux’ to some initial change in flux. The opposing flux could be
either reversing the increase/decrease or acting in a different direction.

Initial change in flux Opposing flux

Increasing to the right Decreasing to the right or Increasing to the left

Increasing to the left Decreasing to the left or Increasing to the right

Decreasing to the right Increasing to the right or Decreasing to the left

Decreasing to the left Increasing to the left or Decreasing to the right

Given some change in flux through a coil, we always want to use the option where flux is increasing,
because the current in the loop cannot induce negative or decreasing flux. These are the ones in bold in
the table above.
Area of Study 3 – How are fields used in electricity generation?

Figure 3.3: Using flux to solve Lenz’s law

The general procedure for solving these questions is:

1. Identify the change in magnetic flux
• Direction of magnetic flux: right (→)
• Increase or decrease: increase (+)
2. Identify the opposing flux
• Change the direction: increasing to the left
3. Identify the direction of the current
• Right hand grip rule: clockwise current
4. State your answer
• The induced current travels clockwise from X to Y

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 3.1 Generation of electricity

Solving using magnetic poles

When we have a magnet that is moving relative to the coil, we can find the pole that is induced in the coil
facing the magnet. This pole must oppose the motion of the magnet (Lenz’s law).

Movement of magnet Magnetic pole (induced) facing the magnet

N pole closer to loop Oppose: closer Like poles generated N pole

S pole closer to loop Oppose: closer Like poles generated S pole

N pole further from loop Oppose: further Opposite poles generated S pole

S pole further from loop Oppose: further Opposite poles generated N pole

Area of Study 3 – How are fields used in electricity generation?

Figure 3.4: Using poles to solve a Lenz’s law question

The general procedure for solving these questions is:

1. Identify movement
• Closer to or further away: closer to
• North or south pole: north
2. Identify opposing force
• Magnetic force opposes the force pushing the loop towards the magnet
• Attraction or repulsion: repulsion
3. Identify the pole on the wire facing the magnet
• Like or opposite poles: for repulsion, like poles
• North or south pole: north
4. Identify the direction of the current
• Right hand grip rule: clockwise current
5. State your answer
• The induced current travels clockwise from X to Y

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 3.1 Generation of electricity

3.1.3 Generators
The general fundamental idea of electricity generation is Faraday’s law, as it can predict the EMF produced.
∆Φ
Recall that Faraday’s law is essentially the rate of change of flux, , and to change flux we need to
∆t
change the effective area or the magnetic field strength.
• Effective area can be changed in two main ways.
– The first is to change the length of the sides (which would be impractical).
– The second is to change the angle at which the coil is facing the magnetic field lines and in
turn this would change the number of field lines going though the coil which would result in a
changing flux ∆Φ.
• Magnetic field strength can be changed in two main ways as well.
– The first is to change magnets.
– The second method is to change the distance between the magnet and the coil (recall: the
lower the density of field lines, the weaker the strength of the magnetic field).
It is much easier to change the effective area, which is what is done in modern generators. The easiest and
Area of Study 3 – How are fields used in electricity generation?

most practical way to change the effective area so generators can operate efficiently would be to rotate
the coil as this would change the angle at which the area encapsulated by the coil faces the magnetic field
lines. This means:
• The flux in the coil will vary periodically.
• The flux vs time can be plotted and Faraday’s law can be used to find the EMF vs time graph.
• The signal produced is a sinusoidal wave.
Figure 3.5 shows the flux and EMF produced depending on the rotation of the coil. Initially, the coil ABCD is
perpendicular to the field, so it has a maximum positive magnetic flux. However, as it rotates, the effective
area becomes smaller and smaller, until it is zero. At this point, the magnetic flux will be zero since Φ = BA.
As it continues to rotate, the magnetic field is passing through the ‘other side,’ DCBA, so the EMF produced
is going to be negative. When the coil has rotated through 180 degrees the flux is now a maximum negative
magnetic flux. The coil continues to rotate until it is again parallel to the field and has an effective area of
zero. As it continues to rotate, it has a ‘positive side’ again, ABCD, so the magnetic flux is positive again.
And so the cycle continues.

Figure 3.5: Rotating coil in a constant magnetic field

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 3.1 Generation of electricity

Note that as the flux is changing, we could in fact use Lenz’s Law to determine the current, if it flowed
A→B→C→D or the other way around. But in fact the EMF graph tells us how the current will behave.
The EMF graph is found by using Faraday’s law, ε = –N ∆Φ∆t ; imagine finding the gradient at various points
on the flux vs time graph to plot the EMF graph. We could have differentiated the function for flux, but it
is not required for VCE Physics. We see that for half a turn, the EMF is positive and the other half it is
negative. This means that the positive and negative must have switched, meaning the current in the coil
has changed direction as well! So, when the coil turns in the magnetic field, for half the turn the induced
current flows one way, and then the other way for the next half turn. The direction of the current changes
when the coil is perpendicular to the field.
K EY P OINT :
Knowing which angle corresponds to a specific amount of flux (e.g. max, min, or zero) is a useful skill
as it is sometimes tested on the exam. If you find this tricky, we’d recommend including a diagram like
Figure 3.5 on your summary sheet.

Function of an alternator (slip rings)

Area of Study 3 – How are fields used in electricity generation?

The coil needs to rotate freely without a mess of tangled wires. The induced current in the coil is transferred
to the external circuit through carbon brushes rubbing against slip rings.
The output is AC (alternating current) because the voltage (and current) act in one direction for half a cycle
then act in the other direction for the other half of the cycle. This ‘alternating’ can be seen in a EMF vs time
graph.

Figure 3.6: Generator using an alternator

K EY P OINT :
For the exam, it is very important to distinguish the difference between slip rings and split rings and
the output they produce, so make sure you understand them both!

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 3.1 Generation of electricity

Example 3.2
For the generator pictured in Figure 3.6, what would happen if the coil was rotated at double the speed?
How would the EMF vs time graph look?
The first thing that would happen is that at double the speed (i.e. double the frequency), the EMF graph
would have half the original period. So, it would cycle from peak to trough at double the speed; taking half
as long to complete a full cycle. The second thing that would happen is that the induced EMF would double,
according to Faraday’s law. This is because ε = –N ∆Φ∆t and ∆t has been halved. Halving the denominator
is the same as doubling the numerator and as such EMF would double in size:
∆Φ
 = –N 1
2 × ∆t
∆Φ
= 2 × –N
∆t
So the graph of EMF vs time would be twice as tall but half as wide.
Area of Study 3 – How are fields used in electricity generation?

E XTENSION :
The peak output voltage can be given by:

εp = nBA 2π f

where εp is the peak voltage (measured in volts, V), n is the number of coils, B is the strength of the
magnetic field (measured in tesla, T), A is the area of the coil (measured in square metres, m2 ) and f
is the frequency of rotation (measured in hertz, Hz). Because this is not required in the current Study
Design it is not recommended to be used as a formula; however, it is a good idea to be aware of it, just
in case.

Commutators in generators
No matter the output connections, the current in the coil is always AC. However, if a commutator is used,
as the current in the coil reverses (every half turn) the output terminal connects are reversed too (every half
turn).
• The output is pulsating, unidirectional (DC) voltage.
• The peak voltage is the same as when an alternator is used.
• This is essentially the same as a DC motor, but in reverse.

Figure 3.7: Generator using a commutator

42 Copyright © 2023 InStudent Publishing Pty. Ltd.

 3.1 Generation of electricity

As you may have noticed, all generators operate under the principle of a rotating coil. Hydroelectric dams
use water to turn turbines to drive generators. Coal and gas are burnt to heat water to steam which is
used to turn turbines which drive generators. Uranium undergoes fission releasing heat that is used to heat
water to steam to turn turbines. There is nothing ‘special’ about coal or uranium, they are just very good at
heating water!
To summarise, the main difference between the two is:
• A slip ring is used in AC motors to provide a continuous transmitting of power and signal.
• A split ring is used in DC motors to reverse the polarity of the current.
They can be used in generators as well, where split rings result in a DC output, whereas slip rings in an AC
output.

3.1.4 Photovoltaic cells

Photovoltaic cells, also known as solar cells, are devices that convert sunlight directly into electrical energy.
They are made from semiconductor materials, such as silicon, and contain layers of materials that create a
flow of electrons when exposed to light.

Area of Study 3 – How are fields used in electricity generation?

When sunlight hits the photovoltaic cell, the energy from the light is absorbed by the semiconductor material,
causing the electrons to become excited and move. This movement of electrons generates a direct current
(DC) electrical voltage. However, the electrical power generated by a photovoltaic cell is typically in DC
format, which is not suitable for use in most homes, as they typically use alternating current (AC) electrical
power.
Using photovoltaic cells in the home
To use the DC electrical power generated by the photovoltaic cells in the home, an inverter is required. An
inverter is an electronic device that converts DC electrical power into AC electrical power that is suitable
for use in the home. The inverter works by taking the DC electrical power from the photovoltaic cells and
passing it through a series of electronic components, which convert the power into a high-frequency AC
electrical waveform. This waveform is then passed through a transformer, which steps up the voltage of the
AC electrical power to a level that is suitable for use in the home. Once the AC electrical power has been
converted by the inverter, it can be used to power the electrical appliances and devices such as lights, TVs,
and refrigerators.
Overall, the production of electricity using photovoltaic cells and the use of an inverter to convert the DC
power into AC power is a clean and sustainable way to generate electricity for use in the home. It can
help reduce dependence on fossil fuels and lower greenhouse gas emissions, making it a popular choice
for homeowners looking to reduce their carbon footprint and save on energy costs.

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 3.2 Transmission of electricity

3.2 Transmission of electricity

3.2.1 AC voltage
We begin by defining some key terms and measurements for a typical AC wave, such as that generated in
a generator using an alternator.
• Period (T ): is the time taken for a complete cycle.
– Example: in Australia, this is 0.02 s.
• Frequency (f ) is the number of cycles in one second.
– Example: in Australia, this is 50 Hz.
• Relation of period and frequency: these two quantities are related by:f = T1 .
• Peak voltage (Vp ): the amplitude of the wave, i.e. the highest point.
– Example: in Australia, this is 339 V.
• Peak-to-peak voltage (Vp–p ): the vertical distance between the highest and lowest point. Vp–p can
also be found byVp–p = 2Vp .
Area of Study 3 – How are fields used in electricity generation?

Figure 3.8: Describing AC voltage

Figure 3.8 is a typical AC voltage wave. The word used to describe this shape is ‘sinusoidal’ (think of a sine
graph). It is also possible to draw an AC current wave, and it would have much the same properties, but
instead of peak voltage we would have peak current and instead of peak-to-peak voltage we would have
peak-to-peak current.
K EY P OINT :
A much more useful description of AC voltage is the root mean square (RMS) value. This is the equival-
ent DC voltage that would have the same average power as the AC voltage.
Example: In Australia the peak voltage is 339V and the RMS value is 240V.
RMS voltage can be thought of as the average voltage.

Vp Vp–p
VRMS = √ = √
2 2 2
Ip Ip–p
IRMS = √ = √
2 2 2
2
VRMS
P= = VRMS IRMS
R

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 3.2 Transmission of electricity

3.2.2 Transformers

K EY P OINT :
A transformer works on the principle of changing magnetic flux.
• A changing current in the primary coil causes a changing magnetic field.
• There is a changing magnetic flux in the core.
• A voltage is induced in the secondary coil because of this changing flux in the core.
It is generally assumed that energy is conserved, meaning the input power is equal to the output power.

Area of Study 3 – How are fields used in electricity generation?

Figure 3.9: Transformer and its symbol

Example 3.3
For the transformer shown in Figure 3.9, two students are debating what will happen when a DC battery
is used instead of an AC power supply. One student predicts nothing will happen to the voltage in the
secondary coil after the battery is connected, while the other says there will be spike of voltage in the
secondary coil. Which student is correct?
Both students are correct! When the battery is connected, the current in the loop changes from zero to
a higher value. Since the current has changed, the magnetic field has changed which causes a change
in magnetic flux. So, at the instant the battery is connected, there is a changing flux in the coil which,
according Faraday’s law, will induce a voltage in the secondary coil. So the second student is correct about
the spike in voltage.
Now, when the battery is connected, there will no longer be any change in voltage or current. So, the
magnetic field is constant, meaning there is no longer a change in flux. As the change in flux is zero, this
means that there will be no induced EMF in the secondary current (Faraday’s law). So, the first student is
correct about the zero voltage after the battery is connected.
K EY P OINT :
The voltages in the primary and secondary coils can be related to the number of turns of wire:

Vp Np
=
Vs Ns

For an ideal transformer, we assume that there is no loss in energy, so: Pp = Ps −→ Vp Ip = Vs Is .

This means that we can also find the ratio of currents:
Is Vp Np
= =
Ip Vs Ns

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 3.2 Transmission of electricity

There are two types of transformers:

• A step-up transformer is where the output voltage is greater than the input voltage (the output
current is smaller):
Ns > Np Vs > Vp , Is < Ip
• A step-down transformer is where the output voltage is less than the input voltage (the output
current is larger):
Ns < Np VS < Vp , Is > Is

3.2.3 Transmission loss

Now how do we physically transmit electricity? Wires of course! But unless we are using some special
supercooled ultra low resistance wires that probably cost more than the power loss they save, there will
always be some power lost in the transmission lines due to resistance in the wires.
K EY P OINT :
The current in the line is given by:
Pin
Iwires =
Area of Study 3 – How are fields used in electricity generation?

Vin

The voltage drop in the lines is given by:

Vdrop = Iwires Rwires

So, the output voltage is given by:

Vout = Vin – Vdrop

Figure 3.10: Basic voltage drop and power loss

Here, Figure 3.10 shows how we can ‘condense’ the resistance of the wires into an actual resistor to simplify
our calculations. So we assume the resistor has a resistance equal to the total resistance of the wires in
the original circuit.

46 Copyright © 2023 InStudent Publishing Pty. Ltd.

 3.3 Reducing power loss

Example 3.4
A farmer has two wires, each with an internal resistance of 5.0 Ω . He uses these wires to hook his 800 W
generator to his house. If the generator provides a voltage of 250 V, find the voltage at the farmer’s house.

Our first step is to find the total resistance of the wires, Rwires = 2 × 5 = 10 Ω .
P 800
Now we can fund the current in the wires: Iwires = Vin → Iwires = 250 = 3.2 A.
in

Next, find the voltage drop in the wires: Vdrop = Iwires × Rwires = 3.2 × 10 = 32 V.
We can now find the voltage at his house: Vout = Vin – Vdrop = 250 – 32 = 218 V
We could also continue on to find the power loss in the wires.
K EY P OINT :
The current in the line is given by:
Pin
Iwires =
Vin

Area of Study 3 – How are fields used in electricity generation?

The power loss in the lines is given by:
2
Ploss = Iwires Rwires

So, the output power is given by:

Pout = Pin – Ploss

3.3 Reducing power loss

To reduce power loss, either the current or the resistance in the wires can be decreased.
Ways to reduce resistance: (less effective as Ploss ∝ Rwires )
• Use wires with a thicker cross-sectional area
• Use a shorter distance
• Use more wires
• Use materials with smaller internal resistance
2
Ways to reduce current: (more effective as Ploss ∝ Iwires )
• Reduce input power (same voltage but less current)
• Same power (more voltage but less current)
The best method of reducing the current is to use transformers. Since transformers rely on AC voltage, this
is primarily why DC voltage is rarely used to transfer electricity.
A pair of step-up and step-down transformers can be used to effectively reduce power loss:
• Power is generated at about 20 kV and then it is stepped up to 400 kV via a transformer.
1
• The current in the transmission lines is 20 of the previous value.
 2
1 1
• The power loss is 20 = 400 of a system with no transformers.
• Near the consumer a step-down transformer is used to step down the voltage to 240 V.

Copyright © 2023 InStudent Publishing Pty. Ltd. 47

 Part II

Unit 4: How have creative ideas and

investigation revolutionised thinking in
physics?

48 Copyright © 2023 InStudent Publishing Pty. Ltd.

 How has understanding about the physical world changed?

Area of Study 1

How has understanding about the

physical world changed?
1.1 Properties of mechanical waves
Properties of mechanical waves are not explicitly part of the Study Design anymore, but they are necessary
to learn in order to perform well in Unit 4, as this section explains the fundamentals of waves. Even though
it is not part of the Study Design it is assumed knowledge, so consider these first few pages a quick review
of relevant material from Units 1&2.

Area of Study 1 – How has understanding about the physical world changed?
1.1.1 Energy transfer of waves
Waves are the transfer of energy from one place to another without the net transfer of matter.
Mechanical waves, such as sound, require a medium such as air to travel through.

1.1.2 Measurements of waves

• Period (T ): is the time taken for a complete cycle measured in seconds (s).
• Frequency (f ): is the number of cycles in one second measured in Hertz (Hz).
– These two quantities are related by:f = T1 .
• Wavelength (λ): is the length of a single cycle measured in metres, m, or the distance a wave travels
during one period (T ).
• Velocity (v ): the speed at which a wave travels measured in metres per second, ms-1 . For mechan-
ical waves, such as sound, this can change depending on the medium, such as air or water.
• Wave equation: relates the frequency, wavelength and velocity as v = f λ.
• Amplitude: the larger the amplitude of the wave, the greater the energy (also known as intensity).

1.1.3 Interference of waves

Interference of waves occurs when two waves meet causing a resultant wave that is the net effect of the
individual waves.
• Constructive interference occurs when two waves meet with displacements in the same direction.
– For example, if two wave peaks meet each other, the net result will be an even larger peak (i.e.
the waves have increased in strength).
• Destructive interference occurs when two waves meet with displacements in different directions.
– For example, if a wave peak meets a wave trough then the net result will be zero (i.e. the waves
have cancelled each other out).

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 1.2 Light as a wave

1.2 Light as a wave

1.2.1 Electromagnetic waves
Maxwell predicted that an accelerated electric charge could produce an electromagnetic wave. These
waves were oscillating perpendicular electric and magnetic fields that don’t require a medium (e.g. sound
requires air to travel) meaning they can travel through space.
In space, light and other electromagnetic waves travel at c, the speed of light.
Area of Study 1 – How has understanding about the physical world changed?

Figure 1.1: Electromagnetic Wave

1.2.2 Electromagnetic wave spectrum

The electromagnetic spectrum is a whole range of electromagnetic waves produced by accelerating an
electric charge. Light is only a small part of the electromagnetic spectrum, classified as visible light.

Source: Inductiveload, NASA, CC-BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:EM_Spectrum_Properties_edit.svg

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 1.2 Light as a wave

1.2.3 Standing waves

K EY P OINT :
A standing wave is a specific type of wave pattern where a wave is reflected and interferes with itself
constructively. At various points the standing wave will have zero displacement (nodes) and maximum
displacement at others (anti-nodes).

Standing waves can only be formed at very specific frequency. The reason for this is because when the
wave is reflected back the driving wave at the other end must be exactly in phase (i.e. a peak meets a peak
and a trough meets a trough).
The common examples of standing waves are: strings tied at both ends, tubes with both ends open, or a
tub with one end open.

Area of Study 1 – How has understanding about the physical world changed?
Strings tied at both ends
To imagine a standing wave on a string, imagine plucking a guitar string. Because both ends are fixed, this
means that the vibration (displacement) of the string must occur in the ‘middle’ of the string.
There are many possibilities for the standing wave, for example:

If we wanted to talk about the general formulae for the wavelength and frequency, we could find them as:

λ1 2L nv
λn = = , fn = nf1 = where n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
n n 2L

Tubes open at both ends

A tube open at both ends acts very similarly to a string tied at both ends. The reason for this is because at
the open ends there must be zero pressure (i.e. zero displacement). So, the shape and formulae for these
situations are the exact same as a string fixed at both ends.

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 1.2 Light as a wave

1.2.4 Diffraction
When light passes through a slit that has a width, w, that is similar to its wavelength, λ, the light spreads
out forming a diffraction pattern. The spacing is proportional to w λ , so as the wavelength increases the
diffraction expands and when the slit width increases the diffraction contracts. Another way to express this
is:
wavelength λ
diffraction ∝ =
slit size w
• w < λ means significant diffraction occurs.
• λ < w means less diffraction occurs.
Area of Study 1 – How has understanding about the physical world changed?

Figure 1.2: Diffraction effects for different slit widths

Figure 1.2 shows the relative diffraction for different slit widths. Similarly, if there is an obstruction of width
w, the wave will also diffract around the obstruction.

1.2.5 Young’s double slit experiment

Young’s double slit experiment set-up:
• Monochromatic light with a wavelength λ shines on two slits that are a distance d apart.
• The light passes through the slits and falls on a screen that is a distance L away.

Figure 1.3: Setup of Young’s double slit experiment

Monochromatic light is used as it only has a single wavelength. This means the light is all the ‘same’ and
cannot be broken up into a rainbow spectrum like white light. This is so that we know our results are due to
diffraction and interference (superposition) of waves and not due to other effects.

52 Copyright © 2023 InStudent Publishing Pty. Ltd.

 1.2 Light as a wave

Young’s double slit experiment results:

• An interference pattern is observed on the screen.
• On the screen there are bands of light (anti-nodal) and dark (nodal) lines.
• The fringes (bands) produced are evenly spaced.
• The intensity of light is greatest at the centre and decreases as the bands get further from the centre.

Area of Study 1 – How has understanding about the physical world changed?
Figure 1.4: Interference pattern of Young’s double slit experiment

Here, Figure 1.4 shows the interference of the waves as they travel from the slits to the screen. The term
‘node’ is used for dark bands (fringes), and ‘antinode’ is used for light bands (fringes). The reason for these
is because of superposition.
The wave front represents the crest of a wave, and the gap represents a trough. When two lines (crests)
meet, they ‘add together’ (constructive interference) to form a bigger crest (bright line). When two gaps
(trough) meet, they also ‘add together’ (constructive interference) to form a bigger trough (also a bright
line). So at these points where line meets line or trough meets trough, we get a ‘bigger’, brighter wave.
When a line (crest) meets a gap (trough), they will ‘cancel each other out’ (destructive interference). So this
means there is effectively no wave at that point, causing the appearance of a dark patch. This is why there
is a striped pattern of bright and dark bands.
When changes are made to the experiment, the resulting fringes are changed. A useful formula is:

λL
∆x =
d

where

∆x is the distance between two light bands (or the distance between two dark bands)

λ is the wavelength of light used

L is the distance between the slits and the screen

d is the distance between the slits

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 1.2 Light as a wave
Area of Study 1 – How has understanding about the physical world changed?

Figure 1.5: Important values in Young’s double slit experiment

K EY P OINT :
A fairly common question that is asked on the exam is what happens if the wavelength is increased.
You could consider it in terms of geometry, but it is much simpler to look at the formula and think: λ
increases, so x increases too. These questions are generally one mark or multiple choice, so examiners
aren’t too fussed on how you get your answer, just as long as it is right!

Example 1.1
A student performs his own Young’s Double Slit Experiment because he doesn’t believe that light is a wave.
What result would the particle model for light predict? Why is this incorrect?
Suppose light were a stream of tiny tennis balls. When they reach the slits, they either pass through the
slits or hit the surrounding wall and do not pass through. But, they would not diffract as they pass through
the slits. So, they continue to travel in a relatively straight line until they hit the screen and form two bright
bands. This prediction is wrong because light does diffract as it pass through the slits and forms two distinct
waves that interfere with each other constructively and destructively at different points. This is seen on the
screen as a diffraction pattern of light and dark bands or fringes.
Path difference and interference
How can we mathematically explain interference?
At any point on the screen (P), a wave from slit one (S1 ) will have travelled a distance S1 P and a wave
from slit two (S2 ) will have travelled a distance S2 P. The difference in the distance travelled is the path
difference,
pd = S1 P – S2 P

We can measure path difference in metres, but is usually measured in wavelengths to determine if the spot
P is bright or dark.
At the centre point, the distance from slit one (S1 ) to the centre (C) is the same as the distance from slit two
(S2 ) to the centre (C). This means that when light from each of the slits reaches C, they are in the same
phases as they have travelled the same distance: S1 C = S2 C and pd = 0.
Now, the two waves have travelled the same distance which means that they would interfere constructively
as they are in the same phase (i.e. a crest meets a crest and a trough meets a trough). So, the centre band
is always bright.

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 1.3 Light as a particle

• Constructive interference occurs when the path difference is a multiple of λ, that is:

pd = nλ where n = 1, 2, 3, . . .

– This is because at point P, even though the waves have travelled a different lengths, the waves
arrive in the same phase (i.e. a trough meets a trough and a crest meets a crest).
• Destructive interference occurs when the path difference is an odd multiple of λ, that is:
 
1
pd = n– λ where n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
2

– This is because at point P, the waves have travelled a different lengths and arrive in the opposite
phase (i.e. a trough meets a crest and a crest meets a trough).

Example 1.2

Area of Study 1 – How has understanding about the physical world changed?
Monochromatic light of wavelength λ is used for a Young’s Double Slit Experiment. The path difference
from the centre bright band to the second dark band on the right is 675 nm. Find the path difference from
the centre bright band to the third bright band on the left in nanometres.
Begin by noting a dark band means destructive interference. So, our pd is given by:
 
1
675 nm = pd = S1 D2 – S2 D2 = n– λ where n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
2

Now, since it is our second dark band, n = 2, so that means 675 = 1 12 λ → λ = 450 nm.
The bright band means constructive interference, so the pd is:

pd = S1 B3 – S2 B3 = nλ where n = 1, 2, 3, . . .

Since it is our third bright band, n = 3, so hence:

pd = 3λ → pd = 450 × 3 = 1, 350 nm

1.3 Light as a particle

1.3.1 Photoelectric effect
Experimental set-up
It was discovered that when light shines on a metal plate, electrons are emitted from the surface. These
electrons are called photoelectrons – the ‘photo’ prefix refers to light being the cause of these electrons
being emitted. When a steady flow of electrons is present, it is called a photocurrent. A photocurrent flows
from the cathode to the anode in a circuit.
The photoelectric effect experiment consisted of:
• A metal placed at the cathode
• A monochromatic (single wavelength) light source that shone onto the cathode
• An ammeter to detect photocurrent
• A variable voltage that could provide current in the same or opposite direction to the photocurrent (if
the circuit was closed):
– Forward potential: the variable voltage would make the anode positive to help the photoelec-
trons move from the cathode to the anode
– Reverse potential: the variable voltage would make the anode negative to prevent photoelec-
trons from the cathode reaching the anode

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 1.3 Light as a particle

Here, Figure 1.6 shows the set-up of the photoelectric effect experiment. We can see that at first the
electrons are clustered at the cathode, and will travel to the anode to complete the circuit. Since we know
that opposites repel, if we make the cathode negative it will repel the electrons and ‘help’ then cross to the
waiting anode. That is forward bias. So, if we make the anode negative, it will repel the electrons and try
to ‘stop’ them from reaching it. This is reverse bias, and is often called ‘retarding voltage’ where ‘retarding’
refers to the slowing/stopping of electrons reaching the anode.
Area of Study 1 – How has understanding about the physical world changed?

Figure 1.6: Basic operation of the photoelectric effect experiment

Experiment results

K EY P OINT :
The important results of the photoelectric experiment include:
• For each metal used at the cathode, there was a unique threshold frequency, f0 . If the frequency
of light used was below this value, no photoelectrons were emitted.
• There was no delay between light shining on the cathode and photoelectrons being produced.
• When the voltage was increasing in reverse potential (increasing retarding voltage), eventually the
photocurrent would drop to zero at the stopping voltage, Vs .
• If the intensity of light (brightness) increased, the stopping voltage did not change.
• If the intensity of light increased, the photocurrent increased proportionally to the intensity.
• If a larger frequency of light was used, a larger stopping voltage was needed.
• If a larger frequency of light was used, the maximum photocurrent did not change.

What would the wave model have predicted?

• There should be a time delay before any electron has enough energy to escape. This is because
waves are continuous, so it has to absorb a certain ‘length’ of a wave before it has enough energy to
escape. . . wrong!
• The energy of the electrons should depend on the intensity of light. So, if a bright light is used, a
larger stopping voltage should be needed to stop these energetic photons. . . wrong!
• The frequency should have no effect on the emission of photons. . . wrong!
• The energy of the electrons should not depend on the frequency of light used, so the frequency of
light should have no effect on the stopping voltage. . . wrong!

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 1.3 Light as a particle

In Figure 1.6, we see the results for a particular experiment. The key things to note have already been
listed, but this is how the information is graphically shown.

Area of Study 1 – How has understanding about the physical world changed?
Figure 1.7: Results of the photoelectric effect experiment

Example 1.3
It is known that for a particular metal, when monochromatic red light is used, the stopping voltage required
is 3.4 eV. If the intensity (brightness) of light is doubled, what change would occur according to the wave
model? How is it different from the actual results?
The wave model would predict that the electrons would have a greater amount of kinetic energy, as the
energy provided by a wave is proportional to its intensity. Since our photoelectrons have more energy, a
larger stopping voltage will be needed. This idea was disproved as the stopping voltage did not change. So,
the kinetic energy of the electron did not depend on the intensity of light. The actual change was that the
photocurrent increased, since there are more particles bombarding the cathode releasing more electrons,
creating a larger current.
Photon model of light
Now let us expand our model. We often hear of light being referred to as ‘photons’, so let’s look at what
these actually are!
Light is emitted and absorbed in tiny discrete packets of electromagnetic energy called photons or quanta.
The energy of a photon is given by:
hc
Ephoton = hf =
λ
where

Ephoton is the energy of the photon (measured in joules, J)

h is Planck’s constant which is equal to 6.63 × 10–34 J s (joule seconds)

f is the frequency (measured in hertz, Hz)

c is the speed of light which is equal to 3.00 × 108 m s-1 (metres per second)

λ is the wavelength (measured in metres, m)

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 1.3 Light as a particle

Alternatively, we can find Ephoton in terms of electron volts, eV. Here, Ephoton is the energy of the photon
(measured in electron volts, eV), h is Planck’s constant which is equal to 4.14 × 10–15 eV s (electron volt
seconds). The total energy of a light beam can be found by,

energy of light beam = number of photons × photon energy

So now that we know that light seems to travel in little packets of energy, how does this explain our findings
in the photoelectric effect experiment?
Maximum kinetic energy of electrons
The maximum kinetic energy for an electron can be found from the photocurrent vs. voltage graph. The
stopping voltage is the voltage needed to stop even the most energetic electrons, so it is a direct measure
of the maximum kinetic energy.
Area of Study 1 – How has understanding about the physical world changed?

KEmax = Vs (in eV) or KEmax = e × Vs (Vs in V)

Different electrons are bound by different energies in the cathode metal. The smallest amount of energy
required to free one of these electrons is called the work function, W. Each metal as its own unique work
function. When light at the threshold frequency f0 is shone onto the cathode, photons have just enough
energy to free electrons. In other words, the energy of the photon is equal to the work function:

Ep = hf0 = W

When light with a frequency less than the threshold frequency is shone onto the cathode, none of the
photons have enough energy to free electrons. In other words, the energy of the photon is less than the
work function:
f < f0 , Ep < W

When light with a frequency greater than the threshold frequency is shone onto the cathode, photons have
more than enough energy to free electrons. The ‘extra’ energy from the absorbed photon is converted into
the kinetic energy of the electron. That is:

KEmax = Ep – W = hf – W
Since W = hf0 , KEmax = hf – hf0 = h (f – f0 )

So, there are two ways to find the kinetic energy of emitted electrons, either through the stopping voltage
or the work function: KEmax = Vs (in eV) = hf – W

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 1.3 Light as a particle

Here, Figure 1.8 shows us the relation between the work function and the frequency. We can further analyse
this graph by looking at it as a linear model.

The work function, kinetic energy, threshold frequency, and Planck’s constant can all be graphically related.
The equation KEmax = hf – W resembles a straight line equation, y = mx + c. So we can say that:
• KEmax is the vertical axis and f is the horizontal axis.
• –W (work function) is the y -intercept and f0 (threshold frequency) is the x-intercept.
• h is the gradient of the line and remains constant even for different W and f0 values of metals.
However, care should be taken when drawing the line below the horizontal axis. Since it is physically
impossible to have a negative kinetic energy, we draw this section as a dotted line.

Area of Study 1 – How has understanding about the physical world changed?
Figure 1.8: Relation of kinetic energy, frequency, work function, threshold frequency, and Planck’s constant.

1.3.2 Incident radiation

The photoelectric effect is the phenomenon where electrons are emitted from a material when exposed
to light of sufficient energy. The intensity of the incident irradiation, which is the amount of light energy per
unit area per unit time, can affect the emission of photoelectrons in several ways.
Firstly, increasing the intensity of the incident irradiation increases the number of photons that hit the ma-
terial per unit time. This means that there is a higher probability that electrons will be emitted from the
material, which can lead to an increase in the number of photoelectrons emitted.
Secondly, increasing the intensity of the incident irradiation increases the energy of the photons that
hit the material. This means that the photoelectrons that are emitted will have higher kinetic energy, which
can lead to an increase in their speed. However, there is a limit to the effect of increasing the intensity of
the incident irradiation on the emission of photoelectrons. This is because the photoelectric effect depends
on the energy of the photons, rather than their intensity. If the energy of the photons is below a certain
threshold, no photoelectrons will be emitted, regardless of the intensity of the incident irradiation.
This threshold is determined by the work function of the material, which is the minimum amount of
energy required to remove an electron from the material.
In summary, increasing the intensity of the incident irradiation can increase the number and energy of
photoelectrons emitted from a material, up to a certain point. Beyond this point, the effect of intensity is
limited by the energy of the photons and the work function of the material.

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 1.4 Matter as particles or waves

1.4 Matter as particles or waves

1.4.1 Diffraction patterns of photons and electrons
An important implication is that since matter has a wavelength as well, it can also cause interference
patterns.
A typical example used is that electrons passing through powdered metal foil can cause a diffraction pattern
due to scattering and constructive interference between electron waves.
A beam of X-rays can also be shown on the same foil and it will also cause a diffraction pattern due to
constructive and destructive interference.
K EY P OINT :
The two patterns will only be the same if the de Broglie wavelength of the electron is the same as the
λ . Since w does not change, the
wavelength of the X-ray. This is because the diffraction is related to w
wavelength for both electrons and X-rays are the same. However, the electron and photons do not have
Area of Study 1 – How has understanding about the physical world changed?

the same speed or energy.

hc
The X-ray photon has zero mass and a fixed speed of c. It will have an energy of Ep = .
λ
p 1
The electron has a mass m and a speed given by v = . It will have an energy of KE = mv 2
m 2

Figure 1.9: Diffraction results for X-rays and electrons

1.4.2 De Broglie wavelength of matter

If light can exhibit particle-like behaviour and wave-light behaviour, what about matter? Matter can also
have wave-light behaviour!
Any moving particle of matter has an associated wave, known as the de Broglie wavelength, given by:
h h
λ= =
p mv

where

λ is the de Broglie wavelength (measured in metres, m)

h is Planck’s constant which is equal to 6.63 × 10–34 Js

p is the momentum of the particle (measured in kg ms-1 )

m is the mass of the particle (measured in kg)

v is the velocity (measured in ms-1 )

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 1.5 Similarities between light and matter

Example 1.4
Find the de Broglie wavelength of a 150 g ball travelling at 20 ms–1 .
–34
The wavelength is found by λ = ph = mv h
→ λ = 6.63 ×10 34
0.15×20 = 2.21 × 10 m.
This is a tiny value, which is why we don’t notice wave-like behaviour in normal every day life. For example
λ ≈ 1... so we would need the ball to fit in a slit the with of 2.21 × 1034 m!
for diffraction to occur, w

1.5 Similarities between light and matter

1.5.1 Momentum
One of the final things to finish off our photon model is the concept of momentum of photons. It is indeed
possible to find the momentum, even though photons are thought to have zero mass while travelling at the

Area of Study 1 – How has understanding about the physical world changed?
speed of light.
Photons also have a momentum, which is given by:
hf h
p= =
c λ
where

p is the momentum (measured in kg ms-1 )

h is Plank’s constant which is equal to 6.63 × 10–34 Js

f is the frequency (measured in hertz, Hz)

c is the speed of light which is equal to 3.00 × 108 ms-1

λ is the wavelength (measured in metres, m)

1.5.2 Quantisation
The concept of quantisation is an essential idea in understanding the behaviour of light and the nature
of atoms. Quantisation refers to the idea that certain physical quantities, such as energy or angular mo-
mentum, can only take on discrete, quantised values, rather than continuous values. In the development of
knowledge about light, quantisation played a key role in the understanding of the electromagnetic spectrum.
The electromagnetic spectrum includes all forms of electromagnetic radiation, from radio waves to gamma
rays, and is quantised into discrete energy packets called photons. The energy of a photon is directly pro-
portional to its frequency, which means that photons of different energies correspond to different parts of
the electromagnetic spectrum. This understanding of quantised energy packets helped to explain phenom-
ena such as the photoelectric effect, in which electrons are ejected from a metal surface when exposed to
light, and the emission spectrum of gases, in which atoms emit light at specific wavelengths.
In explaining the nature of atoms, quantisation played a crucial role in the development of quantum mech-
anics. According to the Bohr model of the atom, electrons orbit the nucleus in discrete energy levels, which
correspond to specific quantised energy values. This model helped to explain the emission and absorption
spectra of atoms, in which atoms emit or absorb light at specific wavelengths that correspond to transitions
between different energy levels. However, the Bohr model had limitations and was replaced by more soph-
isticated quantum mechanical models that describe electrons as waves and their position and energy as
probabilities.
Overall, the idea of quantisation has been instrumental in the development of our understanding of light
and the nature of atoms. By introducing the concept of discrete energy packets, quantisation has helped to
explain many phenomena and has led to the development of quantum mechanics, which is a cornerstone
of modern physics.

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 1.5 Similarities between light and matter

1.5.3 Atomic absorption and emission spectra

When returning to their ground state from an excited state, atoms emit light. The light emitted consists of
only a few bands of light forming what is known as a line emission spectrum. Each element has a unique
spectrum which can be used for identification.
Each band corresponds to a specific frequency of light, meaning it is possible to find the energy of the
hc
emitted photon as Ep = hf = .
λ
Area of Study 1 – How has understanding about the physical world changed?

Figure 1.10: Example of a line emission spectra

When white light is passed through atoms, certain frequencies of light are absorbed. The light that exists
is continuous expect for these places, and the spectrum is called a line absorption spectrum. Again, this
spectrum is unique to each element.
Each band corresponds to a specific frequency of light, meaning it is possible to find the energy of the
hc
emitted photon as Ep = hf = .
λ

Figure 1.11: Example of a line absorption spectra

For any given element, for each dark band in the line absorption spectrum there is a corresponding light
band in the emission spectrum. This means that atoms can only absorb photons with energies exactly
equal to energies of photons that are emitted.
When a photon carrying the ‘right’ amount of energy hits an atom, an electron is knocked to a higher orbit
(absorption) and when it returns to its original original orbit it emits an electron (emission).

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 1.5 Similarities between light and matter

1.5.4 Quantised states of atoms

Bohr’s model
The reason for these emission and absorption spectra is that there are specific energy levels that exist for
an atom. Bohr’s model is used to explain this in much more detail.
Bohr’s model states that:
• An electron moves in a circular orbit around the nucleus (the electrostatic attraction of the nucleus
(+) and the electron (–) is the source of centripetal force).
• There are only a certain number of allowable orbits at different distance from the nucleus which are
called n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
• Electrons do not emit energy (photons) when they are in one of these allowable orbits and ordinarily
occupy the lowest orbit available (ground state).
• A photon absorbed has exactly the same energy as the increase (change) in energy of an electron

Area of Study 1 – How has understanding about the physical world changed?
in its current orbit jumping to a higher orbit.
• A photon emitted has exactly the same energy as the decrease (change) in energy of an electron in
a higher orbit falling to a lower orbit.
Absorption and emission of electrons
So what happens to the energy that is lost when an electron drops to a lower orbit, or the energy gained
when an electron jumps to a higher energy level? We know that energy cannot be created or destroyed
(energy is conserved), so there must be something emitted or absorbed. . . a photon!

K EY P OINT :
If an electron in an atom moves between an orbit m and n then the energy of the photon absorbed or
emitted can be found by:
Ep = hf = Em – En

where Em is the energy in orbit m, and En is the energy in orbit n.

Hence, Figure 1.12 shows us a simple energy level diagram. On the left side, we have the vertical axis for
energy. On the right side, we have the energy level name, n = 1, 2, 3 . . .. The ground state is the lowest
energy level, in other words where E = 0. This is also referred to as the n = 1 energy level.

Figure 1.12: Example of an energy level diagram

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 1.5 Similarities between light and matter

Example 1.5

Find the frequency of a photon absorbed that causes a jump to the energy level n = 3 for the atom in
Figure 1.12.
The energy change is given by:

Ep = E2 – E1 = 3.1 – 0 = 3.1 eV

The frequency is given by:

Area of Study 1 – How has understanding about the physical world changed?

3.1
Ep = hf → f = = 7.49 × 10–14 Hz
4.14 × 10–15

An energy level diagram is used to show the energy levels for electrons in an atom in various excited states.
Usually eV is used instead of J for ease of use.

From the ground state, n = 1, an atom can be raised to any higher energy state as long as the energy of the
photon matches the change in energy state. However, an atom can absorb any photon that has an energy
greater than the ionisation value, as this is when the electron is ‘ejected’ from the atom and any excess
energy from the photon is converted into kinetic energy (photoelectric effect).

When an atom moves to a lower energy state, it does not have to drop straight back to its ground state.
The energy of the photon emitted will be equal to the change in energy levels.

Example 1.6

An atom with energy levels given by Figure 1.12 is initially in the fourth energy level. Find the photon with
the largest wavelength that can be emitted.
hc
The relation between wavelength and energy is given by Ep = hf = . So, for the largest wavelength, we
λ
have the smallest energy.

The smallest energy from n = 4 is when we drop to n = 3, i.e. when Ep = E4 – E3 = 4. Now we can find the
wavelength:

hc 4.14 × 10–15 × 3.0 × 108

Ep = →λ= = 1.38 × 10–6 m
λ 0.9

Electron standing waves

Why do only certain energy levels exist? Again we look back at the dual nature of matter as electrons
behave like both particles and waves!

An alternate model was proposed by de Broglie to overcome some issues with Bohr’s model. As electrons
have an associated de Broglie wavelength, stable energy levels are only those where electrons can form
standing waves. De Broglie assumed these waves would be three dimensional, but they can also be shown
on a two dimensional diagram.

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 1.5 Similarities between light and matter

Area of Study 1 – How has understanding about the physical world changed?
Figure 1.13: 3D illustration of standing electron waves

Here, Figure 1.13 shows us how these standing waves might look like in an atom. Notice how the de Broglie
wave wraps all the way around the nucleus, with four periods. This would be for the n = 4 energy level. We
could ‘cut’ the wave and lay it flat, which is also shown. The wave perfectly fits, so the circumference of the
orbit is equal to four times the de Brogllie wavelength. This is why only certain energy levels are possible.
At any other point, there is not an integer multiple of waves, for example 3.5λ fits into the circumference
and the wave will destructively interfere with itself.

Example 1.7
Draw the standing waves for n = 3 and n = 4 of an atom.

Figure 1.14: 2D illustration of standing electron waves

Figure 1.14 shows how to draw these standing waves on paper, such as in a SAC or in the exam. Notice
that for n = 3, there are 3 ‘peaks’ and for n = 4 we have 4 evenly spaced ‘peaks’. If it asked for say, n = 5,
then there would be 5 peaks and the waves would fit perfectly into the circumference. This is all that is
required to answer this sort of question. So, when we drop from an energy level of n = 4 to n = 3, the
photon is emitted and the number of waves in the orbit drops from 4 to 3.

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 1.6 Einstein’s theory of special relativity

1.5.5 Single photon/electron in Young’s double slit experiment

In 1909, an interesting experiment was contrived. The photon model for light was used to re-investigate
Young’s Double Slit Experiment by using a light source so weak that there would only be one photon
between the slits and the screen at any time. The reason behind this was to see if light would now behave
as a particle because there was no other photon for the interference to occur with (i.e. there was only one
wave at any given time rather than two when using a bright light source).
The result was a series of light and dark bands, the exact same result as a normal Young’s Double Slit
Experiment. The key conundrum was how did the photons know to create these light and dark bands!
Essentially the explanation was that the interference pattern reflects the probability of a photon taking a
particular path to the screen. The location of a photon can be, in very simple terms, thought of these loca-
tions of high probabilities. In Young’s Double Slit experiment, these are the bright bands in the interference
pattern which is why photons appear to follow a preordained path when it actual fact they are materialising
a governing probability distribution.
Area of Study 1 – How has understanding about the physical world changed?

1.6 Einstein’s theory of special relativity

1.6.1 The Michelson–Morley experiment
Before we get into Einstein’s theory of special relativity, we have to understand some initial experiments
which led to this idea, such as the Michelson–Morley experiment.
The Michelson–Morley experiment was designed to measure the speed of light in different directions in
space in order to detect the motion of the Earth through the ‘luminiferous’ ether, which was believed at the
time to be the medium that carried light waves.
The experiment consisted of splitting a beam of light into two perpendicular directions and then recombining
them to observe any interference fringes. If the Earth was moving through the ether, then the speed of light
should be faster in one direction than in the perpendicular direction.

However, the Michelson–Morley experiment yielded a null result, which means that no difference was
observed in the speed of light in the two perpendicular directions. This result was initially puzzling because
it suggested that there was no ether and that the speed of light was constant, regardless of the motion of
the observer.

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 1.6 Einstein’s theory of special relativity

Einstein’s theory of special relativity provided an explanation for the null result of the Michelson–Morley
experiment. According to this theory, the speed of light is always constant, regardless of the motion of the
observer. This means that the results of the Michelson–Morley experiment can be interpreted as evidence
for the theory of relativity, which predicts that the speed of light is a universal constant and that the laws of
physics are the same for all observers in uniform motion.
In Einstein’s theory of relativity, time and space are relative and depend on the observer’s motion. This
means that the concepts of absolute time and space are replaced by the idea of spacetime, in which time
and space are combined into a four-dimensional continuum.
The theory of relativity has had a profound impact on physics, and many of its predictions have been
experimentally verified, including the bending of light around massive objects, the slowing of time for fast-
moving objects, and the equivalence of mass and energy.
K EY P OINT :
In summary, the null result of the Michelson–Morley experiment was initially unexpected but provided

Area of Study 1 – How has understanding about the physical world changed?
crucial evidence in support of Einstein’s theory of special relativity, which revolutionised our understand-
ing of time, space, and the nature of reality.

1.6.2 Einstein’s two postulates

K EY P OINT :
Einstein’s theory of special relativity is based on two postulates:
1. The laws of physics are the same in all inertial reference frames.
2. The speed of light in a vacuum, c, is the same for all observers, regardless of any velocity the
observer may have.

Keep in mind that an inertial frame of reference is one where the ‘viewer’ is at rest of at a constant velo-
city. For example, if you are sitting in a car that accelerates, your ‘perspective’ is not an inertial frame of
reference.
Einstein’s second postulate appears to contradict relativity in classical physics. For example, if you are
standing still and someone runs towards you at 10 m/s, you see them running towards you at 10 m/s.
However, you are also running towards then at 10 m/s, then they appear to be moving towards you at 20
m/s.
However, when measuring the speed of light, even if you are travelling towards the source of light at 10 m/s,
the speed of light you measure is still c, not c + 10 m/s.

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 1.6 Einstein’s theory of special relativity

1.6.3 Proper time and length

Einstein’s ‘explanation’ of his second postulate was that time and space are not absolute. For example,
suppose there are two viewers, one on a train and one standing at a platform. If Bob on the train turns
on a light in the train and it bounces off the roof and back, then it appear to him that it has travelled in a
straight vertical line. However, for Anna standing on the platform, it appears that the light has travelled in a
triangular path of greater distance.
Area of Study 1 – How has understanding about the physical world changed?

Figure 1.15: Non-simultaneity to show the difference in time and length

Thus, it is clear that if light travels at the same speed, either the time and/or distance travelled measured
by Bob will be different than Anna’s measurements. Proper time and length are defined by a rest frame of
reference that is the same as the event being measured.
• The time interval between two events that occur at the same place, e.g. both on a train or both on a
platform, measured by an observer in that reference frame is called the proper time, t0 .
• The length of an object measured in a reference frame in which it is at rest is called its proper length,
L0 .

1.6.4 Time dilation and length contraction

The Lorentz factor is denoted by γ . For an observer moving at a relative speed v to the event, the Lorentz
factor is given by:
1
γ=r  
v2
1–
c2

When the relative speed increases, time appears to travel more slowly. In the previous train example, if the
train travels faster, Anna will record an even longer time for the light to reflect back from the ceiling to the
ground.
Time dilation is the increase in the measured time, found by:

t = γ t0

While time appears to travel more slowly, the distance measured appears to be shorter.
Length contraction is the decrease in the measured distance, found by:

L0
L=
γ

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 1.6 Einstein’s theory of special relativity

1.6.5 Applications
Muons
Muons are subatomic particles that are similar to electrons, but much heavier. They are produced natur-
ally in cosmic rays and are constantly bombarding the Earth’s atmosphere. According to the laws of special
relativity, muons should decay rapidly due to their short half-lives, which is the amount of time it takes for
half of a given number of particles to decay. Certain muons have an average lifetime of 2.2 µs measured
at rest. However, when travelling at a speed of 0.9994c, their lifetime is suddenly much larger: 63.4 µs
indicating a Lorentz factor of 28.9.
However, muons are observed to reach the Earth’s surface, even though they should decay before reaching
the ground. This phenomenon can be explained by the time dilation effect predicted by special relativity.
According to this theory, time passes more slowly for objects in motion relative to an observer at rest. In
the case of muons, they are traveling at high speeds relative to the Earth’s surface, and so their half-lives
appear to be longer from the perspective of an observer on the ground.

Area of Study 1 – How has understanding about the physical world changed?
To understand this effect, consider an analogy of two clocks. Suppose you have two identical clocks: one
stationary and one moving at a high velocity. According to special relativity, the moving clock will appear to
run slower than the stationary clock, as seen by an observer at rest. This effect is known as time dilation
and is responsible for the observed longevity of muons.
Another example of special relativity is the phenomenon of length contraction. According to this theory,
objects appear shorter in the direction of their motion when they are moving at high speeds. This effect
can be observed in high-speed particle accelerators, where particles moving at close to the speed of light
appear to be contracted in the direction of their motion.
Particle accelerators
Particle accelerators are devices that accelerate subatomic particles to extremely high speeds in order to
study their properties and interactions. Special relativity predicts that as particles approach the speed of
light, their length appears to contract in the direction of their motion. This means that in order to achieve
the desired energy for the particles, the length of the accelerator must be adjusted to account for this effect.
To understand this effect, consider an analogy of a moving train. Suppose you are standing beside a train
track watching a train pass by at close to the speed of light. According to special relativity, the train appears
to be shorter in the direction of its motion, as seen by an observer at rest. This effect is known as length
contraction and is responsible for the observed reduction in the length of particle accelerators.
The effects of special relativity must be taken into account when designing particle accelerators. In order to
achieve the desired energy for the particles, the length of the accelerator must be increased to compensate
for the length contraction effect. This means that particle accelerators must be carefully designed to take
into account the speed of the particles being accelerated, the energy required, and the length contraction
effect predicted by special relativity.
The length contraction effect is also important in the study of subatomic particles, as it allows scientists
to probe the inner workings of matter at extremely high energies. By accelerating particles to close to the
speed of light, scientists are able to observe the effects of length contraction and study the properties of
subatomic particles in a way that would not be possible without the effects of special relativity.

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 1.7 Relationship between energy and mass

GPS
Global Positioning System (GPS) satellites are used to determine the location of objects on Earth by broad-
casting time signals that are received by GPS receivers on the ground. However, the GPS system relies on
the predictions of special relativity to function accurately. Specifically, the orbital velocity of GPS satellites
affects the passage of time, which must be corrected for in order to maintain the accuracy of the GPS
. According to special relativity, time passes more slowly for objects in motion relative to an observer at
rest. This effect is known as time dilation. Since GPS satellites are orbiting the Earth at a high velocity, the
time signals they broadcast must be corrected for the time dilation effect in order to maintain their accuracy.
Additionally, the GPS system must also take into account the gravitational time dilation effect predicted by
general relativity. According to this theory, time passes more slowly in regions of stronger gravitational
fields. Since the GPS satellites are at a higher altitude than objects on the Earth’s surface, they experience
a weaker gravitational field, which causes time to pass more quickly. This effect must also be taken into
account in order to maintain the accuracy of the GPS. The correction required for the time signals from GPS
Area of Study 1 – How has understanding about the physical world changed?

satellites is quite small, on the order of nanoseconds. However, this correction is crucial for maintaining
the accuracy of the GPS, which is used for a wide range of applications, from navigation to timing and
synchronisation for telecommunications and financial transactions.

1.7 Relationship between energy and mass

1.7.1 Einstein’s mass–energy equivalence
Einstein’s famous equation, E = mc 2 , relates energy (E) to mass (m) and the speed of light (c). The
equation states that the energy (E) of a particle or object with mass (m) is equal to its mass multiplied by
the speed of light squared (c 2 ).
In other words, the equation shows that mass and energy are two forms of the same thing and are inter-
changeable. This means that if you convert a certain amount of mass into energy, you can calculate the
amount of energy released using E = mc 2 .
K EY P OINT :
If E0 = mc 2 , then for a moving body, the total energy is the rest energy plus the kinetic energy:

Etotal = Erest + Ek
= m0 c 2 + (γ – 1)m0 c 2
= γ m0 c 2

Hence:

Etotal = Erest + Ek = mc 2 + (γ – 1)mc 2 = γ mc 2

These equations have important implications for physics and our understanding of the universe. It helps
explain the enormous amounts of energy released in nuclear reactions, such as those that power suns and
nuclear power plants. It also explains the relationship between mass and energy in subatomic particles and
the behaviour of particles at extremely high energies, as observed in particle accelerators.

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 Practical investigation

Area of Study 2

Practical investigation
This SAC is a part of the course because it requires you to design your own practical investigation and
analyse its results. It also tests you on your practical understanding of Physics concepts. As such, you
should aim to investigate a topic within the scope of the Study Design – nothing too huge that it would
require a university degree, but also nothing so simple that it only requires basic Year 8 knowledge like
analysing the motion of dropping a tennis ball!

2.1 Ideas and investigation design

Optimally, investigations should aim to cover three or four Areas of Study to demonstrate deep understand-
ing of the underlying Physics concepts and how they link together. As such, here is a short and obviously
incomplete list of ideas for motion:
Hot Wheels track:
1. Make a ramp and and vary the starting height. By varying the starting height, the initial gravitational
energy changes. Analysis of how energy is conserved, transforming from gravitational potential en-
ergy to kinetic energy can be discussed as well as what ‘energy loss’ is. Or, since this is an inclined

Area of Study 2 – Practical investigation

plane, Newton’s Laws of Motion can be used to solve for acceleration.
2. Make a loop-the-loop following the variable height ramp and find the minimum height at which a car
will still make the loop-the-loop. Compare your results to a theoretical approach to see if the starting
height is the exact same. If not, make your discussion about why this is so: energy loss, random
errors, etc.
3. Let the car run off the track and onto some frictional surface such as carpet. Find the distance the
car travels on the carpet before coming to a stop and analyse the energy changes in your system.
4. Place a second car at the end of the track so that the first car collides with the second car sending it
off onto the carpet. Investigate whether or not the distance travelled by the second car is equal to the
distance of the first car in the previous part.
Trolleys, or other spring-loaded small cars:
1. Hold the spring loaded end against a wall and release the spring, allowing the cart to shoot forward.
You can measure the distance travelled by the cart, or the average time taken for it to travel 3 metres
(provided that the surface is frictionless and does not slow the cart down!). An analysis of spring
energy to kinetic energy could then be done.
2. Use a table with one end higher than the other to allow the trolley to gently roll down the slope.
Constant acceleration formulas can be used to find the theoretical time it takes to reach the end of
the slope, which you can compare with your results.
3. Have the spring facing down the slope and place a wooden block at the end. When the trolley
strikes the block, record the distance the trolley travels back up the slope and compare it to the initial
distance. An interesting discussion of why the trolley does not return all the way up to the top of the
slope can be made – energy losses, frictional forces, was the collision elastic or inelastic, etc.
Springs:
1. Attach weights to the end of a spring and measure how far the spring extends as you add weights. The
force is given by the weights attached and, plotting against the extension, a rudimentary force–distance
graph can be drawn. The spring constant can be found and a discussion on whether or not the spring
is ideal can be made. Make sure not to overextend your spring!
2. After removing all the weights, add a small weight and allow the spring to oscillate, much like in the
VCAA exam questions. Energy graphs can be drawn up, analysis of why the oscillation decreases
over time (frictional forces) and calculations of speed/energy can all be included in your discussion!

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 2.2 Science communication and scientific posters

Again, these are just a few ideas to get you going – often the best pracs ones are where students come up
with their own ideas and aim and carry it out (with lots of enthusiasm). Remember that these are just ideas
for motion, you can also tackle fields or waves!

2.2 Science communication and scientific posters

Being proficient in the scientific method is absolutely essential, not just for being a good scientist and
contributing to the wealth of knowledge that we have amassed, but also because the critical thinking skills
you gain are extremely valuable.
The knowledge that we are taught today has itself been discovered through experimental investigation.
The way scientists obtain knowledge is by using information that is already known to make conjectures or
hypotheses. The scientist would then develop an experiment to validate this hypothesis. The experiment
would be conducted and data collected. The scientist would then interpret the findings and discuss the
meaning of these findings, and come to a conclusion based on these findings. This experimental data,
should the scientist wish, can be published and become part of the literature.
In this course you will be expected to conduct your own experiment from start to finish. This means you
will be designing the experimental method, conducting the experiment, and collecting data, interpreting the
results, and obtaining a conclusion. You will then need to present your results in the format of a scientific
poster. The poster needs to be 600 words and consist of the following sections, including recommended
word counts:
Area of Study 2 – Practical investigation

Title 1 sentence

Introduction 100 words

Methodology and methods 100 words

Results 100 words

Discussion 250 words

Conclusion 50 words

Communication statement 1 sentence

2.2.1 Title
First and foremost you will need to give your poster a title. Now, the title can’t just be the first thing that
comes into your head, but actually has to do a few things! Your title needs to be written as a question that
describes the experiment you’ve just undertaken.
When we propose a research question, we need to make sure we are clearly stating our dependent and
independent variables (i.e. what you are measuring and what you are changing). VCAA has also noted
that you should try and include the general experimental approach and/or the model you are using.
A very simple example could be: “How does the height of a ramp affect distance travelled by a toy car?”

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 2.2 Science communication and scientific posters

2.2.2 Introduction
Here, you need to provide an appropriate and concise aim and hypothesis, as well as give context to
your experiment by explaining the background information. To do so, you need to consult the current
literature (i.e. published information available in books, academic journal articles, and websites).
Some questions that you need to answer:
• What background information does the reader need to know so they can understand your experi-
ment?
• Has your experiment been performed before? If so, what was the methodology and the findings?
• Why is your research question pertinent? What are the implications should your research question
be answered?
Keep in mind that at Year 12 level, your research is likely (not definitely!) limited to small, rather incon-
sequential research questions, confirming the findings of existing literature, or experimentally verifying a
theory that you have learnt.
K EY P OINT :
You only have 100 words for this section, so be direct and concise with what you’re including here. While
there is likely copious amounts of background knowledge on your topic, only include the information
absolutely pertinent to the understanding of your experiment and setup.

Area of Study 2 – Practical investigation

2.2.3 Methodology and methods
When designing the methodology of your experiment, ensure that you include the following:
• Have setups for both experimental groups and a control group where appropriate.
• Have a large sample size if appropriate. The sample size refers to the number of experimental
setups. Having multiple setups would decrease the likelihood of a random error leading to incorrect
conclusions.
• Make sure you vary the independent variable and explain how you are measuring it. The independ-
ent variable is the variable you are manually changing. Explaining how the independent variable
is measured is important because to draw accurate conclusions you want to ensure that your inde-
pendent variable has been varied.
• The dependent variable is the variable that changes as a result of varying the independent variable;
it is what you are measuring. Make sure you explain exactly what you are measuring and how you
will be measuring it.
• Make sure you control other variables by keeping them constant. This ensures that if there is a
positive result in your experimental setup, it cannot be attributed to other variables.
When writing this section for the poster, you only need to include a very brief account of your selected
methodology, making it clear how it answers your investigation question. However, don’t forget that you
also need to include what methods you used to analyse your data!

2.2.4 Results
When presenting results, think about the most succinct way to convey them.
• If you are trying to show a trend, then a graph would be most appropriate.
– A line graph is appropriate for continuous data, whereas a histogram or column graph may be
more appropriate for categorical and discrete data sets.
• While tables are generally not the best way to depict information in its final form, sometimes they are
necessary. Make sure to carefully consider whether a table is the most appropriate way to display
your final results.
• Depending on your experiment you may have a myriad of other cool results to show, just keep in mind
that you want to best depict what you learnt in your experiment.

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 2.2 Science communication and scientific posters

2.2.5 Discussion
This is the most important section of your poster. Here, you need to analyse your data and extract meaning
from it.
Interpreting your findings
The most important part of your discussion is being able to take your results and interpret them in an
appropriate physics context, in terms of your proposed aim and hypothesis. The following questions might
help you do this:
• Does the data support or negate your hypothesis?
• If your data supports your hypothesis, are there any other explanations for your positive findings,
besides your independent variable?
• If your data negates your hypothesis, is it possible for you to have generated this data even if your
hypothesis were true (e.g. could it be due to experimental error)?
Linking to scientific concepts
You also need to make sure you are linking your experimental results and findings to the appropriate Phys-
ics theories throughout your discussion. This shouldn’t just be a copy and paste from your introduction,
but should link these larger ideas with what you found in your experiment and why. Think of it like your
English essays, you can broadly define larger concepts in your intro, but when you are discussing specific
components in each paragraph you need to link to specific parts of the text. This is the same in Physics. If
Area of Study 2 – Practical investigation

you gave a definition in your introduction as part of justifying your hypothesis or experimental method, then
in your discussion you need to use deeper concepts to link to your results.
Here you can use case studies, literature reviews, or other journal articles to form part of your analysis. This
doesn’t have to be extensive, but shows you are interacting with and linking your findings to established
knowledge.
Improvements and limitations
For your discussion you need to be considering if we could have performed our experiment better and
actually suggest ways that this could be done. The best way to do this is to consider a few questions:
• Are there any errors?
– Random error and systematic error are the main types of error you should be considering
in your experiments. You need to both be able to identify these occurrences in your own
experiments and how they might be minimised if this experiment was to be repeated in the
future.
• Are there any sources of uncertainty?
– Uncertainty is when we do not have an accurate view of what the value being measured is. In
terms of addressing uncertainties, you are only expected to understand the qualitative treatment
of uncertainty. This could include practices such as using a more accurate piece of equipment
or by repeating the experiment.
• What suggestions could I make to improve the experiment?
– Other than reducing error, think about how else your experimental method could be refined.
Could you have had better control groups? Was your investigation too broad? Could you
eliminate bias by making sure the researcher is unaware which are the experimental or control
groups?

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 2.2 Science communication and scientific posters

2.2.6 Conclusion
When you write your conclusion, ensure that you directly answer your research question in a succinct
manner. Also, ensure that no further details are given (because it is not appropriate for a conclusion). Much
like an English essay, your conclusion should only cover what you have already discussed in your piece.

2.2.7 Communication statement

Your poster should also have a communication statement in the centre, which is a one-sentence summary
of your findings. This should be an even more succinct version of your conclusion and should answer the
investigation question you set out in your title.
Below is the template VCAA provides to give you a general idea of what your poster should look like. As
this is an in-school assessment task, you should work with your teacher in constructing and refining your
poster while adhering to these specifications.

Area of Study 2 – Practical investigation

Source: VCE Physics Study Design, page 14 © VCAA 2022

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 Part III

Final exam

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 Tackling the exam

Section 1

Tackling the exam

1.1 Question types
1.1.1 Short answer questions
These questions are aimed at testing your knowledge of Physics. They aren’t designed to trip you up which
is why they are only worth one or two marks. Figure 1.1 shows a one mark question and a two mark
question.
For any one mark question, you either get one or zero as there are no half marks in the exam. So, it might
seem reasonable to just write the answer and not do any working, but this is not my approach. I prefer to
write one line of reasoning or calculation so I make sure that my reasoning is not flawed. Moreover, when I
go back to double check, that one extra line of working makes it much easier for me to check my reasoning
was correct.
For the two mark question, working is a must. Not only are there potential marks for working, but if the final
answer is incorrect I can still salvage one mark for my working out of two which is a lot better than nothing.
When writing my working, I prefer to state the formulas I use before substituting and evaluating. However,
stating the formula is not mandatory as the mark(s) for working are awarded to an equation with correctly

Section 1 – Tackling the exam

substituted numbers.

Figure 1.1: Question 14 from the 2014 VCAA exam with sample solution

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 1.1 Question types

1.1.2 Long answer calculation questions

In my mind, there are two subtypes of long answer questions. The first involves difficult calculations that
must be done carefully while the second involves difficult concepts that must be explained in your answer.
Figure 1.2 shows a typical long answer (three or four marks) question for gravity and satellites. The reason I
have given so much working is twofold: if my final answer is wrong I can still garner some marks for working
and in my working I have shown “good physics.” Sometimes, it is not enough to have lines of calculations,
if there is no apparent reason for them. On past assessment reports, it has been stated that marks should
be awarded for “good physics” even if the final answer may be incorrect.
To me, “good physics” means showing an understanding of the underlying concepts and assumptions made
rather than just plugging numbers into a formula from my cheat sheet. So, for question 5a of the 2014 VCAA,
exam I clearly state my assumptions that the orbit is circular and the net force is due to free fall. Then, I go
into the relevant calculations.
Section 1 – Tackling the exam

Figure 1.2: Question 5 a. from the 2014 VCAA exam with sample solution

1.1.3 Explanation questions

The key to exam explain-type questions is to ask yourself “why?” You need to keep asking “why” until you
reach an underlying Physics concept or formula that has already been established. So, for question 5b in
Figure 1.3, I begin by stating the answer that it is not possible to determine the mass. Then, I have to ask
myself “why?” Well, from 5a I saw that m did not appear on either side of the equation. Why? It’s because
I used Kepler’s law. Where did this come from? It came from equating the centripetal force and the force
due to gravitational attraction. These are formulas are already well established and would be the end of my
answer
So, it isn’t just enough to say that it is not possible and the reason is m does not appear in the formula. To
definitely get 2/2 marks, you want to keep going until you hit a key formula or concept in your answer to,
again, show “good physics” rather than application of formulas from your summary sheet.

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 1.2 Reading time

Figure 1.3: Question 5b from the 2014 VCAA exam with sample solution

1.2 Reading time

When I was preparing for my exams, reading time somehow was simultaneously the most overrated part of
the exam and the most underrated part of the exam. It was underrated because quite a few people would
just read through the exam in 5 minutes, then daydream until writing time started. It was overrated because

Section 1 – Tackling the exam

of the “importance” people would often put on it – that it was your one chance to go through the paper
before, or it was a chance to decide what order you do the questions, or even a chance do some of the
multiple-choice questions in your head.
But for me, reading time was just a chance to make sure that everything I expected to be in the exam was
there, and there weren’t any major surprises. It was a chance to sit down and clear my head before I put
my pen to paper. It was my chance to focus and mentally prepare myself. That was my tactic.
However, that was just my tactic. Everyone has their own tactics and plans for what reading time will be
like. You need to figure out which tactics you prefer and then use them. The common ones that you can
choose from are:
1. Read through the exam.
2. Re-read the exam to make sure you understand all the questions.
3. Decide what order to the questions in.
4. Try to answer some of the questions in your head.
5. Try to eliminate some of the options for multiple-choice questions.
6. Take a few minutes to focus.
7. Get your brain in ‘exam mode’.
8. Check your cheat sheet as you read to make sure everything is on there.
9. Look up any words that you don’t know in a dictionary.
10. Read the formula sheet to familiarise yourself with it.
11. Read all of the instruction boxes.
12. Drink some water to keep yourself hydrated.
13. Check your stationery.
14. Make sure you have a good view of the clock.
In my mind, it is possible to shorten this list (which is not exhaustive) by preparing effectively. For example,
you can go through the formula sheet from past exams to familiarise yourself with it. You can read all of the
instruction boxes from previous exams as these hardly change. You can make sure you can see the clock
and have a drink as you sit down before reading time starts.
But, as I’ve said, everyone does have their own tactics. It is up to you to form your own tactics, and I do
hope that I’ve given you some ideas on what you will do. I also hope that you practise reading time before
the actual exam by taking the 15 minutes before each of practice exams you do to get used to reading time!

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 1.3 Writing time

We all try and develop tactics while we do practice papers and come up with different theories, but it is
important to keep in mind if you do not end up following them at the end of the day because things might
be different under exam pressure. By that I mean under real pressure, or it might be the case that you
were too tired to remember what tactic you even prepared yourself to use in the exam. Different people
experience the exam in different ways some are too nervous and some are too tired because they did not
sleep enough the night before, thinking that cramming information at the last minute would help (cough,
cough, cough) and then they could barely keep their eyes open during the actual exam. Now I am not
saying which category I belonged in, but there is one strategy that will always work and it goes like this:
• Spend the first minute of the reading time flipping through all the pages just to get a feel of the exam.
There’s no need to read in detail at this stage.
• Spend 7 minutes going through the first multiple-choice questions.
• Spend another 7 minutes going through the extended response questions.
• When writing time starts, you answer the multiple-choice questions you were looking at during reading
time and then answer all the questions under the extended response section.
• Come back to questions you don’t know; the exam is basically a test of how many points you can get,
not on how many questions you can do!

1.3 Writing time

It goes without saying that writing time is the most important part of the exam. But it doesn’t mean is that
you can’t take a minute to drink some water or to use the toilet. While you need to get through your exam,
you also need to make sure you look after yourself as it is a long exam.
Section 1 – Tackling the exam

Now, writing time begins right after reading time which means the exam should be fresh in your mind.
If you’ve decided that you will spend reading time deciding what order to do the questions in, then even
better! Personally, I left the multiple-choice section to last so that if I ran out of time, I could still make edu-
cated guesses in the last few seconds, whereas it’s almost impossible to scavenge marks in the extended
response at the last minute.
Timing is also critical in your exam, because you don’t want to run out of time in the exam. It’s a horrible
feeling having to leave an exam knowing that you could have done better or that you could have answered
a tricky question but you just ran out of time. My tip is to either come in prepared with a timing plan, or make
an ad hoc one during reading time.
• Pre-planned method: before you go into the exam, you find the sample coversheet for the exam
that VCAA posts every year. This will show you mark breakdown. You can then decide how long
you want to spend on each section and write out the starting and ending times on your cheat sheet.
In the exam, you would then follow your planned times to make sure you don’t go over time. If you
realise one question/section is moving too long, then move on to the next one and come back to it at
the end!
• Ad hoc method: for each question, there is an allocated total mark. I’m not taking about Q1a., Q1b.,
but rather the total amount for question 1. For the 2014 exam, you start at 9.15 am and question 1 is
worth 9 marks. So if you want to spend a minute per make, you would write “9.15 start –> 9.24 finish”
next to question 1.
If you finish early, say 9.20 am then for question two (worth 11 marks) you would write “9.20 start –
> 9.31 finish (+ 4 min)”. The “+4 min” indicates that you are running 4 minutes ahead of time, so you
have an extra 4 minutes at the end of the exam to double check.
If you’re running late on question one, you can either decide to skip it till later or go over time with
it. If you do and it takes you till, say, 9.26 then on the start of question 2 you would write “9.26 start
–> 9.37 finish (-2 min)”. The “-2 min” tells you that you’re running 2 minutes behind and you need to
make up for it somewhere else.

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 1.3 Writing time

Obviously, the ad hoc method takes much longer to do during an exam. It also means that you have to
do a running total: for example if you’re 4 minutes in front in question 1, 5 minutes behind in question 2,
3 minutes in front in question 3, then your running total is “+2 min”. The upside is that you always know if
you’re running under or over time.
One other issue with the ad hoc method is what if you want to have some time at the end to double check?
Then it’s no longer a mark a minute. Rather, if you wanted 15 minutes at the end to double check it would
be a mark every 54 seconds . . . which means that to calculate the amount of time for 9 marks you would
have to do 9 × (54 ÷ 60) = 8 min 6 sec. . . you can see how impractical this becomes if you do it for every
question! So, if you just come in prepared with a time plan that has been adjusted for double check time,
then it’s a lot easier.
Okay, so you have a general idea of what you’re going to do, how long you’re going to spend doing it and
when to move on if it takes too long, but how about actually doing “it”, the questions!
My general guide goes like this:
1. Skim read the question and all of its parts to get a good idea of what it’s asking. If you still remember
the question from reading time, that’s great because you can skip this step!
This is just to make sure that you don’t go and solve for the kinetic energy and velocity in part (a)
when in fact it asked you to only find the kinetic energy in part (a) and the velocity in part (b). . . I’ve
been guilty of this plenty of times and I’ve had to draw arrows every which way for every question to
show what working belonged to (a) and which belonged to (b).
2. Highlight/underline any key words that you will need. Questions appear in blocks, so you don’t

Section 1 – Tackling the exam

want to get up to part (d) and start losing track of where all the data in the question is.
3. Draw a diagram if you think it would help. Usually VCAA provides all the diagrams you need, but
if you think another diagram (e.g. a free body diagram or a graph) would help you then definitely draw
it. If it’s for an explain-type question then all the better!
4. Show full working, taking care to make sure it is logical. If you don’t manage to get the right
answer, you definitely want those consequential marks. Look back to the sample solutions for various
question types to get an idea of how much detail you should put for your working. Show the formulae
your are using with substituted values as there is a mark for showing a formula with substituted values
and a correct answer.
Only write in the borders because your exam will be electronically scanned.
5. Write out your final answer and indicate that it is your final answer. This can be as simple as
writing your answer in a box. At most, you will write a sentence a few words long, e.g. “Therefore, the
velocity is 5 m/s”. That clearly indicates your final answer to your examiner.
Now, that’s all well and good and I hope that you stick to my general guide! But what happens if you get
stuck on a hard question?
1. Don’t panic. If you’ve done your revision and you’re finding a question in the exam hard, chances are
the rest of the state will be feeling the same way.
2. Look back to the key information you highlighted/underlined. Try to find a link between them.
3. Check the formula sheet or your own cheat sheet to see if there are any relations that involve the
information in the question.
4. If the space for the answer is small, you might just be over thinking it – try to look for a simple solution.
On the other hand, if the space is large, prepare yourself for a lot of work.
5. If the question is a multiple-choice response, try to eliminate some of the options. For example, look
at the units, or substitute the answer into the question to see if it works out.

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 1.4 What to do before your exam ends

6. Worse case scenario: you still have nothing and looking at the amount of time you’ve already spent
on the question you realise you need to move on:
(a) Write some physics formulas or concepts that are relevant to the question. Don’t over do this,
it’s just to show that you understand physics, just not this particular question.
(b) Put a star or some kind of mark next to the question so you know to come back to it. If it’s a
multiple-choice question, guess an answer and put a mark next to the question number. This
way, if you don’t have time to finish the question at the end, you still have a guess on your
response sheet.
(c) Move on. It’s the only thing you can do. Move on and get the rest done so you can come back
and focus on the hard question with your remaining time.

1.4 What to do before your exam ends

Double check everything! When I was going through Physics, I was the kind of person that would get all the
trick questions right but get several “easy” ones wrong. Why? Because I’d rush and not read the question
properly if it seemed easy. Eventually, I managed to cut down on my mistakes by taking care with each
question and allocating time at the end specifically for double checking. When I double check, these are
the common things I do:
• Make sure I answered the question in the right units.
• Make sure I wrote my answer in the box provided.
• Make sure I’ve answered the right question. If the question asks for kinetic energy, then I make sure
I solved for kinetic energy and not for, say, the velocity instead.
Section 1 – Tackling the exam

• If I couldn’t fit all my working/explanation on the page, draw an arrow or make some mark for the
examiner to show where it continues.
• Double check that my answer is reasonable. If I find the energy of a photon is 680 eV, then I know
I’ve made a mistake.
• For long calculations, re-enter it into my calculator to make sure that I didn’t type it in wrong.
• For multiple-choice questions, make sure that I’ve shaded the right box on my response sheet.
• Make sure that I answered (or tried to answer) every question.
• Make sure I filled in the multiple-choice response sheet.
Now, some of you will notice that you can, and probably should, do some of these after each question you
finish. If you double check that you answered the right question, make sure that your answer is reasonable,
in the right units and in the provided box, then that is an excellent habit to get into.

1.5 How to use assessment reports

Assessment reports are like gold. I can’t stress enough the importance of looking through the assessment
report for every past VCAA exam you do! There are two main sections to assessment reports; the general
comments and the specific information. The first section can seem a bit daunting because there is a lot of
writing but it is full of useful information. For example frequent comments include things like:
• The answer space given and the number of marks allocated to a question should be used a guide as
to the amount of detail required in an answer.
• Attempting a question a number of different ways will not be awarded any marks unless all methods
are correct. Students are advised to neatly cross out any working they do not want assessed.
• Students should be encouraged to set out their work clearly so assessors can follow what they have
done. In questions that involve a number of steps, it is helpful if the student explains all their working.
• In questions that require explanations, students should carefully consider what the question is asking
and answer accordingly. They should not simply copy information from their sheet(s) of notes, as this
can result in the inclusion of irrelevant, contradictory, or incorrect material.
• When responding to questions that required an explanation, many students answered in dot-point
format. This may help to ensure good, concise answers. There is no need to restate the question.

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 1.5 How to use assessment reports

• The use of equations or diagrams in questions that require an explanation can sometimes assist. It
is important that diagrams are sufficiently large and clearly labelled. Graphs and sketches should be
drawn with care.
• Students’ attention should be drawn to the instructions for Section A, ‘In questions worth more than 1
mark, appropriate working should be shown’. Full marks may not be awarded where only the answer
is shown, and some credit can often be given for working even if the final answer is incorrect.
• Students are also reminded of the instruction for Section A, ‘Where an answer box has a unit printed
in it, give your answer in that unit’. Students should be discouraged from changing the unit.
• It is important that students show the numbers substituted into formulas/equations. The formula alone
is generally not worth any marks.
• It is expected that formulas be copied accurately from the formula sheet provided with the examination
or from the student’s sheet(s) of notes. Derived formulas from the student’s sheet(s) of notes may be
used. However, they must be correct and appropriate for the question.
• Students need to be familiar with the operation of the scientific calculator they will use in the exam.
Calculations involving powers of ten sometimes caused difficulties for students. Students must ensure
that the calculator is in scientific mode and that it does not truncate answers after one or two decimal
places.
• The rounding-off of calculations should be done only at the end, not progressively after each step.
• Answers should be simplified to decimal form.
• Where values of constants are provided in the stem of the question or on the formula sheet, students
are expected to use the number of significant figures given.
• Care needs to be taken when reading the scales on the axes of graphs.

Section 1 – Tackling the exam

• Arrows representing vector quantities should be drawn so that they originate from the point of applic-
ation. Where appropriate, the length of the arrows should indicate the relative magnitudes.
• Students should ensure that their answers are realistic. Illogical answers should prompt students to
check their working.
Like I said, the general comments are a veritable gold mine of information about how to answer questions.
I’ve given you examples on how to answer various questions types such as long answer and short answer,
but these dot points will be what your VCAA exam marker will be following. The general comments answer
a lot of frequently asked questions such as: can I change the units in the box? Can I use dot points? Do I
need to show working?. . . they’re all answered in the assessment report!
Another common question is: what’s the hardest thing in Physics? Again, I can give you my personal
opinion, but based on the comments in the past several years of assessment reports, the following topics
come up again and again!

Areas requiring improvement included:

• connected bodies • understanding of series circuits

• energy conversion and conservation in • explaining aspects of the photoelectric
springs effect
• complex projectile motion • applying the concept of path difference in
• apparent weightlessness interference patterns
• modulation • explaining electron and X-ray diffraction
• explaining direction of induced current patterns
using Lenz’s law • electron energy level diagrams and
• operation of transformers and how they associated emissions and absorptions
work in a power transmission system • how the wave nature of matter can explain
the electron energy levels.

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 1.6 What exam mark do I need for...

These lists are also updated every year so if you look back through a few past exams, you’ll definitely
get a sense of what questions are hard/not well done. Some examples would be “energy conversion and
conservation in springs” which has cropped up almost every other year for the past decade and “explanation
of induced current using Lenz’s Law” which has gotten beefed up in the past few years. The main caveat,
however, is that if you spent too much time looking back through past VCAA reports, you might get caught
in the trap of trying to guess what VCAA is going to do next for its exam. . . you want to spend your time
getting ready for the exam, not becoming a fortune teller for the exam questions! A general idea of past
exams is good, just don’t start trying to find patterns and make predictions.
The specific information is great because it is, well, very specific. So, for example you go through the 2014
exam for revision and you had now idea how do to Question 2, you can look at the assessment report and
see how other students faired to get an idea of where you lie.
Question 2d.

Marks 0 1 2 3 4 Average

% 74 15 3 1 7 0.5

Average of 0.5 out of 4... ouch.

Another way to use the specific information is to deliberately, yes deliberately, go looking for hard questions
to practise on. To me, this is a very good idea for those of you who are aiming high because commercial
(non-VCAA) exams typically do not have statistics on how other students fared. So, by hunting through
Section 1 – Tackling the exam

assessment reports for hard questions, you’re making the most of your resources. Personally I would
classify any question where over 50% of the state earned 0 marks a difficult question, but your standards
might be higher or lower.
The assessment reports do not, however, give you fully worked solutions. These are provided in some
other resources (like our ATAR Notes Topic Tests book!) or other commercial practice exams, along with
comments about common errors that students make. As someone who was very prone to silly mistakes,
being aware of these common errors meant I knew where to take care.

1.6 What exam mark do I need for...

Don’t. Don’t do this to yourself. Just don’t. There are plenty of “guides” on how to predict your study
score and the majority of them are based on normal distributions. I won’t go into any of the methods
because it doesn’t really matter. All you really need to keep in mind is that your final study scores are
normally distributed, which means everything is scaled. If the exam is easy one year, that doesn’t mean
that everyone gets high scores. The same proportional of students will get 30+, the same proportion will get
40+, etc. It just means that the requirements for getting a C, C+, B, etc. are changed. These are referred
to as ‘cut-offs’.
So, if the exam is easy one year, it might have a high cut-off in order to get an A. If the exam in another
year is hard, the cut-off in order to get an A might be lower. In this way, the distribution of study scores is
the same regardless of the difficulty of the exam. In other words, 140/150 on one exam is not the same
as 140/150 on a different one. It all depends on the grade distribution of the exam. So, if you want to get
a specific study score, then don’t concentrate on what exam mark you will need to get. In fact, it would be
better if you spend your time revising rather than worrying what mark you need. But, if you must, then I
would suggest you aim at letter grades like B+, A, A+ etc. if you want a target.

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 1.7 What can I do right now?

1.7 What can I do right now?

There are heaps of things that you can do. You don’t have to be in SWOTVAC to start studying for your
exam! My first piece of advice would be to get your cheat sheet together. More than likely you’ve finished all
of your core studies and you’ve had all of your major SACs. At most schools, you’re allowed to take a cheat
sheet into your SACs. So, if you still have your past cheat sheets it will significantly reduce the amount of
time needed to make one.
So why make your cheat sheet so early?
• It’s much better to do it now than leave it to the night before your exam. You’ll be able to carefully craft
it yourself instead of rushing to just get everything onto the one page.
• If you get your cheat sheet done early, you can practise using it in your trial exams. This way, you’ll
become more familiar with your cheat sheet.
• There’s still time to edit or change your cheat sheet. If you’re going through a practice exam and you
suddenly you realise you’ve forgotten a crucial definition, you still have time to add it in. Imagine if
you only realised you forgot that definition during the exam.
Okay, so hopefully I’ve convinced you to make a start on your cheat sheet. So, what should you put on your
cheat sheet? I think there are two general approaches:
• Shotgun spread: this is where you try to get everything and anything on your cheat sheet. For
this method, I think it would be best to start with a pre-written commercial cheat sheet and then add
your own comments to it. Adding your own comments is important because no commercial cheat

Section 1 – Tackling the exam

sheet will have exactly everything you want. It also helps immensely if you finish your cheat sheet
before you start practice exams because you’ll realise what formulas/definitions are missing on the
commercial cheat sheet.
• Sniper precision: this is where you take a very personal approach and make a cheat sheet that
is tailored to your own needs. For example if you find that you are very confident with motion, but
struggle with definitions for light and matter, then a general commercial cheat sheet might not work
for you. A personal cheat sheet that has just key formulas for motion but lots of past exam questions,
definitions and examples for light and matter would be much better suited to you.
The obvious issue with this method is that you need to know your strengths and weaknesses before
you start making a cheat sheet. An easy way around this issue is to just base it off your SAC scores
for each Area of Study – the lower you score, the more you put on your cheat sheet. Then, as you
start doing practice exams you can further tweak your cheat sheet as you learn more about your
strengths and weaknesses.
Okay, so cheat sheet: tick. What next?
There’s still plenty. To start off with, you can start doing past Unit 3 exams. I suggest doing individual Unit
3 exams, rather than starting off with a Unit 3 and 4 combined exam or doing (separate) Unit 3 and Unit 4
exams together one after the other for a number of reasons:
• For starters, unless you’ve sat a 2.5 hour exam before, most likely you won’t be used to sitting down
and working through an exam. By starting with a shorter 1.5 hour Unit 3 exam, you can start working
up to the longer ones like past VCAA papers.
• If you combine two separate exams, then that’s even an even longer exam (1.5 + 1.5 = 3 hours).
Again, start with something shorter and then work up to your final exam.
• It’s probably been a long time since you looked at Unit 3. If you try do a combined exam all in one go,
you might be put off with your results. So, if you single out Unit 3 you’ll be specifically revising Unit 3.

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 1.8 What should I do between now and then?

Now, after you’ve done a couple Unit 3 exams, you’ll get a good idea on what you should be revising.
Again, looking back at high yield vs. low yield you’ll realise I’m suggesting doing a lot of past exams that
are high-yield. What about reading the textbook or doing textbook exercises? What about that one exercise
that you promised yourself you would do when you got around to it? Forget it for now. Concentrate on
getting used to doing exams, utilising reading time and drafting up a cheat sheet. If, and only if, you find
you’re struggling with a particular section, then go back and revise using your textbook or ask your teacher.
Otherwise, exam questions are much more important than textbook questions.

1.8 What should I do between now and then?

Practice exams. Seriously, I cannot stress this enough. You need to do practice exams.
And not just any old “practice” exam, but a well-written practice exams with solutions that you can do under
timed conditions.You need a bit of challenge to give you some pressure when you do a practice exam. That
said, be realistic. If you’re going after exams that are much harder than VCAA exams, forget about it. You’re
probably set for Physics if you’re finding VCAA exams a breeze, and you need to make sure you feel the
same way about all your other subjects.
The process I went through when doing practice exams was something like this:
1. Find a quiet place where I would not be disturbed. I liked to do practice exams in my bedroom.
2. Make sure I have access to a clock and make a quick note of how long I want to spend on each
section.
3. Decide if I want to use my cheat sheet or not.
Section 1 – Tackling the exam

(a) If I want to practise my speed, then I won’t use a cheat sheet. This will force me to do questions
when I see them, rather than spending time checking my cheat sheet. By practising this way, by
the time I get to the exam I should be fast and not need to constantly rely on my cheat sheet.
(b) If I want to practise getting as many marks as possible, then I will use a cheat sheet. This
is because I will be using it to make sure I’m using the right formulas, definitions, etc. when
I’m working through the exam, and when I finish my exam I will use my cheat sheet for double
checking.
4. Practise my 15 minutes of reading time. Seriously don’t skip this.
5. Do the exam under timed conditions. I will make sure that I do not go over time and I keep the
pressure on myself to do the exam well and do the exam fast.
I find that doing exams under timed conditions is especially important because it gives a very different
feeling. You want to practise the same way your actual exam will be. There is a huge difference
between doing an exam in silence under timed conditions while a VCAA invigilator walks around the
room and doing a practice exam at the kitchen table with all my notes and the smell of dinner cooking
in the background.
6. I finish the exam. This might sound silly, but you seriously want to finish the exam all in one go. What
you don’t want to do is spread the one exam over a few days or even a week. If you’re going to do
that, you might be better off doing a batch of practice questions from your textbook. This is because
you won’t get the full exam experience with things like fatigue, hunger, or having to rush off to the
toilet when you only have 30 minutes left and you’re halfway through a question. Try not to “stop the
clock” for any trivial reasons.
7. Take a break afterwards if I need it. Having just finished a 1.5 hour (Unit 3 or Unit 4) or a 2.5 hour
(combined Units 3&4) or a 3 hour (two separate Unit 3 and Unit 4) exams, often you will need a break.
Take it. If you don’t, you won’t be able to properly look through your exam when marking it.
8. Mark my exam and take a note of what I got wrong. The reason for marking the exam is obvious, but
what’s equally important is making sure you know what you got wrong and why. Was it just a substi-
tution error? Calculation error? Or was there something that you just simply did not understand? By
making note of what you get wrong you can quickly see if there is a pattern that forms. Excel is very
handy for keeping track of how you go in your exams and looking at which questions you get wrong.

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 1.8 What should I do between now and then?

Below is just a sample table that you might find handy for keeping track of how you go. You can quickly
make one in Excel for yourself!

Trial Paper 1 Trial Paper 2 Trial Paper 3 ...

Date: 19/9/2023

Mark (%): 80%

Letter Grade (if VCAA): A

Marks lost: 30

Motion 10

Fields 5

Electricity generation 9

Light waves 4

Special relativity 2

Why I lost marks:

Didn’t understand the Q

Section 1 – Tackling the exam

Read the Q wrong x

My explanation was wrong

Didn’t know what formula to use

Substitution error x

Power of ten error

Wrong units x

Calculator error x

(Other) Silly error x

Ran out of time

I definitely recommend that you personalise your own table. For example, you could break down “Motion”
into separate topics. This way you can see exactly where you’re losing marks: is it all areas of motion, or
are you just losing marks on circular motion? As you add to your table, you want to continually consider:
• Was everything I needed on my cheat sheet? Do I need to change anything?
• Am I continually getting one type of question wrong (e.g. explain questions worth 3 or more marks)?
• Is there a topic that I always seem to get wrong (e.g. Lenz’s law)?
You may have a different plan for practice exams, and that’s great! Just make sure that you keep on adjusting
your cheat sheet so you have a perfectly tuned one for the final exam. Keep track of which questions you
get wrong so you know which topics you need to improve on by going back to the textbook or asking your
teacher.
At the end of the day remember to take a breath and rest properly, otherwise your brain won’t function as it
should. Take care of yourselves!
I wish you all the best for Physics and I hope that I cleared up some of your questions as well as giving
some insight into VCE Physics exams.
Good luck!

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