A HANDBOOK ON COMMUNICATION AND USE OF ENGLISH FOR GENERAL

STUDIES

VOLUME 1

DR (MRS) C.C UTOH-OJEMUDIA

PAM DAVOU
ACHAGH OLUWAKEMI J
NYADAITI N PARRY
MESEKO JOSEPHINE
GHIBI LORETTA
COURSE TITLE: USE OF ENGLISH I
COURSE CODE: GNS 101

STUDY SKILLS
NECESSITY FOR AQUIRING GOOD NOTE-TAKING/NOTE-MAKING TECHNIQUES
1. It makes students active during lectures. Students are able to participate in
what goes on in the class during lecture.
2. It assures the lecturer that he is saying something meaningful and
encourages him to go on.
3. It provides a reference point for future study. It serves as a permanent
record and enables easy retrieval whenever needed.
4. It enables the student to have a record of the speaker/writer’s main point.
5. It helps one’s memory when revising e.g. before exam.
6. It saves time and energy, when you make note from a text book, it saves
you time going back to that text book to read over and over again.
7. It makes study more systematic, organized, simplified and constructive.
Availability of notes makes one to focus on specific areas or topics.
8. It makes what the speaker or writer says part of one’s knowledge.

METHODS OF NOTE-TAKINNG/NOTE-MAKING
i. Use of Abbreviation: This method helps to shorten words and expresses
and facilitates recording of notes. There are two types of abbreviation
and they are as follows;
Standard abbreviation and Personal abbreviation
Standard Abbreviations are used universally and they have consistent
meanings attached to them.
e.g. et al – and others, dev. – development, adv. –adverb, adj. –
adjective, yr- year, sb –somebody, sth –something, etc.
Personal Abbreviation refers to an individual’s personally formulated
abbreviations. They vary from person to person and are used even more
than the conventional abbreviations/symbols.
e.g. in2 –into, u –you, 2day –today, b4 –before, wit –with, etc.
ii. Use of Symbols: This refers to the use of symbols in note-taking. Some
conventional symbols that may be used are as follows;
 @ -at, & -and, % -percent, + -addition, = -equal to /same, ? –question,
etc.
iii. Use of Tree diagram: This is drawn using arrows pointing downwards or
sideways. Arrows from the same branch shows similarities as arrows
descend further, they highlight the subdivision of the main idea.
This pattern of note taking makes revision very easy as it shows precisely
the major points of a lecture and how they relate with one another.
iv. Mind Map Method: This is also called patterned notes. It converts notes
into drawings (variety of shapes are used to help students remember).
v. Flow Chat Method: This method is best used for text that deals with
processes or sequences of action. It summarizes the main ideas of each
stage using key words. Here sequence markers are used to link words.
E.g. firstly, next, finally, thirdly, etc.
vi. Table Grid Method: This method uses a table to make notes for instance
when making a comparison or contrast
vii. Outlining Method: This method presents the main point followed by the
subordinate ideas in the way the writer would prepare an outline.
viii. Keyword Method: Here notes are woven around the key words in the
original text (it summarizes a text).

GOOD READING HABITS

i. Increase your word power. Familiarity with words used in any written
text is a gateway to comprehension, being in possession of a broad
vocabulary helps an individual’s reading speed.
ii. Avoid word by word reading. It is very important for the reader to know
the difference between the content words and grammatical words as
this would enable him to focus more on content words than on the
grammatical words when reading because they carry the message of any
written text.
iii. Read word groups. Every group in a sentence constitutes a thought unit,
it is therefore better to pause at the end of a thought unit and not
before it. In a case where it is short, it can be joined to the next unit.
iv. Avoid regression, reading is done from left to right not vice versa or both
ways.
 v. Avoid vocalization, muttering words or moving the lips while reading is
wrong. (Embrace silent reading).
vi. Avoid head movement and finger pointing. The head is expected to be
steady when reading allowing the eyes to sweep through the text. The
fingers are also to be motionless except when flipping through pages of
a book.
vii. Adopt a flexible style of reading.
viii. Keep reading material handy, patronize libraries or get subscriptions
(magazines).
ix. Find ways to connect reading to your everyday life, you can have a time
table or join a reading club/group. Set goals and try to achieve them.

METHODS OF READING
i. Skimming: This involves reading a text rapidly to obtain a general
impression of what the book is about as this further motivates you to
consider the book useful or not.
ii. Scanning: This also entails rapid reading but here the reader looks for a
specific information. Since the goal is predetermined searching for
information becomes easier and constructive.
iii. Rapid Reading: Here the reader reads the text quickly for pleasure or to
widen the reader’s knowledge. It keeps one aware of happenings
around or develops an individual’s vocabulary and reading speed.
iv. Study Reading: This requires reading deep to have a good understanding
of the content of a particular material or text. This enables one to
assimilate and recall effortlessly when the need arises. The SQ3R make it
easier to achieve this method.
DICTIONARY
A dictionary is a reference work with a list of words from one or more languages
normally ordered alphabetically and explaining each word’s meaning and
sometimes containing information on its etymology, usage, translation, phonetic
transcription and other data. (class of words, abbreviation, synonyms, etc.)

USES OF DICTIONARY
i. To look up the spelling of words.
ii. It shows the different meanings of words.
iii. It gives the correct pronunciation of words.
iv. It shows the inflected forms of words.
v. It shows the correct ways to capitalize words.
vi. It gives the etymology of words.
vii. It shows how words are divided into syllables.
viii. It illustrates the different ways words are used in sentences.
ix. It shows the correct ways words are abbreviated.
LIBRARY
A library refers to a room or building, or institution where a collection of books or
other research materials are kept.
Library is also referred to a collection of books, newspapers, records, tapes, or
other materials that are valuable for research. In the past, the library was a place
where the history, culture and knowledge of nations were preserved. Their uses
were restricted to kings, nobility and the rich. Recently the library has become a
medium for everyone to acquire information on education, economy and society.
The information is stored in print media,-books, magazines and newspapers and
in non-print media – as in slides, films, photographic prints, tapes, microfilms,
cassettes, etc.
The Library books are classified into two;
Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC)
Library of Congress Classification (LCC)

FUNCTIONS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE LIBRARY

i. The library collects and organizes information sources arranging them so
they can be stored and retrieved to take advantage from with less
effort.
ii. It helps in developing the skills and abilities of workers in the library
making them involved with training courses, seminars and workshops.
iii. It provides sources of information necessary for faculty members,
students and workers as well as people in the local community.
iv. It borrows library materials to beneficiaries and provides places for
reading.
v. It enhances information literacy.

TYPES OF LIBRARY
i. Academic Library: This type of library is commonly found in tertiary
institutions and it cares for the educational needs of the tertiary
community.
ii. School Library: This is commonly found in primary and secondary
schools. It is therefore set up to meet the needs of pupils and students
in school.
iii. Public Library: This type of library provides information, education and
recreation for the general public and it is found in a state. E.g. Lagos
central library.
iv. National Library: This is a research library and only loans books to
university libraries and libraries of big institutions. Every published work
is deposited at the national library while it includes it in the bibliography
(list of books published in a country).
The national library issues the International Standard Serial Number
(ISBN) and the International Standard Book Number (ISBN). These are
special codes for identification of serial publications.

SOURCES OF INFORMATION IN THE LIBRARY

i. Card Catalogue: This card lists all the books available in the library
and consists of a number of wooden cabinet with drawers
containing the index cards which carries information on all
available books in the library.
ii. The Serial Index: This assists readers in tracing periodicals
(journals/magazines). Index is a systematically arranged list of
articles found in the library.
iii. Abstracts: This summarizes contents of articles and provides
bibliographical information which enables you to discard
irrelevant articles and help trace the original of the required one.
iv. The Bibliography: It contains a list of topics that have been
published. This prevents you from conducting research on a topic
already thoroughly investigated.
LANGUAGE
THE CONCEPT OF LANGUAGE
Language has been variously defined some definitions of language are listed and
briefly explained below:
Language is a system of conventional signals used for communication by a whole
community (A. C. Gimson,1962:63). The definition directly means that when
people live together in a given environment and share in common certain agreed
signs and symbols as a means of communication then a language is said to be
constituted. That shared agreed signal that makes communication possible is
language, since it is the medium.
Language is the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each
other by means of habitually used oral auditory symbols ( R. A. Hall, 1964). In this
definition, language is said to refer to those phonemes, morphemes, phrases,
clauses and sentences that we produce using our speech organs for the purpose
of sharing ideas views, opinions, etc. with each other in our daily communication
or interaction processes.

CHARACTERISTICS OF LANGUAGE
1. A language operates using symbols of sounds.
The distinctive characteristics that distinguishes man from the most
intelligent animal is the fact that language which is uniquely a human
attribute is made up of speech sounds produced and uttered organizingly
by the speech organs for the sake of communication. Every speech sound
represents a unit of Language which when combined with other units form
larger ones thereby making effective communication possible. Some of the
sounds of the language are: /e/, /b/, /t/, /ts/, /s/, etc. here, languages
generally combine phonemes to get morphemes, morphemes to get words,
words to get phrases, phrases to get clauses and clauses to get sentences.
This is the hierarchy of language development.

2. Language is Conventional
The effectiveness of language as a medium of communication rests upon
generally agreed or approved public acceptance that certain things will be
done in a certain definite way. This is one of the consequences of its
 arbitrariness. Speakers of English agree upon calling a certain animal ‘dog’.
This is an arbitrary agreement. The primary function of language is which is
communication would break down if everybody insisted on using private
arbitrary names for things. To avoid any communication blackout, we
should always specify what convention we are operating under at any given
time. That is when we are using language carefully, we must define out
terms.
3. Language is Culturally transmitted
The quality or feature of language entails that language as a form of culture
is passed on from generation to generation as a form learnt or acquired
rather than a physically inherited behavior or human attribute. Nobody
inherits the ability to use a language everybody must learnt it from other
people who must have themselves learnt it from others at an earlier time.
This learning begins at infancy (childhood) and continues in varying
intensity throughout life. An important consequence of this quality is that
since individuals differ in their capacity to learn, they also differ greatly in
their command of language. This is true of all culturally transmitted
activities as I dancing, drawing, pottery, etc.
4. Language is Dynamic (changes)
Language like other aspects of culture changes over time, our clothes, food,
tools and our speech vary from generation to generation just as they do
from age to age. The change is sometimes fast or slow, radical or superficial
but it goes on all the time. It causes are many and varied and some of them
are not fully understood. Some old words phrases and expressions are
dropped while new ones are introduced with recent development in the
field of science, technology, politics, sports etc. These changes make some
languages to be similar via contact.
Other characteristics of language are:
5. Language has complex multiple structures
6. Language is rule governed

FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE
1. Communication: Under the function of information, idea, thought, etc. is
transmitted or transferred from a speaker or writer to a listener or
reader in which the listener or reader understands the message and
 responds accordingly. The ability to exchange messages between people
using language is the communicative function of language.
2. Link between ”thought” and “meaning”: When we have an idea or
thought that we want to share with others the medium that would
shape the thought and transmit effectively to others in a way that the
thought or message would be meaningfully understood is language. So
language is the bridge between the ideas or thoughts that are nursed
and the meaningful relay of these to others.
3. Tool for demand and supply: in this function we use language as a
means of giving and receiving in terms of satisfying our needs and
wants. With the use of language, we can place requests for things
needed. Language is before a means of passing information for
attainment of self-satisfaction.
4. Language performs regulatory function: Here we use language to
condemn or praise the behavioral actions or inactions of others. We can
equally use the language of command, directive or approval on our
subordinates at work and elsewhere depending on the situational
context or situation we are in.
5. Transmission of Culture: Using this medium of language, culture is
passed on from one generation to another as a form of learnt or
acquired behavior. It is through language that our cultural heritage
which could manifest through video films, TV, radio, etc.
6. Symbol of Identity: Here, people who speak the same language tend to
use it as a symbol of identity wherever they go. This goes to further
enhance their unity. It is before not amazing that every linguistic group
is struggling to champion the elevation of its language from local to
national or international status. Members of the same linguistic group
always form association to promote such struggles thereby bringing
literacy to its members.

7. Establishing and Sustaining Interpersonal Relationship: We are living in a

society where the need to interact with others at different levels has
become very necessary. To do this, language is the medium through
which we discuss issues of (social, economic, political, etc.) importance,
 we use language to make friends, denounce enmity, exchange goods
and services etc.
8. Create and establish an imaginative society: We have various written of
fiction in the form of prose, drama and poetry. Language is the point
that these writers use to paint the pictures of their fictitious societies to
enable them look real. Sometimes these writers use language to paint
the true pictures of things that happen in our real world or non-fictitious
societies. Language is before used fictitiously and non-fictitiously to
better society.
9. Solving Problems of Signs and Symbols: When there is no language to
put across the meanings of signs and symbols which stands for different
things in different societies, they would be difficult to interpret. This
entails that language is the link between the things we have and what
they mean to us symbolically e.g. the national flag and its colours, the
coat of arm, etc.
[Link] for Development: Language, more than anything else shows
progress of human development and aspirations, likes and dislikes. It
functions as the center of life through which everything radiates.
Intelligent animals cannot make any progress because they have no
speech sounds to express themselves as humans do. Hence, language
marks the sharp difference between the world of man and that of
animals.

USES OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE IN NIGERIA

1. Language is used as an official language. It is therefore used as a medium of
communication in education, politics, etc.
2. English serves as a medium of instruction. It is used in schools (educational
sector) at all levels.
3. English is used as a sine qua non for admission into Nigerian universities.
Passing English is a prerequisite for graduation.
4. English is used as lingua franca of airports and major hotels of civil aviation.
5. English is viewed as a symbol of status in Nigeria. It paves way for one to be
accorded respect (prestigious language).
GRAMMATICAL CONVENTIONS
GRAMMAR
Grammar is a systematic study of the scientific method which provides us
information and guidance necessary to learn a language. The science of grammar
teaches us how a language is spoken and written correctly and effectively.
Grammar is that part of the study of language that deals with the forms and
structures of words (morphology) with their customary arrangement in phrases
and sentences (syntax) and now often with language sounds (phonology) and
word meanings (semantics).
David Crystal defines grammar as “the business of taking a language to
pieces, to see how it works”.
The ability to communicate effectively is extremely important and unless
we have mastered grammar, we do not or cannot speak or write English correctly.
So it can be said that grammar is primarily concerned with the formation and
classification of words and sentences and their practical significance in daily life.

PARTS OF SPEECH
Nearly every word in English language can be classified into its kind and this is
known as parts of speech. Parts of speech can also be referred to as the
grammatical class that the vocabulary of a language can be classified and this
includes the following: Noun, Pronoun, Adjective, Adverb, Verbs, Prepositions,
Conjunctions and interjections.
1. NOUNS
A noun is the name of a person, animal, place, thing or idea. For example;
John, dog, Abuja, wisdom etc.
Types of Nouns
1. Common Nouns
These are general names for persons, animals, places and things. that
share characteristics.
Examples include
Persons: boy, girl, lady, man etc.
Animals: dog, goat, bird, cat, etc.
Places: town, village, city, school, etc.
Things: book, ruler, chair, table, etc.
2. Proper Nouns
These refer to the names of particular persons, animals, places or things.
They always have their initial letters written in capital letters.
Examples of proper nouns are:
Persons: John, Grace, Davou, Chinyere, etc.
Titles: Archbishop, Oba, Mr. Alhaji, etc.
Months: January, August, May, December, etc.
Days: Tuesday, Friday, Monday, Sunday
Festivals: Christmas, Id-el Fitri, Easter, Argungu, etc.
Cities: Jos, Lagos, London, Kano, etc.
Countries: Nigeria, Ghana, Japan, India, etc.
Lakes: Lake Victoria, Jabi Lake, Lake Chad, etc.
Mountains: Mount Everest, Mount Kilimanjaro, etc.
Institutions: University of Jos, Union Bank, This Day Newspaper, etc.

3. Concrete Nouns
These are nouns that refer to objects that can be seen physically.
Examples: stones, cars, houses, etc.

4. Abstract Nouns
The noun stands for things that cannot be touched or seen such as
feelings, ideas, and concepts.
Example: happiness, strength, friendship, goodness, imagination, pain,
etc.

5. Collective Nouns
These are names of groups of persons or things.
Example; Class of pupils, an army of soldiers, a troupe of dancers, a
bouquet of flowers, a band of musicians, congregation, audience,
spectators mob, crowd, etc.

6. Countable and Uncountable Nouns

Countable nouns are nouns which can be counted. Uncountable nouns
are nouns which cannot be counted.
Examples;
 Countable Nouns: A park, books roads, spoons, etc.
Uncountable Nouns: A pinch of salt, a tin of oil, a heap of rubbish etc.

Note: Uncountable nouns never add ‘-s’ to the nouns. For example
air, traffic, laughter, chalk, advice, etc.
Also the following; expressions are used only with countable nouns:
several, a few, many a large/small number of
While these expressions are used with only uncountable nouns: a little,
a large/small amount of and much.

2. PRONOUNS
Pronouns are words used in place of a noun or noun phrases. They are used
mainly to avoid unnecessary repetition of nouns which can make a passage
clumsy or boring.

Types of Pronouns
a. Personal Pronouns
These are words used in place of any of the three persons we have in
English Language. The first-person pronoun refers to the person
speaking while the second-person pronoun refers to the person(s) being
addressed and the third-person pronoun refers to the person(s) or
thing(s) spoken about.

SINGULAR PLURAL
Persons Subject Object Subject Object
1st Person I Me We Us
2nd Person You You You You
3rd Person He, She, It Him, Her, It They Them

b. Possessive Pronoun
These pronouns show ownership.
 Example; The shirt is mine.
Other examples include, his, ours, yours, theirs, etc.

c. Demonstrative Pronoun
These are called demonstrative because they point out particular
persons, places or things.
Example; This is my friend. -Singular
These are my parents. -Plural
“This” and “That” are singular while “these” and “those” are used for
plural objects.

d. Interrogative Pronouns
Interrogative pronouns are used in direct and indirect questions. These
pronouns asks questions.
Examples: What, which, whose, who, whom, where.
To whom did you give the letter?
Whose house is that?
Who is your father?
Where do you live?

e. Reflexive Pronouns
They are pronouns that show that the performer of an action directs the
action to himself or herself.
A reflexive pronoun is usually identified by the “self” it takes. Examples
include: myself, yourself, herself, himself, itself,(singular) and
themselves, yourselves, ourselves (plural).
Example: I reminded myself just in time.
Look at yourselves in the mirror.
Don’t deceive yourself.
The cat injured itself.

f. Relative Pronouns.
A relative pronoun is one which introduces a clause and links it with the
word which precedes it. In order words a relative pronoun not only
 takes the place of a noun or pronoun but also joins two parts of a
sentence.
Example; Here is the money.
I promised to give you.
The above sentences can be joined together with the use of a relative
pronoun to become; Here is the money which I promise to give to you.
The word ‘which’ joins the sentences therefore it is a relative pronoun.
Other examples of relative pronouns include: who, which, whom,
whose, that.
Note – who is used for people while which is used for things.

3. VERB
A verb describes an action or it expresses the action in the sentence. E.g.
dance, sing, cook, go etc.
Mary danced yesterday.
I went to the bookstore.

Verbs can be classified into different types and that includes the
following
i. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs
ii. Finite and Non-Finite Verbs
iii. Regular and Irregular Verbs
iv. Auxiliary Verbs

4. ADVERBS
An adverb usually modifies, that is gives more meaning to a verb, an
adjective and another adverb. Adverbs are used to describe the action of a
verb such as how, where or when it was done.
Example of adverbs are; now, tomorrow, yesterday, often, there, gracefully,
beautifully etc.

TYPES OF ADVERBS
1. Adverbs of manner describes “how”.
She shouted loudly.
They passed the test easily.
2. Adverbs of time (answers the question when?)
e.g. soon, then, now, yesterday, last week, etc.
They need the books now.
They travelled last week.
3. Adverbs of place describes “where”
e.g. here, there, everywhere, nowhere, etc.
I have looked everywhere but I can’t find the keys.
She was here just a few minutes ago.
4. Adverbs of interrogation are used in questions.
e.g. where, when, how
Where are you?
How far is the place?

5. ADJECTIVES
Adjectives are words that describe or qualify nouns or pronouns.
Adjectives can be formed from other words by adding suffixes “-able”, “-
ish”, “-ous”, etc.
Examples; My uncle is an adventurous person.
I bought a golden pair of shoes.
I bought a red car.

TYPES OF ADJECTIVE
i. Descriptive Adjective
It tells us about the kind or quality of a noun or pronoun.
e.g. She is a good girl.
The little boy is very shy.

ii. Possessive Adjective

It tells us about ownership, e.g. my, his, her, their, etc.
e.g. Our house is painted white.
My bag is in the room.

iii. Distributive Adjective (adjectives of number and quantity)

This comes before a noun and shows how many or how much of the
noun.
 Definite: One, two, eleven, both, double, second, etc.
Indefinite: all, any, few, many, much, several, some, etc.
e.g. I need several envelopes and some paper.
A lot of fish was bought yesterday.

iv. Interrogative Adjective

This adjective ask questions and come before a noun. Example:
which, what, whose.
e.g. Which car was bought yesterday?
What present did you receive?

v. Demonstrative Adjective
Demonstrative Adjectives points out nouns and are followed by the
nouns which they point out. Example: This, these, that, those
e.g. This house was painted yesterday.
That sign was erected this morning.

6. PREPOSITIONS
Prepositions are words that shows the relationship between two entities
in a sentence. Example: on, over, above, near, inside, of, in, beside, etc.
e.g. There is water in the bottle.
The ball rolled underneath the chair.

7. CONJUNCTIONS
A conjunction is a word used to join words, phrases, clauses and
sentences together. Examples: and, but, until, because, after, when,
either, etc.

TYPES OF CONJUNCTIONS
Conjunctions could be categorized into three: coordinating,
subordinating and correlative.

Coordinating Subordinating Correlative

Conjunction Conjunction Conjunction
And, yet, for, or, nor, When, because, until Either….or, neither…
 but, so, etc. after, although, nor, both, not only…
despite, since, while, but also etc.
however, etc.

Examples
1. Coordinating Conjunctions
Come and see.
Come inside but don’t sit down.

2. Subordinating Conjunctions
I was caned because I came late.
He cannot pass his examination however hard he tries.

3. Correlative Conjunction
You can take either meat or fish.
Neither Mary nor John is here.

8. INTERJECTIONS
An interjection is a word or phrase that conveys emotion, expresses
surprise, protest or command. Interjections ends with an exclamation
mark (!). Examples: Hello! Hurray! Ah!
Wow, what a dazzling performance!
Oh, what a beautiful day!

PUNCTUATIONS
 Punctuation involves the use of signs in a sentence to show or indicate a
brief or final pause and to replace deliberately omitted words. The
meaning of a sentence can change with the use of different punctuation
marks, therefore using the correct punctuation is very important.
Example: John said, “Helen is getting married.”
“Adamu,” said Helen, “is getting married.”

Below is a list of examples of punctuation marks.

1. Full stop or period (.)
2. Comma (,)
3. Semicolon (;)
4. Colon (:)
5. Dash (_)
6. Question mark (?)
7. Quotation mark (“ “)
8. Exclamation mark (!)
9. Ellipsis (…)
[Link] (-)
[Link] (‘)
[Link] letter (capitalization)
1. Full Stop (.)
The full stop is used at the end of a declarative and imperative sentence.
Example: Do your job well. (Imperative)
He looked out of the window. (Declarative)
It is also used in abbreviations: P.T.O., Dr., Prof., Mrs., B.A., M.A., P.M.B.
etc.

2. Comma (,)
The comma indicates a brief pause in speech or writing.
It is used to separate the items in lists of words, phrases and clauses.
Example: She sells rice, beans, garri and oil.
To separate the coordinate clauses of a compound sentence.
Example: It rained cats and dogs last night, so we were forced to stay
indoors.
To introduce a direct quotation.
 Example: The guess said, “You have entertained us lastly”.
To mark off words used in addressing people
Example: Mrs. Taiwo_who is the president of this company, is inviting us
to celebrate Christmas at her residence.
Bola, what a mistake you have made!

3. Colon (:)
This is used to show that something more is to follow, such as before
explanations, before a list and to introduce quotations:
Example; I have called a plumber: the pipe is leaking.
The colours of the rainbow are as follows: violet, indigo, blue,
green, yellow, red, etc.
Bertrand Russell once said: “To fear love is to fear life and
those who fear life are already three parts dead.”
It is also used to separate two contrasting ideas
Example; Man proposes: God disposes.
To err is human: to forgive, is divine.

To mark off the place of publication from the publisher in citation.

Example; Ibadan: University Press PLC

To separate hours from minutes

Example; 9:45am, 10:00pm

4. Semi Colon (;)

Semi colon is used where the meaning of two independent sentences is
closely connected:
Example; It’s a good idea; let’s hope it’ll work.
Some like to travel; others prefer to stay at home.

It is used instead of a comma to separate parts of a sentence that are

already separated by commas:
Example; There are two things you must have; first, courage; second,
determination.
 It is used before thus, therefore, otherwise, rather, hence, etc. they join
clauses together.
Example; We must leave early; otherwise we shall late.

5. Dash (_)
It is used to suspend or interrupt the main sentence.
Example; The king _ realizing he was being deceived_ sacked all his
counsellors.
The security officer _ if he is armed _ would carry the money.

To introduce an afterthought:
Example; I will go out in the evening _ that is if it doesn’t rain.
He bequeathed to his son an old bungalow _ the very one he
had inherited from his late father.

The dash can also be used to introduce a statement that adds to or explains
what has been said as in
The burglar took everything of value _ paintings, jewelry, silverware and
several thousand ponds in money.

6. Question Mark (?)

The question mark is used to end every direct question.
Example; Who are you?
What is your favorite game?
Is that your father?

7. Exclamation Mark (!)

They are used to mark the end of an exclamatory word or sentence. These
words or sentences show strong emotions which are sudden or forceful.
Example; Stop that!
Help!
Good heaven!
8. Quotation Marks inverted commas (“ “)
Quotation marks are also known as inverted commas, they may be single or
double. It is important to be consistent with any chosen one. They can be
used in the following ways;
To enclose the actual words of a speaker or writer
Example; He asked, “why have you refused to tell me when your mother
will return?”
“I’m prepared”, he said, “to wait for her.”

To enclose foreign words, slang, a word being emphasized or used in a

special sense.
Example; The term “human trafficking” has come into focus recently.
Scrub the “wok” clean with a brush
To enclose the title of poems, articles, films, projects, television
programmes etc.
Example; The children are watching “Home Alone”
The poem “The Octopus”, is didactic.
Her recent article, “The challenge of E-payment was published in the Daily
Times.
9. Hyphen (-)
The hyphen looks like a dash but it is shorter. The hyphen is used in the
following ways:
To form compound words:
Example: Cold- blooded, Audio – visual, Clos –up, kind-hearted, etc.
Sometimes used to form a compound word from two other words which
are separated a prefix ending in a vowel from a beginning with the same
vowel.
Example; co-operate, co-ordinate, e-enter, etc.

[Link] (‘)
It is used with ‘s’ to show possession:
Example: Ade’s books.
The nurses’ uniforms.
 It is used to show that one or more letters of word have been left out.
Example: It won’t be long. (Will not)
You should’ve done the job. (Should have)

It is used to denote plural in figures and letters.

Example: There are three P’s in “hippopotamus”
Cross the T’s and dot the I’s in your sentences.
The civil war started in the late 1960’s.

[Link] (…)
The ellipsis consists of three dots or full stops.
This is used to indicate missing material, it may be one word, several words
or longer piece of a text.
Example: I told you to get the… out of here. (Missing word is hell)
You know what they say. A stitch in time… (Saves nine is
omitted).
It can also be used to indicate an unfinished thought or statement,
Example: We might win handsomely, on the other hand…

[Link]
The use of capital letter denotes the beginning of a word or certain words
in an expression with upper case letters. Certain words are traditionally
capitalized whereas some are based on their environment of occurrence.
Use of capital letters:
To begin the first word in a sentence.
They left early.
Caring for the needy is a noble venture.

To begin the salutation and complementary close of a letter,

Yours Sincerely, Dear Mary,
Sincerely yours, My dearest son,
Your Son, Dear mother,
To begin proper nouns These includes: names of persons and titles that go
with them. Example: John, Oliver, Helen.
President Jonathan
Prof. William
Senator Idris
Names of places, institutions and countries: Wuse market, Lagos state,
Ahmadu Bello way, New York, Nigeria, NTA (National Television Authority)
Names of Lakes, ocean, rivers, forests, mountains, River Niger, Kilimanjaro,
Mount Everest, Atlantic ocean.

To begin days of the week and months of the year:

Wednesday, Friday, Monday, January, September, December etc.

Capitalization is used for titles:

Vice Chancellor, President, Provost, Rector, Principal, Head Master, etc.

To begin names of Festival, feasts, Holidays:

New Year Day, Id El Kabir, Christmas, All Saints Day etc.

IDIOMS
An idiom is a phrase or an expression that has a figurative or sometimes
literal, meaning. They are groups of two or more words which must be
learnt as a whole because the meaning of the expression may be different
from the meaning of its parts. Idioms are often used in our conversations
and every language has its own idioms.
Examples:
Idioms Meaning
To jump the gun to do something soon
To be received with open arms to be given a warm/friendly to
welcome
To kick the bucket to die.
To bury the hatchet to forget past quarrels and be
friends again, make peace.
To throw in the towel to admit defeat.
Sit on the fence avoid taking sides.
Take French leave absent without permission
The lion’s share the largest part.
Run into someone meet unexpectedly.
Rains cats and dogs rain heavily.
Out of the blue unexpected
Once in a blue moon rarely, once in a long time.
Make ends meet manage financially.
Pay through the nose pay an unreasonable price.
Pull one’s leg try to make someone believe a
untruth as a joke.
Wear along face look sad.
Have one’s hands full very busy
Have a go at to try
Let the cat out of the bag tell what should be kept a
secret.
Keep one’s head above water stay out of difficulty.
Keep a straight face hide one’s amusement by
not smiling or laughing.
Look for a needle in a haystack searching for something with a
slim chance of success.
Build castle in the air day dream.
Burn the candle at both ends work too hard.
Crocodile tears false tears
Face the music take punishment
Eat one’s words take back something said
earlier.
Armed to the teeth completely armed.
A wet blanket a discouraging person.
Hard nut to crack a difficult problem
A close share a narrow escape.
FIGURES OF SPEECH
A figure of speech is a word or phrase that possesses a separate meaning
from its literal definition which provides a dramatic effect. Figures of
speech rely on implied or suggested meaning, rather than a dictionary
definition. Examples are listed below:

Metaphor
A metaphor used to make direct comparism, it likens one thing to the other
without the use of “as” or “like”.
Example: My father is a rock.
He is a lion.

Simile
A simile is a figure of speech that makes a comparism between two
dissimilar things using “as” or “like”.
Example: Mary works like a bee.
John is as cunning as a fox.

Personification
Personification is a figure of speech in which an inanimate object or
abstract idea is endowed with a human attribute.
Example: The sun is smiling.
The leaves are clapping.

Oxymoron
An oxymoron is when you use two words together that have contradictory
meanings.
Example: Small crowd, little giant wise fool and so on
Peace force, friendly enemy, sweet sorrow.

Hyperbole
This refers to the figure of speech that exaggerate or makes an
overstatement of a fact.
Example: A million thanks.
The man drank a gallon of water.
Paradox
This is a statement that seems contradictory but it is true.
Example: The best way to learn a language is to speak it.
Loose your life in order to gain it.

Euphemism
This is a way of saying something unpleasant or harsh in a pleasant or
subtle way.
Example: Adam is a gentleman on the high way. (he is an armed robber)
My grandfather slept in the lord ten years ago. (i.e he died).

Irony
This is a situation in which the direct opposite is stated in such a way that
the intended meaning is understood.
Example:

Apostrophe
This is a medium by which we address an absent object or person, living or
non-living as if the person or thing is present.
Example: Oh time, you wait for no one!
Awolowo, Nigeria will never forget you!

Understatement
An understatement occurs when something is said to make it appear less
important or less serious.
Example: It’s just a scratch – referring to a large cut.
The weather is cooler today - referring to sub – zero
temperature.

Alliteration
This is the repetition of the beginning sounds of neighboring word. It is also
the repetition of usually initial consonant sounds in two or more
neighboring words
Example: She sells seashells.
 Walter wondered where Winnie was.

Anaphora
This is a technique where several phrases or verses begin with the same
word or words.
Example: I came, I saw, I conquered – Julius Caesar
Mad world! Mad kings! Mad compositions! King John –
Williams Shakespeare.

Assonance
This is the repetition of vowel sounds in words that are close together.
Example: “Men sell the wedding bells”.
The engineer held the steering to steer the vehicle.

Onomatopoeia
This term is for a word that sounds like what it is describing.
Example: Buzz, Click, oink, meow, etc.
AFFIXATION
Affixation is the process of adding a morpheme or affix to a word to create either
a different form of that word or a new word with a different meaning.
An affix is a letter or series of letters added to a root word that can change its
meaning. Affixes can take the form of a prefix at the beginning of a root word or
as a suffix at the end of a root word. Affixes may be derivational like –ness, pre- or
inflectional like English plural –s etc.
Affixation is the most common way of making or forming new words in English.
Example: (Prefix, unsafe, away, expert, forecast)
(Suffix, gardener, movable, goddess, careless)

The following are lists of prefixes and suffixes in English.

PREFIXES
Prefix Meaning Examples
a- on afloat, ashore
a-, ab-, abs- Away from Avert, abnormal, abstract
ad-, ac-, ar- to Adhere, accept, arrive
ante- before Antecedent, anteroom
bi-, bis- Two, twice Bicycle, bisect, biscuit
Circum- round Circumference, circuit
Com- together Comparison, competition
Contra- against Contrary, contradiction
Anti- negate antisocial
Co- Along with Co-author
De- down Depress, descend, describe
Ex- Out of former Exhale, export, extract, ex-wife, ex-
boxer
Dis-, dif- Apart, not Different, disagree, disappear
Fore- before Forecast, foretell, foresee
Im-, in- In, into Import, include, inbuilt
In- not Incapable, inhuman, incorrect
Inter- between International, interrupt, internal
Mis- wrong Misbehave, misdeed, misjudge
Ob- against Object, obstruction
Post- after Postpone, postscript, post-war
Pre- Before/under Predict, prepare, pre-war
Pro- Forth/for Proceed, produce
Re- Back/again/repeat Retake, return, retrace
Sub- under Submarine, subway
Trans- across Transfer, transport, transpose
Un- Not/without Unfit, unknown, unpaid, unsafe
Vice- instead Vice-captain, viceroy

SUFFIXES

Suffix Meaning Examples

-able, -ible Capable of being Movable, eatable, incredible
-aim, -an One connected Chaplain, publican
-ance, -ence State of Acceptance, existence
-ant One who Assistant, servant
-el, -et, -ette little Satchet, droplet, kitchenette
-er, -eer, -ier One who Gardener, engineer, furrier
-ess The female Princess, goddess, waitress
-fy To make Glorify, purify, simplify
-icle, -sel little Particle, morsel
-less without Careless, aimless, merciless
-ment State of being Merriment, enjoyment
-ory A place of Dormitory, factory, laboratory
-ous Full of Famous, glorious, wondrous
PARAGRAPH
A paragraph is a sentence or group of related sentences that expatiates one
main idea in a piece of writing. Students erroneously define paragraphs in terms
of length, for instance: a paragraph is a group of at least five sentences; a
paragraph is half a page long, etc. in essence, what constitutes a paragraph is the
unity and coherence of ideas within sentences. A paragraph is not determined by
length and appearance. For instance , in some styles of writing, particularly
journalistic styles, a paragraph can be just one sentence long, one striking thing
about the paragraph is indentation- the small space between the margin and the
first word of the sentence or by using single or double space to demarcate one
paragraph from another (block style).

PARTS OF A PARAGRAPH
The internal make-up of a paragraph basically consists of two categories of
sentences.
The topic sentence
The supporting sentences
1. THE TOPIC SENTENCE-: The topic sentence contains the controlling idea of
the paragraph; it sums up the contents of the entire paragraph. Because it
contains the main or central idea of the paragraph, all other sentences in the
paragraph revolves round the topic sentence. Most topic sentences are found at
the beginning of paragraphs but they could also be at the middle or end of a
paragraph.
INITIAL POSITION-You are the architect of your future. The extent of your
determination and commitment determine the degree of your success. If you are
highly determined and devoted to your studies, success, for sure is yours.
Therefore, be highly focused. Do not be distracted or misled into taking actions
that you are not committed to… (Except from the punch Newspaper, Friday, July
31, 2009 pg 24)
MIDDLE POSITION-A true patriot will always demand the highest standards of his
country and accept nothing but the best for and from his people. He is a person
who loves his country. Patriotism is an emotion of love directed by a critical
intelligence towards one’s country. A true Patriot is not a person who shouts or
sings his love for his country. He is one who cares deeply about the happiness and
well-being of his country an its entire people.
FINAL POSITION- The petty trader wishes the season could be wished away. The
farmer is happy it is the season of the year again. I am nostalgic. I love the smell
of freshness that characterizes the season, but the street is not where I want to
be after a down pour. The rains are here again. (Ezekulie, 2011, p269).
2. SUPPORTING SENTENCES-: Supporting sentences expatiates the ideas
expressed in the topic sentence. They develop the main/central idea, by defining,
illustrating, (giving examples) elaborating, justifying, comparing or contrasting etc.
Example
It was horrible. Human heads came rolling down. Pools of blood were
everywhere, amidst some black uninformed boys with palm fronds in their
months. These boys were carrying glittering machetes and chanting war songs. I
froze as goose bumps came all over me. It was the Bakassi Boys in operation. They
were deployed by the state government to wipe out crime. (Obiageli, 20, 193).
It is commendable if you end your paragraph with a sentence that winds up the
paragraph into a neat whole – a concluding statement.

THEMATIC QUALITIES OF A PARAGRAPH

A well-formed paragraph should possess the following qualities;
1. Unity
2. Coherence
3. Clarity
4. Completely
5. Variety

1. UNITY:- Unity in a paragraph means all sentences should be focused on a

single controlling idea which is normally contained in the topic sentence. All
supporting sentences uses definition, illustrations or fact etc. to develop
the main idea. As such, sentences within a paragraph should not stray away
from the topic sentence.
Example
A developing country that relies too much on foreign aid is immature and not
independent. Such a country might have attained her political independence but
economically, socially, educationally and military wise, it is still a slave and
dependent. She cannot stand yet on her feet. Such a country, instead of
progressing into a developed country will retrogress into abject poverty.
The above paragraph shows unity because all other sentences are focusing on the
topic sentence (which is the first sentence).
2. COHERENCE:- Coherence, in a paragraph entails that all sentences within
the paragraph are ordered in a logical manner such that one sentence leads
to another. This means that all sentences are closely linked to each other.
Coherence can be achieved through the use of pronouns, connectives or
transitional words/phrases to bind the sentences together. The transition
markers are numerous and serve a variety of functions in writing. the
choice is made according to the nature of relationship the writer wishes to
express. Some common linking words and phrases are given below
together with their uses.

RELATIONSHIP TRANSITION MARKER

Addition, continuation and, also, in addition,
furthermore, moreover, again,
similarly, besides, next, first,
second, etc.

Contrast however, but, yet, nevertheless,

notwithstanding, on the other
hand, conversely, on the
contrary, although, in contrast, besides,
still etc.

Illustration for example, for instance, to

illustrate, to exemplify, in
particular, that is, in
other words, in essence, in particular, etc.

Emphasis indeed, in fact, certainly, truly,

admittedly, etc.
Time sequence initially, at first, to start, with,
now, then, later, before, at
last, meanwhile, after etc.

Concession although, though, granted that,

even though, it may be true
that, etc.

Similarity likewise, in the same way, in a

similar case, in a light manner,
similarly, etc.

Conclusion/result therefore, consequently, thus,

hence, then, as a consequence,
so, as a result, etc.

Summation/conclusion finally, in conclusion, in summary,

to sum up, in short, to round
off, to summarize, etc.

Transition markers and connections are used to achieve intra- and inter-
paragraph connections and coherence.

3. CLARITY-: A good paragraph should have good clarity. This means sentences
that make up a paragraph should be expressed vividly and clearly without
any ambiguity (having more than one meaning). Clarity entails appropriate
diction (choice of words), good use of grammatical rules, spellings and
sentences devoid of more than one interpretation.
Clarity can be achieved in a paragraph by avoiding the following:
-ambiguous sentences
-use of the wrong words
-punctuation blunders
-concord errors
-sentence fragment
-using wrong tenses
 -misplaced modifiers
-wrong spelling of words
-illogical comparisons
-Creating non- existent words
-misuse of transitive and intransitive verbs, etc.

4. COMPLETENESS-: A paragraph is complete when within the required space,

you present sufficient information or detail that fully develops the topic
sentence to the satisfaction of the reader. A complete paragraph should
contain supporting sentences that adequately develops the central idea in
the paragraph. When a paragraph is not complete, it leaves the reader
unsatisfied and unfulfilled, just like eating half-baked cake.
5. VARIETY-: The sentences contained in a paragraph should vary in structure
and pattern so as to avoid monotony in reading. Variety makes reading the
paragraph interesting. It is important to skillfully construct sentences in
different but meaningful styles. for instance the main idea may be
introduced first followed by supporting phrases or clauses (loose style) or
the subordinate clauses or phrases may come first and the main idea at the
end (periodic style). Also, a tactful combination of simple, compound and
complex sentences in a paragraph is necessary.

PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT
Paragraph development entails having a main idea to expatiate or develop. To
develop a paragraph, you need to present sufficient details that will explain the
main idea. These details are arranged in a logical order and presented in a variety
of long and short sentences. Transition markers, connectives and pronouns are
used to link the sentences together. Usually, the first sentence contains the main
idea followed by supporting details; but in other instances, the main idea may be
presented in the middle or end of the paragraph.
Monotony can be avoided in paragraph development by varying the mode of
development.
METHODS OF PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT
1. DEFINITION: This type of paragraph development gives meaning to a word,
concept, theory, principle or an object. Here the supporting sentences
define and clarify the concept contained in the topic sentence in order to
 enable the reader to fully understand the main idea in the paragraph. This
involves using explanation, description, synonyms etc. to fully define a
concept.
“Polyandry is practiced in communities with acute shortage of women. This
is a situation whereby a woman marries more than one husband since in
such communities men are more than women, a one-to-one relationship is
unrealistic. Women therefore have to marry more than one husband”.

2. ILLUSRATION:- Illustrations are examples given to buttress a general

statement. Developing your paragraph using illustrations means using
various relevant examples or instances to build up your paragraph.
Examples are important support for the central idea; they are very useful in
clarifying abstract or difficult concepts. The number of examples to use in
such paragraphs depends so much on the controlling idea in the topic
sentence.
The cankerworm of bribery and corruption has actually eaten deep into the
fabric of our society. For instance, the corrupt traffic policeman takes bribe
from the reckless driver and allows him to drive with worn-out tires and
without driving license; the employer takes bribes from the poor applicant
before he employs him; the dishonest custom official takes bribe from die-
hard smugglers and let them go free; the clever government engineer,
divert everything for his own good. The funny thing is that in this country,
those who publicly condemn corruption are those involved in it.
3. CLASSIFICATION:-Developing a paragraph by classification means breaking
down the main idea into categories and explaining each category one after
the other. This type of paragraph development classifies concepts
according to their nature, pattern, behavior, status, etc. in order to really
clarify their inter-relationship.
There are three main kinds of lecturers who never attend lectures; rather,
they only come to sell their handouts to students. The second category are
lecturers who attend lectures but spend more than half of the time telling
stories and cracking jokes. The third category are lecturers who attend
lectures and spend all the time allotted to them imparting knowledge to
their students.
4. COMPARISON AND CONTRAST: - This method of paragraph development
usually involves two subjects. It aimed at comparing two similar and
dissimilar concepts. This is based on several conditions. The first thing to do
when comparing things is to look at those things that are common to them
and those things that are different from them and bring them to light. One
of the reasons we compare things is to bring out the superiority of one
thing over another. It is therefore very important to exhaust every
possibility before reaching a conclusion. This type of paragraph
development is usually used when writing argumentative essays. In such a
writing, one may for instance place paragraphs that deal with similarity
together. Another option is to alternate the paragraph on similarities with
the paragraph on dissimilarities.
Example; Should co-education be abolished in our schools?
Co-education should be abolished because the presence of the opposite sex
in the same environment distracts students from their studies. In mixed
schools, many boys spend time scheming on how to secure the attention of
female students. The female students equally spend hours that should have
been spent on studying, to make themselves attractive to their male
counterparts. This is a huge and unnecessary waste of time by male and
female students, who should be studying.
Analogy is another form of complex and extended comparison of two
essentially dissimilar things with the aim of clarifying one.
5. NARRATION:- Narration entails telling a story or describing an experience.
Developing a paragraph in this manner involves narrating a story or
describing an experience that elaborates or explains the main idea (topic
sentence) of the paragraph. The narrative paragraph is arranged
chronologically. Chronology here means time sequence or time order.
Another important thing in the narrative paragraph is the use of tense. The
past tense is usually used when narrating an experience.
Example; A visit to the hospital.
On the day of our visit to the University of Nigeria Teaching Hospital, we
witnessed an ugly sight. Tears were rolling down every visitor’s face. A lorry
load of accident victims was parked at the casualty department.
Unfortunately, the medical doctors and nurses were on national strike
action. The few consultants offering skeletal services could not cope with
 the volume of work and so many lives that could have been saved were lost
on that day. (Nnamani, 2010, 193)
6. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS:- In this method, the paragraph starts with a
question followed by the answer immediately which forms the bulk of the
paragraph.
7. Example; Who is a Patriot? He is a person who loves his country. He is not a
person who says he loves his country. He is one who cares deeply about the
happiness and well-being of his country and its entire people. A true patriot
will always demand the highest standards of his country and accept nothing
but the best for and from his people… (Okoroh, 2015. 29)
In paragraph development, ordering of details is also very important. This
depends on the nature of the topic sentence. Some ideas or concepts may
demand ordering of details from less important to more important or vice versa.
While some ideas may demand spatial or chronological ordering of details. For
instance a descriptive paragraph (describing a person, scene, place or event etc.)
uses spatial order, one means the use of space that is, describing what the eyes
can see. On the other hand, the narrative paragraph uses chronological ordering
of detail i.e time sequence.
LITERATURE
Literature means different things to different people depending on the angle from
which a writer looks at it.
Literature can be defined as any work or writing that has an enduring value of
universal interest touching on themes such as romans, politics, government and
science.
It is also seen as the desire of people to convey their own knowledge experience,
vision through writing. Whatever its definition may be, literature makes use of
language, form and imagination as special tools. In a nutshell, it is the stylistic use
of words to achieve various literary purposes.
Literature is generally classified into three genres and they are:
Drama (written by a dramatist or a playwright)
Prose (written by an author)
Poetry (written by a poet)

Distinguish between English literature and literature in English.

English Literature: This is the literature written in English by writers who are
English in origin or adoption. It deals with the mode of life of the English people
including their origin, customs, beliefs and experiences.
Literature in English: This is the literature in English by writers who are not English
by birth. A good example of literature in English is the American and African
literature.
Other terms include: Aside, Dialogue, Conflict, Monologue, Soliloquy, Setting,
theme, cast, dress rehearsal, satire, rehearsal, fiction, non-fiction, playwright,
characters etc.

PROSE
This refers to the free flowing long narrative that may take the form of fiction or
non-fiction and often occurs as novels, biographies, short stories and essays.
Fictional prose are imaginative works that do not really happen but have the
possibility of occurring and so are presented as if they are real happenings or
factual events. On the other hand non-fictional works are the real history or
record of events that happened to somebody. They are either biographies or
autobiographies.

Characteristics of Prose
i. It is written in chapters and paragraphs.
ii. It deals with the intellect.
iii. Not always musical and may not contain a rhyme scheme.
iv. It is written to inform and instruct.
v. It only uses denotation of words.
vi. It may be factual and non-factual.

Terminologies in Prose
1. Flashback: A method used by novelists to bring into focus events that have
taken place in the past and their relationship with the present.
2. Plot: The structure or arrangement of the sequence of events in a story into
an organic whole.
3. Diction: The choice of words in any literary work.
4. Omniscient point of view: The point of view in which the narrator knows
about everything that needs to be known about the characters and events.
5. Stream of consciousness method: The point of view in which the author
records the process of thought of the major character.
6. Selective Omniscient: The point of view when the author or narrator enters
the mind of one character only.
7. Language: This refers to the use of words in any literary work.
8. Denotation: The exact thing indicated by a word e.g. “red” denotes a
particular colour.
9. Theme: The central idea or message of a book.
[Link]: The state of mind of the author as well as the reader.
[Link]: The way the writer’s thoughts and feelings are conveyed.
[Link]: Purpose of any writing.
COURSE CODE: 102
COURSE TITLE: COMMUNICATION IN ENGLISH I

COMMUNICATION
Communication is the transmission of information and meaning from one
individual or group to another. Every communication has its central objectives
which is the transmission of meaning. The term communication in the ordinary
sense simply means the transfer of ideas from the sender to the receiver and a
two way traffic in an organization. The word communis means common.
Communication can only be successful when the receiver understands the idea
intended by the sender.
Process of communication
The process involves the following 5 steps.
1. Sender has an idea: the form of idea may be influenced by the sender’s
mood frame of the reference, background, culture, physical makeup or
context of the situation.
2. Sender encodes the idea into a message. This means converting the idea
into words or gesture that will convey meaning. In most cases during verbal
communication to avoid misconception/ confusion skilled communicators
try to choose familiar words with concrete meanings on which both senders
and receivers agree.
3. Message travel over a channel: This is the medium over which the message
is transmitted. This messages can be sent through computer, letters,
telephones or memorandum. They may also be sent by means of a report,
announcement, pictures, spoken words, fax or other channels. Because
both verbal and nonverbal communication are carried channels must be
chosen carefully. Anything that disrupts the transmission of a message in
the communication process is called noise. Channel noise range from static
that disrupts a telephone conversation to spelling errors in an email
message. Such errors damage the credibility of the sender.
4. Receiver decodes message: Translating a message from its symbol form
into meaning involves decoding. Successful communication can only take
place when the receiver understand the meaning intended by the sender.
Such success is often hard to achieve due to difference in background
 (receiver/sender). Success is further limited due to barriers that may
disrupt the process.
5. Feedback travels to sender: The verbal and nonverbal responses of the
receiver create feedback which is the vital part of the entire communication
process. This further helps the sender to know if the message was received
and understood.
Purposes of communication
Communication is done for the following purposes
1. For self-knowledge:- In communication we tend to discover more about
ourselves, like our likes dislikes hopes, fears, and dreams. It is not only the
listener that gets to know us, we make a self-discovery learning how others
see us, how we see others and how we like to be seen. This knowledge
helps us in getting stronger and building a more positive of ourselves and of
course it reveals our limitations.
2. For survival:- Without communication it would be difficult for human being
to survive in the physical environment communication is needed to warn
us of natural disaster like thunderstorm earthquake etc. Airlines maintain
radio communication to confirm their location, get weather reports and to
keep in touch generally.
3. For general information:- It gives us information necessary for everyday
activities. Eg. Information for on food, entertainment, schools and other
events are taken for granted in our modern society but without
communication we would strive to discover the external world by
ourselves.
4. Establishing relationship:- Most of the communication that takes place in
the society is aimed at establishing and maintaining a meaningful
relationship. A world where there is no communication in the office or at
home would be a strange one indeed.
5. To modify people’s behavior:- Whatever medium being used for
communication, it is aimed at changing people’s attitudes and behaviors,
Government strives to make their subordinates behave in a particular way,
we even make those who cannot stand us tolerate us through persuasive
techniques.
 Barriers to effective communications
1. Noise: This refers to influences on effective communication or something
that keeps a receiver from completely comprehending a message. The
following are types of noise in communication.
Physical Noise: it is an interference that is external to both speaker and
listener, it hampers the physical transmission of the signal or message.
Example- Loud kids, loud party at the neighbors while you are trying to
record, irritating noise from your computer, air conditioner or heater, etc.
Physiological Noise: This type of noise interferes with the transmission or
interpretation of information from the sender to the receiver. It manifests
from the inside of either sender or receiver of the message. E.g headaches,
hunger, pain, fatigue, etc.
Psychological Noise: it comes from the preconceived notion we bring into a
conversation such as racial, reputations assumptions and biases. When we
come into a conversation with ideas on what the other person is going to
say and why we can easily become blinded to their original message.
Semantic Noise: This is a type of disturbance in the transmission of a
message that interferes with the interpretation of the message due to
ambiguity in words, sentences or symbols used in the transmission of the
message. (words, sentences or symbols used here have more than one
meaning and this makes the receiver of the message to become uncertain
of what the speaker is trying to say).
Syntactic Noise: This is a difference in the code and the concept it
represents in the problem space. In other words it is an indication that the
code does not look the way a naïve programmer might expect it. (The
speaker tends to use wrong word order). E. g we are expect to sit down
twice on a seat during the exam.
2. Lack of attention, interest, distraction or irrelevance to the receiver.
3. Differences in perception and point of view
4. Physical disabilities like hearing problems, speech difficulties etc.
5. Emotional barriers
6. Incompetency in the language used.
7. Use of jargon (technical terminologies: language characteristics for a
particular group.)
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN COMMUNICATION AND LANGUAGE
Language communication is synonymous to a car and the petrol used to run it.
They are both different entities but are closely related. Communication on its own
has been viewed as the passing of understandable message as well as receiving
and understanding the message.
Language serves the role of meeting communication needs while communication
says whatever is communicated must be understood. Communication is the
entire process from the source to the receiver while language makes it possible
for the whole process to make sense.( language is the code in which the message
is sent).

IMPACT OF INTERFERENCE ON COMMUNICATION AT VARIOUS LEVELS

Interference refers to all forms of obstacle which conspire to reduce the
effectiveness of communication. It can occur in any of these three components of
language.
1 SYNTACTIC INTERFERENCE
It manifests in the speaker’s use of wrong word order and lack of
appropriate morphological inflections or wrong morphological
inflections.
Examples; I didn’t called him
Will you welcome my brother classmate?
The two both of us will come and see you.

2 SEMANTIC INTERFERENCE
It manifests in the speaker’s use of word/words to express meanings
it doesn’t express because its equivalent in the first language is used
to express such meaning
 Examples; I am feeling hungry.
Bitrus does not hear French?

3. PHONOLOGICAL INTEFERENCE
It manifests itself in the speaker’s inability to produce certain sound
units or sound sequence/ the inability to apply certain phonological
process.
Example; In za ya nineteen pourty my grandpather waz born.
I wan to buy sontin.
Za froblem of zis fiful is foberty.
CODE SWITCHING – This refers to a shift from one language to another within the
same communication context ( a shift from one language to another of one
variety to another).
CODE MIXING – The assimilation of one code into another or the mixing of two or
more languages or language varieties in the context of a single conversation.

ORAL PRESENTATION
ORGANS OF SPEECH
Articulators also known as organs of speech are the essential parts of the mouth
necessary for speech production. They include the lungs, the larynx, the pharynx,
the palate (made up of the alveolar ridge or teeth ridge, hard palate, soft palate
and uvular), the lips, teeth and tongue. All the organs of speech are basically
divided into three groups which are the trunk, the throat and the head. The
speech organs situated in the throat perform the phonetary function and they
include the vocal cords and the glottis.
ENGLISH PHONEMES
Every language comprises of various distinctive sounds and these sounds are
referred to as phonemes. Phoneme is therefore the smallest unit of a sound
system distinguishing meanings between words. There are a total number of forty
four (44) phonemes in English language sub-divided into twenty four (24)
consonants and twenty (20) vowels.
CONSONANTS
Consonants are sounds produced with complete or partial obstruction of air in the
vocal tract. There are a total number of twenty four consonants sounds in English
and they are as follows
Phonemes (sounds) word illustrations
1. / p / product
2. / b / bottle
3. / t / team
4. / d / dine
5. / f / physics
6. / v / vine
7. / g / goat
8. / h / house
9. / k / cattle
10./ s / small
11./ z / zip
12./ j / yes
13./ n / know
14./ m / mile
15./ l / single
16./ r / raffle
17./ w / while
18./ ʤ / jump
19./ ʦ / chain
20./ ᴣ / treasure
21./ ŋ / sing
22./ ʃ / shore
 23./ θ / thing
24./ ∂ / father

VOWELS
Vowels are sounds produced without any obstruction in the vocal tract, they
classified into pure vowels (monophthongs) and impure vowels (diphthongs).
Pure vowels: these are sounds produced without any movement from one part of
the mouth to another, they consist of a single sound and they are all voiced.
There are a total of 12 pure vowels sub-divided into seven short vowels and five
long vowels. They can be seen as follows

Short vowels
Phonemes (sound) word illustrations
1. /i/ pin
2. /e/ bet
3. /u/ good
4. /Ә/ seven
5. /Ↄ/ box
6. /ǽ/ bag
7. /ʌ/ blood
Long Vowels
Phonemes (sounds) word illustrations
1. / i: / feet
2. / u: / soup
3. / a: / part
4. / ͻ: / tailor
5. / ᴈ: / shirt
 : These are sounds consisting of two pure vowels with a movement from one
vowel sound to another. There are a total of eight impure vowels (diphthongs)
in English language. Below are the sound symbols and word illustrations.
Phonemes (sound) word illustration
1. / ai / time
2. / ei / game
3. / ͻi / toy
4. / au / town
5. / eə / pair
6. / uə / poor
7. / iə / near
8. / əu / grow

PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE SPEAKING

There are times a need comes up for one to speak to a group of either small
or large. The speech time may be long or short but the main essence is to
communicate as the main goal of the speaker is to make the listener to
understand what he is being told.
There are some major purposes of speech delivery; to inform, to persuade,
to entertain, to express, to direct, to convince and to inspire.
1. When speaking to inform, the main aim is to enlighten or increase the
listener’s knowledge on a particular topic.
2. Speaking to persuade simply means the speaker must try to change the
listener’s mind or tell him to telling him to take some actions in line with
what he has heard.
3. When speaking to entertain, the listener is made to enjoy hearing what is
being said through the use of humor.
4. When speaking to convince, the speaker tries to influence the belief of the
decision. In essence the speaker simply wants to influence the belief of the
audience.
 5. When speaking to inspire, the speaker is merely expressing effectively and
often impressively on what the audience already feels, things they are
determined to do or accomplish.
STRESS
Stress refers to the degree of force with which a sound or syllable is
uttered. It further gives additional meaning to our utterances. There are two basic
patterns of stress patterns; primary and secondary.
The primary stress is signified with upper vertical strokes while the secondary
stress is represented with the lower vertical strokes.
TYPES OF STRESS
1. WORD STRESS: Most monosyllabic words are stressed but when a word has
more than one syllable the stress can occur in any of the syllable. The
meaning and class of English words that appear to be the same changes
with stress.
Examples; ‘addict –noun ad’dict –verbs
‘perfect –adj per’fect –verbs
2. unstressed.
3. EMPHATIC STRESS: Here only a single word is stressed in a sentence for the
purpose of emphasis.
Example; The student ‘object –noun ob’ject –verb
‘absent –noun ab’sent –verb
‘import –noun im’port –verb
4. SENTENCE STRESS: Stress here usually falls on content words like nouns,
verbs and adjectives while grammatical words like pronouns and
prepositions are
passed the TEST. (not the interview)
Amina is very INTELLIGENT. (not dumb)
My NEIGHBOR’S dog had two puppies, (not friend’s)

INTONATION
The rise and fall in the pitch of a voice when we speak. It results from
the stress we place on words, it further tells the speakers attitude to his
subject or listener.
 Meanings like indifference, surprise and doubt cannot be expressed
through writing but can be conveyed in speech through intonation. The two
basic intonation patterns are the rising tone and falling tone.
Example Thank you gratitude

Thank you casual acknowledgement of

something less important.

Please a plea

Please shutting someone up.

CORRESPONDENCES
Correspondences refers to any written or digital communication exchanged by
two or more parties, it may come in the form of letters, emails, text messages,
voicemails notes or postcards. The following are some types of correspondences.
Business letters: this is usually a letter written from one company to another or
between such organization and their customers, clients and other external
parties. The style of the letter depends on the parties concerned. Examples of
such letters are as follows
Letter of inquiry, letter of claim/complaints, application letters, letter of
dismissal/approval, letter of recommendations, letter of promise etc.
Emails: this refers to the latest formal method of business communication, it is
the most widely used method of written communication usually done in a
conversational style. It is mostly used when there is a need to communicate to a
large audience in an organization.
Memorandum: this is a document used for internal communication within an
organization. Memos may be drafted by the management and addressed to other
employees and it is sent with the money draft. It is usually sent to several people
in a team when important business matters need to be addressed/updated to
them or to a single person who should have a written record of the information.
Circular: This refers to notices communicated to a large number of people within
an organization. It is referred to as office instruction or announcement usually
containing information about certain protocols, changes in contact information or
details about meeting with shareholders.
KEY DIFFERENCES BETWEEN FORMAL AND INFORMAL LETTERS
An informal letter is written in a friendly manner to someone you are familiar with
while the formal letter is written for official or professional communication. On
the other hand, are used for casual or personal communication.
Purpose: Formal letter is usually written for official reasons and it is and it is
written in a formal language. Examples are; complaints, requests, inquiry,
applications etc. while informal letter is a personal letter which may just
communicate to a friend far away, a family member or an acquaintance.
Format: In formal letter the arrangement from the address and date to the
signature differs from that of a formal letter. The informal letter has no
formalities. (no title, no receiver’s address, salutation is casual…)
Language: in informal letter one is allowed to use slangs, codes, abbreviations
when necessary but in a formal letter there is need to be very careful with the
language used(only formal language is allowed).
Manner: In formal letters expressions are made straight to the point, void of
unnecessary chat and casualness while an informal letter allows you to greet and
gist a little before going to the issue at hand depending on your relationship with
the recipient.