AUTOMATIC WASTE SORTING MACHINE

CHAPTER-1

1. ABSTRACT

The Automatic Waste Sorting Machine aims to revolutionize the way we manage and recycle
waste by automating the sorting process using advanced sensor technology. In an era where
waste management is becoming an increasingly significant global concern, the project
focuses on providing an innovative solution to improve the efficiency of waste sorting,
reducing human labor, and ensuring more accurate and sustainable recycling practices. By
integrating sensors such as inductive, capacitive, and ultrasonic sensors with Arduino
microcontrollers and servo motors, the machine is designed to automatically sort three types
of waste materials—plastic, metal, and glass—into their respective bins. The system uses
inductive sensors to detect metal objects, capacitive sensors to detect plastic and glass, and
ultrasonic sensors to monitor the position of waste within the sorting system. The machine is
programmed to sort the materials based on the sensor readings, directing them to different
bins through mechanical actuators. The objective of this project is not only to automate waste
management in households and industrial settings but also to lay the groundwork for future
innovations in waste sorting systems that can identify a wider range of materials and handle
larger volumes of waste. This report outlines the design, working, methodology, and results
of the Automatic Waste Sorting Machine, discussing its components, programming,
challenges, and future potential improvements.

2. INTRODUCTION

Waste management and recycling are crucial aspects of environmental sustainability. With
the increasing global population and urbanization, the amount of waste generated has
skyrocketed, leading to pressing concerns about its disposal and environmental impact.
Traditional waste sorting is often carried out manually, which is not only time-consuming but
also prone to errors. Moreover, manual sorting is expensive and labor-intensive, creating a
demand for automated waste management solutions that can streamline the process, reduce
human error, and promote recycling on a larger scale.

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The Automatic Waste Sorting Machine is an innovative solution designed to address these
challenges. By integrating a range of sensors and microcontroller-based systems, the project
automates the process of waste segregation into different bins. The system can detect metal,
plastic, and glass objects, segregating them into individual waste bins based on their material
type. This sorting mechanism not only makes the recycling process more efficient but also
reduces the need for manual labor, making waste management systems more cost-effective
and accurate.

The integration of sensors like inductive, capacitive, and ultrasonic into a machine controlled
by Arduino microcontrollers opens up a new realm of possibilities for future applications.
The machine is designed to sort three types of waste, with the potential to be adapted for
additional types of materials. The aim of this project is to explore how automation can be
leveraged to improve waste management, reduce waste contamination, and promote a more
sustainable and eco-friendly approach to recycling.

3. OBJECTIVES

The primary objective of this project is to develop a fully functional Automatic Waste Sorting
Machine that is capable of sorting at least three different types of materials: plastic, metal,
and glass. The specific goals of this project include:

Automating the Waste Sorting Process: By using sensors and microcontrollers, the goal is to
automate the sorting of different materials into appropriate bins, eliminating the need for
manual labor.

Increasing Efficiency and Accuracy: The system should efficiently sort materials based on
their type, with minimal errors. By automating the sorting process, the project aims to reduce
human error that typically arises in manual sorting systems.

Designing a Scalable System: The sorting machine is designed to handle waste from various
environments, including households, offices, and industrial settings. The system must be
scalable to accommodate different waste volumes and material types.

Ensuring Sustainability: The ultimate aim is to provide a solution that contributes to

sustainable waste management practices. This includes improving the recycling rate and
reducing waste contamination, which would enhance the quality of recycled materials.

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Adapting to Future Expansions: While the machine is currently designed to sort three types of
waste, the system architecture should be adaptable to sort additional materials in the future by
integrating more sensors and improving detection algorithms.

The project will also focus on the design of a user-friendly interface for easy operation and
maintenance, ensuring that the system can be easily integrated into existing waste
management infrastructures.

EXISTING SYSTEM

Automatic waste sorting is a complex task that has been a focus of research and development
for several years. Current waste sorting systems rely on a combination of sensor technologies
and mechanical actuators to automatically separate materials such as metals, plastics, and
glass. Below are a few examples of existing systems and their approaches:

Automated Sorting Systems in Recycling Plants:

Traditional recycling plants use machines equipped with a variety of sensors like infrared
(IR) sensors, color sensors, and X-ray sensors to identify materials. For instance, AMP
Robotics uses AI-driven robotic systems combined with machine vision to identify and sort
recyclable materials from mixed waste streams. These systems rely on cameras to visually
identify the type of material, while AI models predict the best way to separate them for
further processing.

However, these systems are expensive and often require significant infrastructure, making
them more suitable for large-scale recycling centers.

Robotic Arms in Waste Sorting:

Companies like Zen Robotics have introduced robotic arms designed specifically for waste
sorting. These robots use machine vision systems combined with AI algorithms to identify
and pick up recyclable materials. These robotic arms are capable of sorting materials such as
plastics, metals, and paper from waste streams, significantly increasing the speed and
accuracy of sorting. However, these systems are also expensive and rely heavily on high-
quality image recognition technologies.

Optical and Infrared Sorting Systems:

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Optical sensors and infrared sorting systems are another popular method used for automated
waste sorting. These systems use laser-based technologies and optical recognition to detect
materials. For instance, the Tomra Sorting Recycling system uses near-infrared (NIR)
technology to sort mixed waste, such as plastics and metals, based on their material
composition. These technologies are precise but are limited in sorting different types of
materials or mixed waste.

Despite their advantages, these existing systems face several challenges. They require
substantial investment, specialized equipment, and are often not adaptable to different types
of waste or sizes. The sensors used can be expensive, and while they are effective in large-
scale operations, their high cost makes them less practical for small or medium-sized
applications. Additionally, existing systems often fail to handle the dynamic nature of waste
materials, such as those with mixed sizes or irregular shapes.

PROBLEM STATEMENT

As the amount of waste generated globally increases, particularly in urban areas, efficient and
accurate waste sorting systems are required to reduce landfill usage, enhance recycling rates,
and reduce the environmental impact of waste. The current waste sorting systems, which are
primarily manual or semi-automated, are not efficient, accurate, or scalable. Moreover, they
pose risks to workers' health and safety by exposing them to hazardous materials.

The primary issues faced by existing systems include:

High Cost: Advanced sensor-based systems and robotic arms are expensive, making them
suitable only for large-scale facilities, leaving smaller recycling centers or household
applications out of reach.

Limited Adaptability: Most current systems are designed for specific types of waste or
materials, and adapting them to handle mixed waste streams is complex and costly.

Inefficient Sorting Process: Existing automated systems often struggle with irregular or
mixed materials, resulting in inaccuracies and contamination of recyclable materials.

Maintenance and Calibration: Sensors and actuators used in existing systems require regular
calibration and maintenance, which can incur additional costs and downtime.

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Lack of Flexibility: Many sorting systems are rigid in their design and cannot be easily
adjusted to accommodate different waste types or changing waste streams.

Therefore, there is a need for a more cost-effective, adaptable, and scalable automated waste
sorting system that can improve waste management efficiency at various scales, from
households to industrial applications. The goal is to develop a system that can accurately and
efficiently sort multiple types of waste, including plastic, glass, and metal, while being
affordable and easy to maintain.

4. PROPOSED SYSTEM

The proposed system involves a combination of sensors, actuators, and a microcontroller to

create an automated waste sorting machine. The system's core components include:

Arduino Uno: The Arduino Uno microcontroller is the brain of the system, responsible for
processing sensor inputs, controlling the servo motors, and managing the overall sorting
process.

Inductive Sensor: This sensor is used to detect metal objects based on their electromagnetic
properties. Metals induce changes in the electromagnetic field around the sensor, triggering
the detection process.

Capacitive Sensor: The capacitive sensor is used to identify plastic and glass materials. This
sensor detects changes in capacitance when an object approaches, and its detection is based
on the dielectric properties of the material.

Ultrasonic Sensor: The ultrasonic sensor measures the distance between the waste material
and the sensor, helping the system determine whether the object is in range for sorting. It is
used to ensure accurate material placement in the designated bins.

Servo Motors: The servo motors are responsible for physically directing the materials into the
appropriate bins. The system uses two servo motors—one to control the movement of a
rotating pipe and the other to operate a gate that directs the waste into the correct bin.

The sorting machine works by detecting the type of material using the sensors. When a piece
of waste passes through the sensor field, the system evaluates the sensor readings and uses
the appropriate servo motors to guide the waste to the corresponding bin. The machine can be

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configured to detect additional materials by incorporating more sensors, such as moisture
sensors to detect organic waste.

LITERATURE SURVEY

Waste management, particularly the sorting of recyclable materials, plays a crucial role in
reducing the environmental impact of solid waste. Proper waste segregation not only reduces
landfill waste but also enhances recycling efforts, contributing to environmental conservation.
While manual sorting is still prevalent, automation offers a more efficient and accurate
alternative. This literature survey explores the current state of automatic waste sorting
technologies, reviewing existing systems, their capabilities, and the advancements in sensor
technologies and robotics used for waste segregation.

1. Waste Sorting and its Importance

Waste sorting refers to the process of categorizing waste materials into separate groups to be
recycled, reused, or disposed of in an environmentally-friendly manner. According to a study
by Gassoumi et al. (2020), the failure to separate waste at the source significantly reduces the
quality of recyclables and increases the cost of waste treatment. Effective waste sorting
enables higher-quality recyclables and a more efficient waste management system,
significantly contributing to environmental sustainability.

Recycling helps in minimizing the demand for raw materials and reduces energy
consumption. A report by Yuan et al. (2018) explains that materials such as plastic, glass, and
metals can be easily recycled when separated properly, which reduces the need for new
materials and cuts down on greenhouse gas emissions from manufacturing processes. Thus,
there is a growing need to automate the sorting of waste, especially in residential,
commercial, and industrial sectors, to improve recycling efficiency.

2. Manual vs. Automated Waste Sorting

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Traditionally, waste sorting is carried out manually, with workers physically sorting different
types of waste into categories. While this approach can be effective, it is labor-intensive,
prone to human error, and inefficient in terms of time and cost. Manual sorting also exposes
workers to hazardous materials, making it a risky process. To address these challenges,
automated waste sorting systems have been developed that employ a combination of sensor
technologies, robotics, and machine learning algorithms to automate the process of detecting
and sorting materials.

The research by Chun et al. (2019) provides an overview of automated waste sorting systems
and highlights the significant benefits over manual methods. Automated systems, equipped
with sensors and robotic arms, can quickly and accurately separate materials based on their
properties such as size, weight, and composition. Additionally, these systems can operate
continuously, unlike manual sorting, which can lead to fatigue and lower productivity.

3. Sensor Technologies for Waste Sorting

Modern automated waste sorting systems often rely on various sensor technologies to detect
the materials in waste. The sensors used in waste sorting are typically categorized based on
the physical properties they measure, including electromagnetic fields, capacitance, and
distance.

Inductive Sensors: Inductive proximity sensors are widely used to detect metal objects in
waste. These sensors detect changes in the magnetic field caused by conductive materials,
especially metals. According to Reisman et al. (2017), inductive sensors are particularly
effective in sorting metals such as aluminum, iron, and steel, which are commonly found in
waste streams. In the context of waste sorting, inductive sensors are used to identify metals
and direct them to the appropriate recycling bin.

Capacitive Sensors: Capacitive sensors are used to detect non-metallic objects based on their
dielectric properties. These sensors measure the changes in capacitance when an object with a
different dielectric constant, such as plastic or glass, comes near. Salah et al. (2021) explain
that capacitive sensors can be fine-tuned to detect specific materials like plastic and glass,
enabling more efficient waste segregation. The capacitive sensor's sensitivity can be adjusted
to ensure accurate detection, especially when materials like plastic are difficult to distinguish
from other materials.

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Ultrasonic Sensors: Ultrasonic sensors are frequently used in waste sorting systems to
measure the distance between the sensor and the material. These sensors emit sound waves
and measure the time it takes for the wave to bounce back, determining the distance to the
target object. Huang et al. (2019) highlight the importance of ultrasonic sensors in sorting
systems, as they allow the system to detect the position of materials within the system,
ensuring that they are properly positioned for sorting.

Optical Sensors: Optical sensors, such as cameras and spectrometers, are also gaining
popularity in automated waste sorting. These sensors analyze the physical appearance and
color of materials to identify specific types of waste, such as plastic bottles or paper.
According to Cohen et al. (2020), optical sorting systems are particularly useful in sorting
complex waste streams, including mixed plastics and paper products, based on visual cues.

4. Robotics and Actuators in Waste Sorting

Robotic arms and actuators play a critical role in automating the physical process of moving
waste materials from one area to another. The robotic system is typically paired with a series
of sensors that detect materials and inform the robot of where to direct them.

Robotic Arms: Robotic arms are used in automated waste sorting systems to physically
manipulate and sort materials based on sensor input. These arms are programmed to pick up
materials and place them in designated bins. Zhao et al. (2018) discuss the use of robotic
arms in recycling plants, where they are equipped with vision systems to identify and
segregate different types of waste. The robots are capable of sorting objects at high speeds
and with precision, greatly improving the throughput of recycling operations.

Servo Motors and Actuators: Servo motors and actuators are essential for controlling the
movement of the sorting gates or bins. Li et al. (2021) present the use of servo motors to
control sorting gates that direct materials to specific bins based on sensor readings. The
precise control provided by servo motors ensures that materials are accurately sorted into
their respective categories.

5. Machine Learning and Artificial Intelligence in Sorting Systems

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Recent advancements in machine learning and artificial intelligence (AI) have made it
possible to develop more sophisticated waste sorting systems that can learn and adapt to
different materials and waste streams. AI algorithms are used to analyze sensor data and
make decisions about how materials should be sorted.

Xie et al. (2020) propose an intelligent waste sorting system that uses machine learning
algorithms to classify different waste materials. The system uses data from multiple sensors
(including optical, capacitive, and ultrasonic) to train a model that can accurately identify a
wide range of materials. By continuously learning from new data, the system becomes more
efficient over time, improving its ability to sort even more complex waste streams.

Additionally, Wu et al. (2022) highlight the integration of deep learning with image
recognition systems in waste sorting. Deep learning models, when trained on large datasets of
images of waste materials, can classify objects with high accuracy. These systems are
especially useful in sorting mixed materials where other sensor types may struggle, such as in
the case of plastics and organics.

6. Challenges and Future Directions

While automated waste sorting systems have made significant progress, several challenges
remain that need to be addressed for widespread adoption.

Sensor Limitations: Sensors such as capacitive and inductive types have their limitations,
especially in detecting complex materials. Capacitive sensors may struggle to distinguish
between similar materials with similar dielectric properties. Similarly, inductive sensors may
fail to detect non-ferrous metals or objects that are too small to affect the electromagnetic
field.

System Integration: Integrating various sensors, actuators, and robotic arms into a cohesive
system remains a technical challenge. Ensuring that all components work seamlessly together
requires careful calibration and synchronization.

Cost and Scalability: The cost of deploying automated waste sorting systems can be
prohibitively high, especially for small-scale applications. Reducing the cost of sensors and
actuators and improving the scalability of the system will be key to making these systems
more accessible.

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Handling Complex Waste Streams: Current systems are primarily designed to sort a few
basic materials. However, the complexity of waste streams—especially in urban and
industrial settings—requires the ability to sort a larger variety of materials, including mixed
plastics, organic waste, and electronic waste (e-waste).

5. WORKING

The working of the Automatic Waste Sorting Machine involves several key steps, which are
detailed below:

Initialization:

When the machine is powered on, the system initializes by setting the servo motors to their
home positions. This ensures that all components are in a known state before starting the
sorting process.

The sensors are calibrated during initialization to ensure accurate material detection.

Material Detection:

As waste enters the detection area, the inductive sensor detects metal objects by sensing
changes in the magnetic field caused by the metal.

The capacitive sensor identifies plastic and glass objects by measuring the change in
capacitance when the material approaches. The sensor is fine-tuned to distinguish between
plastic and glass based on their dielectric properties.

The ultrasonic sensor continuously measures the distance of the object from the sensor. This
helps the system determine whether the object is within the sorting range and ready to be
moved.

Sorting Process:

Once the material is detected, the system processes the sensor readings and determines the
type of material. Based on the material type, the corresponding servo motor is activated to
move the waste to the appropriate bin.

If metal is detected, the pipe servo directs the material to the metal bin.

If plastic is detected, the pipe is moved to the plastic bin.

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If glass is detected, the material is directed to the glass bin.

Servo Control:

The servo motors are controlled using PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) signals from the
Arduino Uno. The servo motors move to specific angles based on the input from the sensors,
ensuring that each type of waste is directed to its respective bin.

The system is designed to return the servo motors to their initial positions after each sorting
cycle to ensure the system is ready for the next round of waste detection.

End of Process:

After the waste is sorted, the system waits for the next item to be detected. The process
repeats for each piece of waste that enters the system.

6. METHODOLOGY

The development of the Automatic Waste Sorting Machine involved several stages, including
system design, component selection, programming, and testing. Below is a detailed overview
of the methodology followed:

Design and Component Selection:

The first step was to define the requirements and design the system. The machine was
designed to use inductive sensors for metal detection, capacitive sensors for plastic and glass
detection, and ultrasonic sensors to measure distance. The mechanical structure was designed
to hold the sensors and motors in place while ensuring smooth operation.

Components like Arduino Uno, servo motors, sensors, and power supply were selected based
on their suitability for the application and their compatibility with the Arduino platform.

Mechanical Design:

The frame of the machine was constructed using a combination of 3D printed parts and laser-
cut parts. The frame holds the sensors and servos in place and provides the necessary support
for the sorting mechanism.

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The V-gate and pipe mechanisms were designed to move the waste to the respective bins
based on the sensor readings.

Programming:

The Arduino Uno was programmed to control the servo motors and process the sensor inputs.
The code was written in the Arduino IDE and used standard libraries to interface with the
sensors and motors.

The system was programmed to initialize the servos, detect materials, and sort them using a
series of conditional statements based on sensor values. The system was also programmed to
handle errors and perform initialization routines.

Testing and Calibration:

The system was tested with different types of waste materials to ensure that the sensors could
accurately detect metal, plastic, and glass.

Calibration of the sensors was an important part of the process, as the sensitivity of the
sensors needed to be adjusted to accurately differentiate between different materials.

The system was iteratively tested, and adjustments were made to the code and hardware to
improve accuracy and efficiency.

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CHAPTER-2

SYSTEM OVERVIEW

The fig.1 shows block diagram which gives you the overview of the proposed system. The
brief description given bellow.

2.1 Block Diagram

DRY/WET
IDENTIFIER

METAL SERVO
SENSOR MOTOR
ATMega328
Microcontroller
SERVO
ULTRASONIC
MOTOR
SENSOR

POWER
SUPPLY

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2.2 FUNCTIONAL UNIT DESCRIPTION:

In the figure 2.1 we shown the hardware requirements & Technical approach in the way to
design the system. The system consists of mainly parts like Microcontroller (ATmega328),
RFID technology, Sensor networks, which are described briefly below.

2.3 MICROCONTROLLER ATMEGA328

Arduino UNO is an open source prototyping platform based on ATmega328 microcontroller.
It consists of 14 digital input/output (I/O) pins, six analogue inputs, a USB connection for
programming the on-board microcontroller, a power jack, an ICSP header and a reset button.
It is operated with a 16MHz crystal oscillator and contains everything needed to support the
microcontroller.

2.4 ULTRASONIC SENSOR

IR sensor is used to detect the level of the dust bin, The IR is line of sight distance sensor.
The sensor circuit mainly consists of two blocks i.e. IR transmitter and IR receiver. The
transmitter transmits the IR rays continuously and received by the receiver. When the beam is
broken a high to low signal produced, that signal is fed to the microcontroller. These circuit
are unaffected by sunlight and other artificial lights, range of this circuit is about 5 meters
without any lenses. Range can be extended further by using lenses or reflector with sensors.

2.5 DRY/WET SENSOR

A DRY/WET SENSOR is used to detect the presence of rain and is commonly used in
automated systems like smart irrigation or weather monitoring. The DRY/WET SENSOR
consists of a conductive surface with a series of copper traces. When rainwater falls on the
sensor, the water bridges the conductive traces, allowing current to flow, which is then
detected by the microcontroller. The sensor is highly sensitive to moisture, making it ideal for
detecting even small amounts of rain. Typically, it is used in systems to activate a pump, shut
down a water system, or trigger other actions when it rains. The DRY/WET SENSOR works
reliably even in outdoor environments, as it is specifically designed to detect moisture and
water presence, which makes it unaffected by ambient lighting conditions.

2.6 DC MOTOR

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A DC motor is used to provide rotary motion in various electronic projects and applications.
It consists of a rotor (or armature), stator, and brushes. When a voltage is applied to the
motor, it creates a magnetic field that causes the rotor to spin. The direction of rotation
depends on the polarity of the applied voltage. DC motors are widely used for driving wheels,
fans, and other mechanical components in robotics, automation, and other motion-controlled
systems. The speed of a DC motor can be adjusted by varying the voltage supplied to the
motor, and its direction of rotation can be controlled by reversing the polarity of the voltage.
In the context of the smart dustbin project, a DC motor may be used for opening or closing
lids or activating mechanisms for waste segregation.

2.7 NPN METAL PROXIMITY SENSOR

An NPN metal proximity sensor is used to detect the presence of metal objects within a
certain range without any physical contact. It operates based on the principle of eddy currents
generated in metal objects when subjected to an alternating magnetic field. The sensor
consists of an oscillator that generates the magnetic field and a receiver that detects the
changes in the field caused by nearby metal. When a metal object enters the sensor’s
detection range, the changes in the magnetic field are detected, and a signal is sent to the
microcontroller. The NPN sensor typically produces a low signal when no metal is detected
and switches to a high signal when metal is in the detection zone. These sensors are
commonly used in industrial applications, robotic systems, and automated machines to detect
metal parts or obstacles. In the waste segregation system, the metal proximity sensor helps in
identifying metal waste for proper sorting.

2.8 SERVO MOTORS

A servo motor is a linear or rotary actuator that provides fast precision position control for
closed-loop position control applications. Unlike large industrial motors, a servo motor is not
used for continuous energy conversion.
Servo motors work on servo mechanism that uses position feedback to control the speed and
final position of the motor. Internally, a servo motor combines a motor, feedback circuit,
controller and other electronic circuit.

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CHAPTER-3

MICROCONTROLLER

3.1 Introduction
To make a complete microcomputer system only micro controller is not sufficient, it is
necessary to add other peripherals such as read only memory (ROM), read / write memory
(RAM), decoders, drivers, latches, number of input / output devices to make a complete
microcomputer system. In addition, special purpose devices, such as interrupt controller,
programmable timers, programmable I/O devices, DMA controllers, USART/UART,
programmable keyboard/display drivers may be added to improve the capability,
performance and flexibility of a microcomputer system. In addition battery backup and an
elaborate power supply arrangement is essential. However the key feature of micro controller
based computer system is that, it is possible to design a system with a great flexibility. It is
possible to configure a system as large or as small system by adding or removing suitable
peripherals. On the other hand, the micro controller incorporates all the features that are
found in micro controller. However, it has added features to make a complete microcomputer
system on its own. Therefore the micro controllers are sometimes called as single chip
microcomputer. The micro controller has built-in rom, ram, parallel I/O, serial I/O, counters,
interrupts and a clock oscillator circuit.

Simplified block diagram of 8051 family microcontroller

EXTERNAL INTERRUPTS COUNTER INPUTS

4 K SFRs
ROM
INTERRUPT (8051) TIMER 1
CONTROL 128 BYTES
RAM TIMER 0

CPU

BUS
OSC CONTROL 4 I/O PORTS SERIAL
PORT

P0 P2 P1 P3 TXD RXD
ADDRESS/DATA

Figure 1: Block diagram of 8051 family microcontroller

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As shown in the above figure the micro controller has on-chip (built-in) peripheral devices.
These on chip peripherals make it possible to have single-chip microcomputer system.

There are few more advantages of built-in peripherals:

 Built in peripherals have smaller access times hence speed is more.
 Hardware reduces due to single chip microcomputer system.
 Less hardware reduces PCB size and increases reliability of the system.

3.2 Comparison between Microprocessor and Micro controller

Microprocessor
Microprocessor contains ALU, general-purpose registers stack pointer, program
counter, clock timing circuit and interrupt circuit. It has many instructions to move data
between memory and CPU .It has one or two bit handling instructions. Access time, for
memory and I/O devices, are more. Microprocessor based system is more flexible in design
point of view. It has single memory map of data and code. Less number of pins is
multifunctional.

Microcontroller
Microcontroller contains the circuitry of microprocessor and in addition it has built-in
ROM, RAM, I/O devices, timers / counters and serial port. It has one or two instructions to
move data between memory and CPU. It has many bit handling instructions. Less access
time for built-in memory and I/O devices. Micro controller based system requires less
hardware reducing PCB size and increasing the reliability. Less flexible in design point of
view. It has separate memory map for data and code. More number of pins are
multifunctional.

Different types of microcontroller

Like microprocessor, the micro controllers also have a big family of micro controllers.
Different micro controllers require different support chips and resources to develop particular
micro controller system. To choose an appropriate device to meet system requirements, we
must understand differences, different options and features of various micro controllers.

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Embedded Microcontrollers
When a complete hardware required to run a particular application is provided on the
micro controller chip, it is referred to as an embedded micro controller. Embedded micro
controllers only require power, reset circuit and a frequency-determining component like
crystal or ceramic resonator for clock. Embedded micro controllers communicate with
external devices with their digital I/O pins, both parallel and serial.

External memory Microcontrollers

Sometimes, for large systems, the built-in program memory and data memories are
insufficient. To overcome this problem some micro controllers allow the connection of
external memory. For the connection of external memory some parallel port pins are used as
address and data lines. Thus connecting external memory to the micro controllers reduces its
parallel input/output capabilities. Internally, address and data lines are multiplexed and need
to be separated by an external 8-bit latch and ALE signal, from the micro controller.

The 8051 family micro controllers can work very effectively as an embedded device or
with external memory. Its architecture is also very thoughtful and practical combination of
different philosophies. Before going to study architecture of 8051 we will see different
processors architectures. The ATmega328 is a low-power, high performance CMOS 8-bit
microcomputer with 8Kbytes of flash EEPROM.

FEATURES
FEATURES OF 8051 FAMILY MICROCONTROLLER
 8-bit Central Processing Unit.
 4Kbytes of programmable Memory.
 Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 24 MHz
 128 x 8-bit Internal RAM.
 32 Programmable I/O Lines.
 Two 16-Bit Timer/Counters.
 Six Interrupt Sources.
 Programmable Full Duplex Serial Channel.
 On-chip Oscillator and Clock Circuit.
 Low Power Idle and Power Down Modes.

SPECIAL FEATURES OF ATmega328 MICROCONTROLLER

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High Performance, Low Power AVR® 8-Bit Microcontroller

 Advanced RISC Architecture

a. 131 Powerful Instructions
b. Most Single Clock Cycle Execution
c. 32 x 8 General Purpose Working Registers
d. Fully Static Operation
e. Up to 20 MIPS Throughput at 20 MHz
f. On-chip 2-cycle Multiplier

• High Endurance Non-volatile Memory Segments

a. 4/8/16/32K Bytes of In-System Self-Programmable Flash program memory

(ATmega48PA/88PA/168PA/328P)
b. 256/512/512/1K Bytes EEPROM (ATmega48PA/88PA/168PA/328P)
c. 512/1K/1K/2K Bytes Internal SRAM (ATmega48PA/88PA/168PA/328P)
d. Write/Erase Cycles: 10,000 Flash/100,000 EEPROM
e. Data retention: 20 years at 85°C/100 years at 25°C(1)
f. Optional Boot Code Section with Independent Lock Bits
 In-System Programming by On-chip Boot Program
 True Read-While-Write Operation
a. Programming Lock for Software Security

• Peripheral Features

a. Two 8-bit Timer/Counters with Separate Presale and Compare Mode

b. One 16-bit Timer/Counter with Separate Presale, Compare Mode, and Capture
Mode
c. Real Time Counter with Separate Oscillator
d. Six PWM Channels
e. 8-channel 10-bit ADC in TQFP and QFN/MLF package

• Temperature Measurement

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 a. 6-channel 10-bit ADC in PDIP Package
b. Programmable Serial USART
c. Master/Slave SPI Serial Interface
d. Byte-oriented 2-wire Serial Interface (Philips I2C compatible)
e. Programmable Watchdog Timer with Separate On-chip Oscillator
f. On-chip Analog Comparator
g. Interrupt and Wake-up on Pin Change

• Special Microcontroller Features

a. Power-on Reset and Programmable Brown-out Detection

b. Internal Calibrated Oscillator
c. External and Internal Interrupt Sources
d. Six Sleep Modes: Idle, ADC Noise Reduction, Power-save, Power-down,
Standby, and Extended Standby

• I/O and Packages

a. 23 Programmable I/O Lines

b. 28-pin PDIP, 32-lead TQFP, 28-pad QFN/MLF and 32-pad QFN/MLF

• Operating Voltage: 1.8 - 5.5V for ATmega48PA/88PA/168PA/328P

• Temperature Range: -40°C to 85°C

• Speed Grade: 0 - 20 MHz @ 1.8 - 5.5V

• Low Power Consumption at 1 MHz, 1.8V, 25°C for ATmega48PA/88PA/168PA/328P:

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 a. Active Mode: 0.2 mA
b. Power-down Mode: 0.1 μA
c. Power-save Mode: 0.75 μA (Including 32 kHz RTC)

3.3 Pin Description of ATmega328 Microcontroller:

Figure 2: Pin diagram of ATmega328 MC

1.1 Pin Descriptions

1.1.1 VCC: Digital supply voltage.

1.1.2 GND: Ground.

1.1.3 Port B (PB7:0) XTAL1/XTAL2/TOSC1/TOSC2

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 Port B is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for
each bit). The Port B output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both
high sink and source capability. As inputs, Port B pins that are externally pulled low
will source current if the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port B pins are tri-stated
when a reset condition becomes active, even if the clock is not running. Depending on
the clock selection fuse settings, PB6 can be used as input to the inverting Oscillator
amplifier and input to the internal clock operating circuit. Depending on the clock
selection fuse settings, PB7 can be used as output from the inverting Oscillator
amplifier.

1.1.4 Port C (PC5:0)

Port C is a 7-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for
each bit). The PC5.0 output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both
high sink and source capability. As inputs, Port C pins that are externally pulled low
will source current if the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port C pins are tri-stated
when a reset condition becomes active, even if the clock is not running.

1.1.5 PC6/RESET

If the RSTDISBL Fuse is programmed, PC6 is used as an I/O pin. Note that the
electrical characteristics of PC6 differ from those of the other pins of Port C. If the
RSTDISBL Fuse is un-programmed, PC6 is used as a Reset input. A low level on this
pin for longer than the minimum pulse length will generate a Reset, even if the clock
is not running. The minimum pulse length is given in Table 28-3 on page 308. Shorter
pulses are not guaranteed to generate a Reset.

1.1.6 Port D (PD7:0)

Port D is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for
each bit). The Port D output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both
high sink and source capability. As inputs, Port D pins that are externally pulled low
will source current if the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port D pins are tri-stated
when a reset condition becomes active, even if the clock is not running.

1.1.7 AVCC

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 AVCC is the supply voltage pin for the A/D Converter, PC3:0, and ADC7:6. It
should be externally connected to VCC, even if the ADC is not used. If the ADC is
used, it should be connected to VCC through a low-pass filter. Note that PC6.4 use
digital supply voltage, VCC.

1.1.8 AREF: AREF is the analog reference pin for the A/D Converter.

1.1.9 ADC7:6: (TQFP and QFN/MLF Package Only) In the TQFP and QFN/MLF package,
ADC7:6 serve as analog inputs to the A/D converter. These pins are powered from the analog
supply and serve as 10-bit ADC channels.

Block diagram

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Dept. of ECE, <<College name>> <<Place>> Page 24
 Figure 3: Stand-alone ATmega328 microcontroller

What is Arduino?
Arduino is an open-source prototyping platform based on easy-to-use hardware and software.
Arduino boards are able to read inputs - light on a sensor, a finger on a button, turn it into an
output - activating a motor, turning on an LED. We can tell your board what to do by sending
a set of instructions to the microcontroller on the board.

History
It was in the year 2005 that the first ever Arduino board was born in the classrooms of the
Interactive Design Institute in Ivrea, Italy. Well, if you are not very familiar with the term,
an Arduino is an Open Source microcontroller based development board that has opened the
doors of electronics to a number of designers and creative engineers.

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It was in the Interactive Design Institute that a hardware thesis was contributed for a wiring
design by a Colombian student named Hernando Barragan.

About Arduino
The new prototype board, the Arduino, created by Massimo Banzi and other founders, is a
low cost microcontroller board that allows even a beginner to do great things in electronics.
An Arduino can be connected to all kind of lights, motors, sensors and other devices; easy-to-
learn programming language can be used to program how the new creation behaves. Using
the Arduino, you can build an interactive display or a mobile robot or anything that you can
imagine.
David A. Mellis, the lead software developer of Arduino, states that this little board has made
it possible for people to do things they wouldn’t have done otherwise.

Advantages
 Inexpensive: Pre-assembled Arduino modules cost less than Microcontroller
 Cross-platform: The Arduino Software (IDE) runs on Windows, Macintosh OSX, and
Linux operating systems. Most microcontroller systems are limited to Windows.
 Simple, clear programming environment: The Arduino Software (IDE) is easy-to-
use for beginners, yet flexible enough for advanced users to take advantage of as well.
 Open source and extensible software: Same tool can be used for C, C++, AVR Code
developers.
 Open source and extensible hardware: Experienced circuit designers can make their
own version of the module, extending it and improving it.

ARDUINO UNO BOARD

The Uno is a microcontroller board based on the ATmega328P. It has 14 digital input/output
pins (of which 6 can be used as PWM outputs), 6 analog inputs, a 16 MHz quartz crystal, a
USB connection, a power jack, an ICSP header and a reset button. It contains everything
needed to support the microcontroller; simply connect it to a computer with a USB cable or
power it with a AC-to-DC adapter or battery to get started.. You can tinker with your UNO
without worrying too much about doing something wrong, worst case scenario you can
replace the chip for a few Rupees and start over again.

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"Uno" means one in Italian and was chosen to mark the release of Arduino Software (IDE)
1.0. The Uno board and version 1.0 of Arduino Software (IDE) were the reference versions of
Arduino, now evolved to newer releases. The Uno board is the first in a series of USB
Arduino boards, and the reference model for the Arduino platform; for an extensive list of
current, past or outdated boards see the Arduino index of boards.

Component Explanations:
 Analog input Pins: Pins (A0-A5) that take-in analog values to be converted to be
represented with a number range 0-1023 through an Analog to Digital Converter
(ADC).
 ATmega328 chip: 8-bit microcontroller that processes the sketch you programmed.
 Built-in LED: In order to gain access or control of this pin, you have to change the
configuration of pin 13 where it is connected to.
 Crystal Oscillator: clock that has a frequency of 16MHz

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  DC Jack: where the power source (AC-to-DC adapter or battery) should be
connected. It is limited to input values between 6-20V but recommended to be around
7-12V.
 Digital I/O pins: Input and output pins (0-13) of which 6 of them (3, 5, 6, 9, 10 and
11) also provide PWM (Pulse Width Modulated) output by using the analogWrite()
function. Pins (0 (RX) and 1 (TX)) are also used to transmit and receive serial data.
 ICSP Header: pins for “In-Circuit Serial Programming” which is another method of
programming.
 ON indicator: LED that lights up when the board is connected to a power source.
 Power Pins: Pins that can be used to supply a circuit with values VIN (voltage from
DC Jack), 3.3V and 5V.
 Reset Button: A button that is pressed whenever you need to restart the sketch
programmed in the board.
 USB port: Allows the user to connect with a USB cable the board to a PC to upload
sketches or provide a voltage supply to the board. This is also used for serial
communication through the serial monitor from the Arduino software.

ATmeg328 MICROCONTROLLER
Arduino Pin-Map:

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Technical Specifications
Microcontroller ATmega328P

Operating Voltage 5V

Input Voltage (recommended) 7-12V

Input Voltage (limit) 6-20V

Digital I/O Pins 14 (of which 6 provide PWM output)

PWM Digital I/O Pins 6

Analog Input Pins 6

DC Current per I/O Pin 20 mA

DC Current for 3.3V Pin 50 mA

Flash Memory 32 KB (ATmega328P)

of which 0.5 KB used by bootloader

SRAM 2 KB (ATmega328P)

EEPROM 1 KB (ATmega328P)

Clock Speed 16 MHz

Length 68.6 mm

Width 53.4 mm

Weight 25 g

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CHAPTER-4

SENSOR & COMPARATORS

Sensors are sophisticated devices that are frequently used to detect and respond to electrical
or optical signals. A Sensor converts the physical parameter (for example: temperature,
blood pressure, humidity, speed, etc.) into a signal which can be measured electrically.

Criteria to choose a Sensor

There are certain features which have to be considered when we choose a sensor. They are as
given below:

1. Accuracy
2. Environmental condition - usually has limits for temperature/ humidity
3. Range - Measurement limit of sensor
4. Calibration - Essential for most of the measuring devices as the readings changes
with time
5. Resolution - Smallest increment detected by the sensor
6. Cost

Repeatability - The reading that varies is repeatedly measured under the same environment

4.2 IR sensor
Level Sensing circuit (IR transceiver)
The sensor circuit mainly consists of two blocks i.e. IR transmitter and IR receiver. The
transmitter transmits the IR rays continuously and received by the receiver. When the beam is
broken a high to low signal produced, that signal is fed to the microcontroller. These circuit
are unaffected by sunlight and other artificial lights, range of this circuit is about 5 meters
without any lenses. Range can be extended further by using lenses or reflector with sensors.

4.2 COMPARATOR CIRCUIT

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The LM358 consist of two independent, high gain, internally frequency compensated
operational amplifiers which were designed specifically to operate from a single power
supply over a wide range of voltage. Operation from split power supplies is also possible and
the low power supply current drain is independent of the magnitude of the power supply
voltage. Application areas include transducer amplifier, DC gain blocks and all the
conventional OP-AMP circuits which now can be easily implemented in single power supply
systems. Here we using LM358 as a comparator circuit.

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CHAPTER-5

COMMUNICATION
Communication is the activity of conveying information through the exchange of
messages, or information. The system which is to displays the next station information. To
establish the communication between the station and Train we using RF communication
system.

5.1 Block diagram of Communication System

Transmitter
Transmitter is the transmitting part in this block diagram. Using this system we can generate
the messages which are to be sent through this system.

Receiver
This is the Receiving part in block diagram of communication system. This can be said as the
target to which the information needs to be delivered.

Encoder
Encoder is the second element in the communication system. It performs the encoding of the
given data, which means that this system converts the messages in the form of symbols for
transmission purpose. In this system, sequences of characters are created in a special format
for an effective transmission. This encoding system is used for security purpose.
Decoder

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Decoder is used to decode the encoded message and retrieve the actual message. Decoding
must be done correctly. If this part is not performed well then the message which is received
might not be correct.
This encoding and decoding will be very help full in military and mobile communications.

Channel
This is the main block in the block diagram of communication system. Noisy channel is
nothing but the medium through which the message is transmitted. Messages are conveyed
through this channel. Different channels have different strengths and weaknesses. Each
channel has its own frequency and different applications have different operating frequencies.

Modulation and Demodulation

Modulation is a process, in which any one of the characteristics (Amplitude, Phase, and
Frequency) of carrier wave is varied in accordance with the message signal.
Retrieving the original message signal from the Modulated signal is known as Demodulation.

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CHAPTER-6

HARDWARE IMPLIMANTATION

6.1 Regulated Power Supply Unit

Definition:

A power supply (sometimes known as a regulated power supply unit or RPSU) is a device or
system that supplies electrical or other types of energy to an output load or group of loads.
The term is most commonly applied to electrical energy supplies, less often to mechanical
ones, and rarely to others.

6.1.1 Block diagram

Figure 5: Block diagram of Regulated Power supply Unit

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  The first section is the transformer. The transformer steps up or steps down the input
line voltage and isolates the power supply from the power line.
 The rectifier section converts the alternating current input signal to a pulsating direct
current. However, as you proceed in this chapter you will learn that pulsating dc is not
desirable.
 For this reason a filter section is used to convert pulsating dc to a purer, more
desirable form of dc voltage.
 78xx chip family gives different output voltage as regulator. The last numbers in the
chip code tells the output voltage.

More Output Current

If you need more than 150 ma of output current, you can update the output current up to 1A
doing the following modifications:
 Change the transformer from where you take the power to the circuit to a model
which can give as much current as you need from output.
 Put a heat sink to the 7805 regulator (so big that it does not overheat because of the
extra losses in the regulator)

Other Output Voltages

If you need other voltages than +5V, you can modify the circuit by replacing the 7805
chips with another regulator with different output voltage from regulator 78xx chip family.
The last numbers in the chip code tells the output voltage. Remember that the input voltage
must be at least 3V greater than regulator output voltage to otherwise the regulator does not
work well.

6.1.2 Circuit description

Dept. of ECE, <<College name>>

Figure <<Place>>
6: Schematic/Circuit diagram of +5V RPS Page 35
Brief summery

 Output Voltages: Gives out well regulated +5V output, output current capability of
100 ma
 Circuit protection: Built-in overheating protection shuts down output when regulator
IC gets too hot
 Circuit complexity: Very simple and easy to build
 Circuit performance: Very stable +5V output voltage, reliable operation
 Availability of components: Easy to get, uses only very common basic components
 Design testing: Based on datasheet example circuit, We used this circuit successfully
as part of many electronics projects
 Applications: Part of electronics devices, small laboratory power supply
 Power supply voltage: Unregulated DC 8-18V power supply
 Power supply current: Needed output current + 5 ma
 Component costs: Few rupees for the electronics components + the input transformer
cost.

1) TRANSFORMER:
A step-down type transformer is used to reduce the mains voltages to a suitable low
voltage. It is a device, which transforms the 230 volts 50 Hz, A.C mains voltage, to required
small voltages. Our design uses a full wave bridge rectifier with a center-tapped transformer,
to obtain dual-tracking voltages i.e., to get +Ve and –Ve voltages with respect to ground. A
transformer with a power output rated at at-lest 15 VA should be used. If the transformer is
rated by output RMS-current then the value should be divided by 1.2 to get the current,
which can be supplied. For example, in this case a 1A RMS can deliver 1/ (1.2) or 830 ma.

2) RECTIFIER:
The rectifier is built using power diodes. For the maximum efficiency and low ripple, a full
wave or a bridge configuration is always preferred. The diodes chosen should have a peak
inverse voltage of at-least 200 volts. For safety, the diode voltage rating should be at-least 3
to 4 times that of the transformer secondary voltage. The current rating of the diodes should
be twice the maximum load current.

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3) FILTER:
The purpose of the filter is to eliminate the ripple from the rectified D.C voltage. Capacitor
filter has been used in this design from the viewpoint of compactness and economy. Though
very simple, capacitor filters provide excellent filtering action. The residual amount of ripple
is determined by the value of the filter capacitor: the larger the value the smaller is the ripple.
The 2200 uf is a suitable value for most of the requirements. The other consideration in
choosing the correct capacitor is its voltage rating. The working voltage of the capacitor has
to be greater than the peak output voltage of the rectifier. For example, for an 18 V supply,
the peak output voltage is 1.4 X 18V =25V. So a capacitor with working voltage greater than
25V is required.

Filter design equations:

4) REGULATOR:
There are many designs possible for a voltage regulator. Many conventional regulators are
best suited for constant voltage supply, but the number of discrete components and circuit
design makes it not much an attractive choice, especially for the dual tracking type power
supplies.

Fixed voltage regulator, which are very much efficient, compact and economic are available
as three terminal regulator chips. These chips needs no external components and provide up
to 1A current and operate well, even under worst situations of line, load and temperature. The
78XX series are the positive fixed voltage regulators, with its output voltage specified by the
last two digits. Similarly the 79XX series are the negative fixed voltage regulators.

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6.3 PCB Layout design & Fabrication

A Printed Circuit Board doesn’t just connect electrical components using etched copper
pathways, but also provides mechanical strength to it. Printed Circuit Boards, or more
appropriately, Printed Wiring Boards are found in almost all of the commercial products as a
packaging medium as building blocks. PCBs are a composite of organic and/or inorganic
dielectric materials with many layers with wiring interconnects and also house components
like inductors and capacitors. There isn’t any standard printing board as such and each board
is unique, often a function of the product itself. There are industry standards for almost every
aspect of PCB design, controlled by IPC, for example the IPC-2221, ‘Generic Standard on
Printed Board Design’.

History
PCBs have evolved from the electrical connection systems developed in the 1850s. The first
patents on Printed Wires were issued in 1903. Albert Hanson explained a layered structure of
foil conductors laminated to insulation boards. Arthur Berry patented a ‘Print-and-Etch’
method in 1913 and Max Schoop patented Flame Spraying metal onto a board via a mask.
Thomas Edison had experimented with chemicals for plating conductors on linen paper way
back in 1904, but the method of electroplating circuit patterns was finally successfully
patented to Charles Durcase in the year 1927. Charles Ducas had earlier patented a technique
of creating electrical paths directly using stencils and electrically conductive ink in 1925.

World War II saw the invention of circuit boards that could withstand gunshots. But, the
credit of developing the first PCB is given to Paul Eisler in 1943, for developing a method of
etching conductive circuits on copper foil bonded to a non-conductive base reinforced by
glass. The method remained dormant until late 50s when the transistors were introduced for
commercial use. The presence of wire leads on electronic components led to the development
of ‘Through Hole’ technology where holes were drilled into the PCB and the components
soldered on to the board at those points. It was patented by a U.S. firm Hazeltyne in 1961.
However, this process being slightly expensive and wasteful as the extra wire is cut off and
not used much. Nowadays, ‘surface mount’ technology is gaining impetus as the demand for
smaller, high density circuits is increasing.

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Types of PCBs
A PCB can be of four types: rigid boards, flexible and rigid-flex boards, metal-core boards
and injection molded boards out of which the rigid board is the most popular. Further these
may be single sided, double sided or multilayered. The mechanical, electrical, chemical and
thermal properties of the material should be considered while making PCBs otherwise the
reliability of the board suffers. Presently, copper-clad laminates of different reinforced resin
systems are used in rigid boards. Examples include Fire resistant FR-4 epoxies, PTFE,
cyanate esters, ployimides etc. Most commonly used reinforcement material is continuous
filament E-Glass. Flexible and rigid flex-boards have random arrangements of conductors on
a flexible base and may be with/without cover layers. Here, the wiring is restricted to select
areas of the plane. In case of constraining metal core technology, the PCB can be of standard
materials but the core materials must have low Coefficient of Thermal Expansion and
strength to constrain the PCB. Copper-Invar-Copper and Copper-Molybdenum-Copper are
two popular materials for this purpose. Molded boards have resins containing fillers which
are molded into a die to form the required shapes.

Before anything is drawn onto the PCB, it first has to be designed and verified by means of
simulation. The design process is hierarchical in nature and may follow either one of the two
approaches:
1. Top-Down Design. 2. Bottom-Up Design

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Design flow

Throughout the manufacturing process of a PCB, visual and electrical inspection is carried
out to locate any flaws that might have crept in due to process automation like ‘Tombstone
effect’ when the solder is heated too quickly and one end of the component lifts up from the
board failing to make contact, or excess flow of solder or bridging. Even after the
manufacturing process, the boards are tested for the output levels under varying conditions of
environment, stress and strain.

Back in the olden days, when PCBs had just been introduced, military was the chief
consumer. But as the technology progressed and as the need grew, more and more interest
was diverted towards better PCBs and as of today, they serve as the base for a multitude of
components, gadgets and devices ranging from ever innovating computers and cell phones to
basic equipment’s like television, radio and toys for children. Soon there are going to be more
mobile phones than there are people in this world and the trend will continue to rise. This
might be a convenience to the users, but isn’t without hazards either, combating which offers
great scope for people from diverse fields.

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PCB Manufacturing

Artwork is generated by sending the design files in a particular format to plotters and
transparencies for PCB manufacturing are produced. After this the manufacturing of the PCB
commences. There are mainly five standard technologies used in PCB manufacturing:

1. Machining
This includes drilling, punching holes and routing on a PCB with standard existent
machinery and also new technologies like laser and water jet cutting. The strength of
the board needs to be taken into account while machining for accurate hole diameters.
Small holes make this method costly and less reliable due to reduced aspect ratio and
also making plating difficult.
2. Imaging
This step transfers the circuit artwork onto individual layers. Single sided or double
sided PCBs may use simple Screen Printing technology for creating the patterns on a
print-and-etch basis. But this has a limitation on the minimum line width achievable.
For fine line boards and multilayer boards, Photo imaging is used which may be
applied by flood screen printing, dip coating, Electrophoresis, roller laminating or
liquid roller coating. Recently, direct laser imaging and liquid crystal light valve
imaging have also been employed for the same.
3. Laminating
This process is mainly used for manufacturing multilayer boards, or the base
laminates of single/double sided boards. B-stage epoxy resin impregnated glass sheets
are pressed between layers using hydraulic press to bond the layers together. The
pressing may be cold, hot, vacuum assisted or vacuum autoclave nominated offering
close control on dielectrics and thickness.
4. Plating
It is basically the metallization process which may be brought about either by wet
chemical processes like electro less plating and electrolytic plating or dry processes
like sputtering and CVD. While electro less plating offers high aspect ratios and no
external current thus forming the core of additive technology, electrolytic plating is
the preferred method for bulk metallization. Recent developments like the plasma
processing offer greater efficiency and quality while taxing less on the environment.

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 5. Etching
The removal of unwanted metal and dielectric from the board takes place by either
dry or wet processes. The uniformity of etching is the prime concern in this stage and
to extend the fine line etching capabilities, new anisotropic etching solutions are being
developed.

6.3 Miscellanies
6.3.1 LCD (16X2) display
LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) screen is an electronic display module and find a wide range of
applications. A 16x2 LCD display is very basic module and is very commonly used in
various devices and circuits. These modules are preferred over seven segments and other
multi segment LEDs. The reasons being: LCDs are economical; easily programmable; have
no limitation of displaying special & even custom characters (unlike in seven segments),
animations and so on.
A 16x2 LCD means it can display 16 characters per line and there are 2 such lines. In this
LCD each character is displayed in 5x7 pixel matrix. This LCD has two registers, namely,
Command and Data.

The command register stores the command instructions given to the LCD. A command is an
instruction given to LCD to do a predefined task like initializing it, clearing its screen, setting
the cursor position, controlling display etc. The data register stores the data to be displayed
on the LCD. The data is the ASCII value of the character to be displayed on the LCD. Click
to learn more about internal structure of a LCD.

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Pin Diagram:

FIG 6.5 PIN CONFIGURATION OF 2X16LCD

Pin Description:
Pin
Function Name
No
1 Ground (0V) Ground
2 Supply voltage; 5V (4.7V – 5.3V) Vcc
3 Contrast adjustment; through a variable resistor VEE
Selects command register when low; and data register Register
4
when high Select
5 Low to write to the register; High to read from the register Read/write
6 Sends data to data pins when a high to low pulse is given Enable
7 DB0
8 DB1
9 DB2
10 DB3
8-bit data pins
11 DB4
12 DB5
13 DB6
14 DB7
15 Backlight VCC (5V) Led+
16 Backlight Ground (0V) Led-

TABLE 2. PIN DISCRIPTION OF 2X16LCD

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6.4 Servo Motor

What is a Servo Motor?

A servo motor is an electrical device which can push or rotate an object with great
precision. If you want to rotate and object at some specific angles or distance, then you use
servo motor. It is just made up of simple motor which run through servo mechanism. If
motor is used is DC powered then it is called DC servo motor, and if it is AC powered
motor then it is called AC servo motor. We can get a very high torque servo motor in a
small and light weight packages. Doe to these features they are being used in many
applications like toy car, RC helicopters and planes, Robotics, Machine etc.

Servo motors are rated in kg/cm (kilogram per centimeter) most hobby servo motors are
rated at 3kg/cm or 6kg/cm or 12kg/cm. This kg/cm tells you how much weight your servo
motor can lift at a particular distance. For example: A 6kg/cm Servo motor should be able
to lift 6kg if the load is suspended 1cm away from the motors shaft, the greater the distance
the lesser the weight carrying capacity.

The position of a servo motor is decided by electrical pulse and its circuitry is placed beside
the motor.

Servo Mechanism

It consists of three parts:

1. Controlled device
2. Output sensor
3. Feedback system

4. It is a closed loop system where it uses positive feedback system to control motion
and final position of the shaft. Here the device is controlled by a feedback signal
generated by comparing output signal and reference input signal.

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Here reference input signal is compared to reference output signal and the third signal is
produces by feedback system. And this third signal acts as input signal to control device.
This signal is present as long as feedback signal is generated or there is difference between
reference input signal and reference output signal. So the main task of servomechanism is to
maintain output of a system at desired value at presence of noises.

Working principle of Servo Motors

A servo consists of a Motor (DC or AC), a potentiometer, gear assembly and a controlling
circuit. First of all we use gear assembly to reduce RPM and to increase torque of motor.
Say at initial position of servo motor shaft, the position of the potentiometer knob is such
that there is no electrical signal generated at the output port of the potentiometer. Now an
electrical signal is given to another input terminal of the error detector amplifier. Now
difference between these two signals, one comes from potentiometer and another comes
from other source, will be processed in feedback mechanism and output will be provided in
term of error signal. This error signal acts as the input for motor and motor starts rotating.
Now motor shaft is connected with potentiometer and as motor rotates so the potentiometer
and it will generate a signal. So as the potentiometer’s angular position changes, its output
feedback signal changes. After sometime the position of potentiometer reaches at a position
that the output of potentiometer is same as external signal provided. At this condition, there
will be no output signal from the amplifier to the motor input as there is no difference
between external applied signal and the signal generated at potentiometer, and in this
situation motor stops rotating.

Controlling Servo Motor:

All motors have three wires coming out of them. Out of which two will be used for Supply
(positive and negative) and one will be used for the signal that is to be sent from the MCU.

Servo motor is controlled by PWM (Pulse with Modulation) which is provided by the
control wires. There is a minimum pulse, a maximum pulse and a repetition rate. Servo
motor can turn 90 degree from either direction form its neutral position. The servo motor
expects to see a pulse every 20 milliseconds (ms) and the length of the pulse will determine
how far the motor turns. For example, a 1.5ms pulse will make the motor turn to the 90°

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position, such as if pulse is shorter than 1.5ms shaft moves to 0° and if it is longer than
1.5ms than it will turn the servo to 180°.

Servo motor works on PWM (Pulse width modulation) principle, means its angle of
rotation is controlled by the duration of applied pulse to its Control PIN. Basically servo
motor is made up of DC motor which is controlled by a variable resistor
(potentiometer) and some gears. H

igh speed force of DC motor is converted into torque by Gears. We know that WORK=
FORCE X DISTANCE, in DC motor Force is less and distance (speed) is high and in
Servo, force is High and distance is less. Potentiometer is connected to the output shaft of
the Servo, to calculate the angle and stop the DC motor on required angle.

Servo motor can be

rotated from 0 to 180 degree, but it can go up to 210 degree, depending on the
manufacturing. This degree of rotation can be controlled by applying the Electrical
Pulse of proper width, to its Control pin. Servo checks the pulse in every 20 milliseconds.
Pulse of 1 ms (1 millisecond) width can rotate servo to 0 degree, 1.5ms can rotate to 90
degree (neutral position) and 2 ms pulse can rotate it to 180 degree.

All servo motors work directly with your +5V supply rails but we have to be careful on the
amount of current the motor would consume, if you are planning to use more than two
servo motors a proper servo shield should be designed.

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Dept. of ECE, <<College name>> <<Place>> Page 47
CHAPTER-7
SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT
SOFTWARE INSTALLATION

Installing ARDUINO IDE

To install the Arduino IDE for Windows, follow these instructions:
1. Download .exe file from website: http://arduino.cc/en/Main/Software/
2. Once the download is complete, double-click the file, and extract it. (Usually the file
is downloaded in .zip format)
3. The extracted “Arduino” named folder is to be copy and paste it into C-Drive, and
Open the folder, if you wish create the shortcut of Arduino.exe file on your desktop.

Installing DRIVERS
The next task is to install the drivers for your Arduino board’s USB interface.
1. Connect your Arduino to your PC with the USB cable. After a few moments an error
message will be displayed, which will say something like “Device driver software not
successfully installed.” Just close that dialog or balloon.
2. Navigate to the Windows Control Panel. Open the Device Manager and scroll down
until you see the ports or Arduino,
3. Right-click Arduino Uno under Other Devices and select Update Driver Software.
Then, select browse option and update the drivers.
Taking a look Around the IDE
The IDE is divided into three main areas: the command area, the text area, and the message
window area.

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The Command Area
The command area includes the title bar, menu items, and icons. The title bar displays the
sketch’s filename. Below this is a series of menu items (File, Edit, Sketch, Tools, and Help)
and icons.
The Icons
Below the menu toolbar are six icons. Mouse over each icon to display its name. The
icons, from left to right, are as follows:
1. Verify: Click this to check that the Arduino sketch is valid and doesn’t
contain any programming mistakes.
2. Upload: Click this to verify and then upload your sketch to the Arduino board.
3. New: Click this to open a new blank sketch in a new window.
4. Open: Click this to open a saved sketch. Save Click this to save the open
sketch.
5. Serial Monitor: Click this to open a new window for use in sending and
receiving data between your Arduino and the IDE.
The Text Area
The actual code is written in this block.

The Message Window Area

The message window area is shown at the bottom side. Messages from the IDE appear in the
black area. The messages you see will vary and will include messages about verifying
sketches, status updates, and so on.

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CHAPTER-8

CONCLUSION & FUTURE WORK

<<Write on your own>>

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Bibliography
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References
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