Chapter-3

Three Phase Induction Machines

Electrical Machines
.
AC
machine Dc
Machine

Induction Synchronous
Transformer /Asynchronous machine motor Generator
machine

Single phase Three phase

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Cut-away view of squirrel cage IM

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 Introduction
• The induction machine is the most rugged and the most
widely used machine in industry. The induction machine
has a stator and a rotor mounted on bearings and
separated from the stator by an air gap. However, in the
induction machine both stator winding and rotor winding
carry alternating current. The alternating current (ac) is
supplied to the stator winding machine.

• The induction machine can operate both as a motor and

as a generator. However, it is seldom used as a generator
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supplying electrical power to a load.
 Con’t..
The performance characteristics as a generator are
not satisfactory for most applications.

The induction machine is extensively used as a

motor in many applications.

• Of all the AC motors the poly-phase induction

motor is the one which is extensively used for
various kinds of industrial drives.
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 It has the following main advantages and also some disadvantages.
Advantages:
 It has very simple and extremely
Disadvantage
rugged, almost unbreakable
 Its speed cannot be varied without
construction (especially squirrel cage
sacrificing some of its efficiency.
type)
 Just like a d.c. shunt motor, its speed
 Its cost is low and it is very reliable
decreases with increase in load
 It has sufficiently high efficiency. In
 Its starting torque is somewhat
normal running condition, no brushes
inferior to that of a d.c shunt motor.
are needed, hence frictional losses are
reduced.

 It has a reasonably good power factor

 It requires minimum of maintenance

 It starts up from rest and needs no

extra starting motor and has not to be
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synchronized.
 Construction Features
• Three-phase induction motors are commonly used in industrial applications.

• This type of motor has three main parts,

I. Stator

II. Rotor

III. Enclosure

 The stator and rotor do the work, and the enclosure protects the stator and rotor.

I. Stator
 Stator is the stationary part of motors, Which is composed of laminations of high-
grade sheet steel and is built up of sheet steel lamination of 0.4 to 0.5mm thickness.
Laminations are insulated from each other by means of varnish coating or oxide.

 A three-phase winding is put in slots punched out on the inner surface of the stator
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frame.
 Con’t..
• The stator carries a 3phase windings and is
fed from a 3-phase supply.

• It is wound for a definite number of poles,

the number of poles being determined by
the requirements of speed.

• The greater the number of poles, the lesser

the speed and vice versa.

• The stator windings, when supplied with 3-

phase currents, produce a magnetic flux
which is of constant magnitude but which
revolves (or rotates) at synchronous speed
(given by Ns = 120 f / 𝑃 ).

• This revolving magnetic flux induces an

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emf in the rotor by mutual induction.
II. Rotor

• A Rotor is the rotational part of induction motors, Which is composed of punched

laminations, stacked to create a series of rotor slots, providing space for the rotor
winding

• The rotor also consists of laminated ferromagnetic material, with slots punched out
on the outer surface.

• The frequency of the rotor flux is very low; as a result thicker laminations can be
used without excessive iron losses.

• Two types of rotors are used in Induction motors

1. Squirrel-cage rotor

2. Phase- Wound or Wound rotor

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(1). Squirrel-cage rotor • The rotor bars are brazed or
• Motors employing this type of rotor are known
as squirrel-cage induction motors. electrically welded or bolted to
• Almost 90 per cent of induction motors are two heavy and stout short
squirrel-cage type, because this type of rotor has
the simplest and most rugged construction circuiting end-rings. Thus
imaginable and is almost indestructible.
giving us, what is so
• The squirrel cage rotor is so called because its
construction is reminiscent of the rotating picturesquely called, a squirrel-
exercise wheels found in some pet cages.
case construction (Fig. 3.2)
• The rotor consists of a cylindrical laminated
core with parallel slots for carrying the rotor
conductors which, it should be noted clearly, are
not wires but consist of heavy bars of copper,
aluminium or alloys.
• One bar is placed in each slot; rather the bars
are inserted from the end when semi closed slots
are used.

• Fig 3.2 Squirel cage rotor

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 (2). Phase-wound or wound rotor
 Motors employing this type of rotor are variously known as phase wound motors
or wound motors or slip-ring motors.
 This type of rotor is provided with 3-phase, double-layer, distributed winding
consisting of coils as used in alternators. The rotor is wound for as many poles as
the number of stator poles and is always wound 3phase even when the stator is
wound two-phase.
 The three phases are starred internally. The other three winding terminals are
brought out and connected to three insulated slip-rings mounted one the shaft with
brushes resting on them. These three brushes are further externally connected to a
3-phase star-connected rheostat.
 This makes possible the introduction of additional resistance in the rotor circuit
during the starting period for increasing the starting torque of the motor and for
changing its speed-torque/ current characteristic.

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 Con’t..
• When running under normal
condition, the slip rings are
automatically short-circuited by
means of a metal collar which is
pushed along the shaft and connect all
the rings together (Figure 3.3).
• Next, the brushes are automatically
lifted from the slip-rings to reduce the
frictional losses and the wear and tear.
Hence, it is seen that under normal
running conditions, the wound rotor is • Figure 3.3 Three-phase wound –rotor
induction motor with external starting
short–circuited on itself just like the
rheostat.
squirrel-cage rotor.
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Advantages of squirrel cage motors over a phase-wound
induction motors
• Slightly higher efficiency
• Cheaper and rugged in construction
• No slip rings, brush gears, short circuiting devices, rotor terminals for starting
rheostats are required
• It has bare end rings, a large space for fans and those the cooling conditions are
better.

Disadvantages of Squirrel cage motors

 Not possible to insert resistance in the rotor circuit for the purpose of increasing
starting torque
 Squirrel cage rotor has a smaller starting torque and large starting current as
compared with wound rotor

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 (3).Enclosure

The enclosure protects the internal parts of the motor from water and other
environmental elements.

• The enclosure consists of

1. Frame (or yoke) and two end brackets (or bearing housings).

2. The stator is mounted inside the frame.

3. The rotor fits inside the stator with a slight air gap separating it from the stator.
There is no direct physical connection between the rotor and the stator.

4. Bearings, mounted on the shaft, support the rotor and allow it to turn.

5. A fan, also mounted on the shaft, is used on the motor for cooling.

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 Rotating Magnetic Field

• It will now be shown that when three-phase windings displaced in space by 120° are fed
by three-phase current displaced in time by 120° they produce a resultant magnetic flux
which rotated in space as if actual magnetic poles were being rotated mechanically.

• Figure 3.4 (a) flux waveforms due to three-phase windings and (b) positive directions of
the fluxes.
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 Con’t… The figure below shows the graph of the
• ∅𝑎 = ∅𝑚 sin(𝑤𝑡) rotating flux in simple way.
• ∅𝑏 = ∅𝑚 sin(𝑤𝑡 − 120°)
• ∅𝑐 = ∅𝑚 sin(𝑤𝑡 + 120°)
Now at the orgin
• Wt = 0°
• ∅𝑎 = 0
• ∅𝑏 = − 3/2 ∅𝑚
• ∅𝑐 = 3/2∅𝑚
• Then resultant flux (∅𝑅) 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑒
• ∅𝑅 = 2 ∗ 3/2* 3/2 ∅𝑚
As seen, positions of the resultant flux pharos
• ∅𝑅 = 3/2∅𝑚
At wt=60°,120° 0r 180° The resultant flux have been shown at intervals of 60 ° only. The
Will be; ∅𝑅 = 3/2∅𝑚 due to any phases. resultant flux produces a field rotating in the
NB: The resultant flux is 1.5 times the clockwise direction.

maximum value of the flux due to any NB: The direction of rotation of a poly phase

phase. Induction motor depends on the motor connection

to the power lines. Rotation can be readily
The resultant flux rotates around the stator
reversed by interchanging any two input leads.
at synchronous speed given by Ns=120f/p. By Gedef Y. 15
 Principle Operation of 3-Phase Induction Motor
• When the 3-phase stator winding are fed by a 3-phase supply then a magnetic flux of

constant magnitude but rotating at synchronous speed, is set up. The flux passes through

the air gap sweeps past the rotor surface and so cuts the rotor conductors which, as yet

stationery. Due to the relative speed between the rotating flux and the stationary

conductors, an emf is induced in the latter according to Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic

induction. The frequency of the induced e.m.f is the same as the supply frequency. Its

magnitude is proportional to the relative speed between the flux and the conductors and

its direction is given by Fleming’s Right-hand rule. Since the rotor bars or conductors

form a closed circuit, rotor current is produced direction, as given by Lenz’s law is such

as to oppose the very cause producing it in this case, the cause which produce the rotor

current is relative speed between the rotating flux of the stator and the stationary rotor

conductors. Hence to reduce the relative speed, the rotor starts running in the same

direction as that of the flux and tries to cutch

By Gedefup
Y. with the rotating flux. 16
 Con’t…
The setting up of the torque for rotating the rotor is
explained below:

In Figure shown (a) is the stator field which is assumed

to be rotting clockwise. The relative motion of the rotor
with respect to the stator is anticlockwise. By applying
Fleming’s right-hand rule, the direction of the induced
emf in the rotor is found to be outwards. Hence the
direction of the flux due to the rotor current alone is as
shown in Figure (b). Now by applying the left-hand
rule or by the effect of combined field (Figure c) it is
clear the rotor conductors experience a force tending to
rotate them in clockwise direction. Hence, the rotor set
into rotation in the same direction as the of the stator • Fig: pertaining to principle
operation of induction motor
flux( or field). By Gedef Y. 17
 Con’t…

• An induction motor running at no load will have a speed very close to synchronous
speed and therefore emf in the rotor winding will be very small. This small emf
gives a small current producing a torque just sufficient to overcome the losses such
as due to friction and windage and maintain the rotor in rotation. As the mechanical
load is applied on the motor shaft, it must slow down because the torque developed
at no load will not be sufficient to keep the rotor revolving at the no load speed
against the additional opposing torque of load. As the motor slows down, the
relative motion between the magnetic field and the rotor is increased. This results
in greater rotor emf, rotor current and greater developed torque. Thus, as the load is
increased, the motor slows down until the relative motion between the rotor and the
rotating magnetic field is just sufficient to result in the development of the torque
necessary for that particular load.

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 Speed of rotating Magnetic field
A. Synchronous speed: The rotating magnetic field in stator is determined by asynchronous
120𝑓 2𝑓 120𝑓 2𝜋
speed(Ns).i.e Ns = rpm = 𝑝 rps, or Ws = 𝑝 * 60 rad/sec
𝑝

B. Slip: The difference between the synchronous speed Ns and the actual speed N of the rotor
is known as slip. Though it may be expressed in so many revolutions/ second , yet it is usual
to express it as a percentage of the synchronous speed . Actually, the term 'slip' is
descriptive of the way in which the rotor 'slips back' from synchronism.

𝑁𝑠−𝑁
i.e S % = 100 Sometimes, Ns – N is called the slip speed.
𝑁𝑠

C. Rotor speed(N):The rotor speed always less than the synchronous speed.

N = Ns(1-S)

1. When the rotor is stationary, called at stand still, N= 0

𝑁𝑠−𝑁 𝑁𝑠−0
Therefore slip will be, S = = =1
𝑁𝑠 𝑁𝑠

Similarly at stand still frequency of the rotor Bycurrent

Gedef Y.
is the same as the supply frequency. 19
 Con’t…
2. When Ns = N,
𝑁𝑠−𝑁
S= = 0 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 that no relative motion, and no induced voltage.
𝑁𝑠
The induction Motor can not run at synchronous speed. But when the rotor starts revolving , the
rotor frequency(Fr) depends up on the relative speed(slip).
At standstill At running
𝑁𝑠(𝑃) 120(𝐹𝑟) 𝑃(𝑁𝑠−𝑁)
f= Ns – N = … … . 𝐹𝑟 =
120 𝑃 120
𝐹𝑟 𝑃(𝑁𝑠−𝑁) 𝑁𝑠(𝑃) 𝑁𝑠−𝑁
Now = / = = S
𝑓 120 120 𝑁𝑠
There fore Fr = Sf .
Example A slip-ring induction motor runs at 290 r.p.m. at full load, when connected to 50-Hz
supply. Determine the number of poles and slip.
Solution Since N is 290 rpm; Ns has to be somewhere near it, say 300 rpm. If Ns is assumed as
300 rpm, then 300 = 120 × 50/P. Hence, P = 20.
∴ s = (300 − 290)/300 = 3.33%
Example The stator of a 3-φ induction motor has 3 slots per pole per phase. If supply frequency
is 50 Hz, calculate (i) number of stator poles produced and total number of slots on the stator (ii)
speed of the rotating stator flux (or magnetic field).
Solution. (i) P =2 n = 2 × 3 = 6 poles Total No. of slots = 3 slots/pole/phase × 6 poles × 3 phases
= 54 (ii) Ns = 120 f/P = 120 × 50/6 = 1000 r.p.m

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Example A 208V, 10hp, four-pole, 60-Hz, y-connected induction motor has a full-load slip of 5
percent.
(a) What is the synchronous speed of this motor?
(b) What is the rotor speed of this motor at the rated load?
(c) What is the rotor frequency of this motor at the rated load?
(d) What is the shaft torque of this motor at the rated load?
Solution (a) The synchronous speed of this motor is

120𝑓 120(60)
Ns = = = 1800rpm
𝑝 4

(b) The rotor speed of the motor is given by

Nm = (1 - s)Ns = (1 - 0.95)(l800r/min) = 1710r/min = 178.98rad/sec
(c) The rotor frequency of this motor is given by
Fr = sF = (0.05)(60 Hz) = 3 Hz
(d) The shaft load torque is given by

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 10ℎ𝑝(746𝑤)
Tload = = = 41.68Nm
𝑊𝑚 178.98𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐

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 Relation ship between Torque and rotor power factor
• In induction machine the torque is proportional to the product of flux per stator pole
and rotor current, however there is one more factor (i.e pf).

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 Starting torque
• The torque developed by the motor at the instant of starting is called starting torque.
In some cases, it is greater than the normal running torque, whereas in some other
cases it is somewhat less.

• Let E2 = rotor e.m.f. per phase at standstill;

• R2 = rotor resistance/phase

• X2 = rotor reactance/phase at standstill

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 Conditions for maximum starting Torque
• It can be proved that starting torque is maximum when rotor resistance equals rotor
reactance.

Torque under running conditions

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 Con’t..

• Conditions for maximum torque under running conditions

The torque of a rotor under running conditions is

The condition for maximum torque may be obtained by differentiating the above
expression with respect to slip s and then putting it equal to zero.
Then finally torque under running condition is maximum at that value of the slip s
which makes rotor reactance per phase equal to rotor resistance per phase.
i.e R2 = sX2

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 Power stages/flows in an induction motor
• Stator iron loss (consisting of eddy and hysteresis losses) depends on the supply
frequency and the flux density in the iron core. It is practically constant. The iron loss
of the rotor is, however, negligible because frequency of rotor currents under normal
running conditions is always small. Total rotor Cu loss = 3𝐼22 R2.

Different stages of power development in an induction motor are as under :

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 Power and Torque in an Induction Motor
The stator copper losses, the core losses, air-gap power, the rotor copper losses and
power converted can be found as follows.

Look closely at the equivalent circuit of the rotor. The only element in the
equivalent circuit where the air-gap power can be consumed is in the resistor
R2/S. Therefore, the air-gap power can also be given by

Since power is unchanged when referred across an ideal transformer, the rotor
copper losses can also be expressed as

By Gedef Y. 27
 Con’t…
• After stator copper losses, core losses, and rotor copper losses are subtracted from
the input power to the motor, the remaining power is converted from electrical to
mechanical form. This power converted, which is sometimes called developed
mechanical power, is given by;

the rotor copper losses are equal to

the air-gap power times the slip:

Finally, if the friction and windage losses and

the stray losses are known, the output power
can be found as
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 Con’t..
• The induced torque in a machine was defined as the torque generated by the internal
electric-to-mechanical power conversion. This torque differs from the torque actually
available at the terminals of the motor by an amount equal to the friction and windage
torques in the machine. The induced torque is given by the equation.
This torque is also called the developed torque
of the machine.
The induced torque of an induction motor can
be expressed in a different form as well. The
above equation can be expressed as actual
speed in terms of synchronous speed and slip.

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 Equivalent Circuit of an induction machine
Equivalent Circuit Model • Where V1 = per-phase terminal voltage
R1 = per-phase stator winding resistance
X1 = per-phase stator leakage reactance
E1 = per-phase induced voltage in the
stator winding
Stator Equivalent circuit
Xm = per-phase stator magnetizing reactance

Stator equivalent circuit Rc = per-phase stator core loss resistance

• Question: What makes this equivalent

circuit is different in form transformer
primary winding?

The stator winding equivalent circuit.

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 Rotor Equivalent Circuit
The rotor equivalent circuit at slip s is shown in Figure below

Where,
E2 = per-phase induced voltage in rotor at standstill (i.e. at stator frequency f1)
R2 = per –phase rotor circuit resistance
X2 = per –phase rotor leakage reactance
Note that this circuit is at frequency f2. The rotor current I2 is

• Protor = I22R2
• PAG = I22R2 /S

By Gedef Y. 31
 Complete Equivalent Circuit
• The stator equivalent circuit and the rotor equivalent circuit are at the same line
frequency f1 and therefore can be joined together.

However, E1 and E2 may be different if the turns in the stator wining and the rotor
winding are different. If the turns ratio (a=N1/N2) is considered, the equivalent circuit
of the induction machine is that shown in Figure below. Note that the form of the
equivalent circuit is identical to that of a two-winding transformer, as expected.

By Gedef Y. 32
 Con’t..
• NB:

• Reading assignment: Transformer model of induction motor?

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By Gedef Y. 34
By Gedef Y. 35
Example A 460-V. 25-hp. 60Hz. four-pole. Y-connected induction motor has the following

.
impedances in ohms per phase referred to the stator circuit:

R1 = 0.641 Ω R2 = 0.332 Ω

X1 = 1.106 Ω X2= 0.464 Ω

XM = 26.3 Ω

The total rotational losses are 1100 W and are assumed to be constant. The core loss is lumped
in with the rotational losses. For a rotor slip of 2.2 percent at the rated voltage and rated
frequency. find the motor's

(a) Speed

(b) Stator current

(c) Power factor

(d) Pconv and Pout

(e) Tind and Tload

(f) Efficiency
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 Solution
120𝑓 120(60)
(a) The synchronous speed (Ns) = = 4 = 1800rpm = 188.5rad/sec
𝑝
Nm = Ns(1-s) = 1800rpm(1-0.022) = 1760rpm = 184.4rad/sec
(b) To find the stator current, get the equivalent impedance of the circuit. The first step is
to combine the referred rotor impedance in parallel with the magnetization branch, and
then to add the stator impedance to that combination in series. The referred rotor
impedance is

The combined magnetization plus rotor impedance is given by

By Gedef Y. 37
 Con’t…
(c) The power motor power factor is
(d) The input power to this motor is

By Gedef Y. 38
Con’t..

By Gedef Y. 39
Thevenin equivalent
Which is an optional and simple method used to determine the rotor current, slip at
maximum torque and other relevant requirements from equivalent circuit of an induction
motor. Thevenin's theorem states that any linear circuit that can be separated by two
terminals from the rest of the system can be replaced by a single voltage source in series
with an equivalent impedance.

By Gedef Y. 40
 con’t…

fig:The Thevenin equivalent impedance of the

input circuit

Fig: The resulting simplified equivalent circuit

of an induction motor
Since the magnetization reactance Xm>>>X1 and
Xm >>>R1, the magnitude of the Thevenin voltage is
approximately By Gedef Y. 41
 Con’t…
From the above circuit the rotor current I2 is given by

The magnitude of this current is

By Gedef Y. 42
 Induction Motor Torque-Speed Characterstics Curve

Fig: typical induction motor Fig: Induction motor torque-speed characteristic

torque-speed characteristic curve. showing the extended operating ranges
curve (braking region and generator region)
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 Comments on the Induction Motor Torque-Speed Curve
1. The induced torque of the motor is. zero at synchronous speed.
2. The torque- speed curve is nearly linear between no load and full load. In this range,
the rotor resistance is much larger than the rotor reactance, so the rotor current, the
rotor magnetic field, and the induced torque increase linearly with increasing slip.
3. There is a maximum possible torque that cannot be exceeded. this torque, called the
pullout torque or breakdown torque, is 2 to 3 times the rated full load torque of the
motor.
4. The starting torque on the motor is slightly larger than its full-load torque, so this
motor will start carrying any load that it can supply at full power.
5. Notice that the torque on the motor for a given slip varies as the square of the applied
voltage. this fact is useful in one form of induction motor speed control.
6. If the rotor of the induction motor is driven faster than synchronous speed, then the
direction of the induced torque in the machine reverses and the machine becomes a
generator, converting mechanical power to electric power.
7. If the motor is turning backward relative to the direction of the magnetic fields, the
induced torque in the machine will stop the machine very rapidly and will try to rotate
it in the other direction. Since reversing the direction of magnetic field rotation is
simply a matter of switching any two stator phases, this fact can be used as a way to
very rapidly stop an induction motor. The act of switching two phases in order to stop
the motor very rapidly is called plugging.
By Gedef Y. 44
 Maximum (pullout) Torque in an Induction Motor

According to the maximum power transfer theorem, the maximum power transfer to
the load resistor R2/ s will occur when the magnitude of that impedance is equal to the
magnitude of the source impedance. The equivalent source impedance in the circuit is

so the maximum power transfer occurs when

The slip at pullout torque is given by

Then finally the value of
Notice that the referred rotor resistance R2 maximum torque will be
appears only in the numerator, so the slip of the
rotor at maximum torque is directly
proportional to the rotor resistance.
By Gedef Y. 45
Example; A two-pole, 50-Hz induction motor supplies15 kW to a load at a speed of 2950
r/min.
(a) What is the motor's slip?
(b) What is the induced torque in the motor in Nom under these conditions?
(c) What will the operating speed of the motor be if its torque is doubled?
(d) How much power will be supplied by the motor when the torque is doubled

By Gedef Y. 46
Example; A460-V. 25-hp. 60-Hz. four-pole. Y-connected wound-rotor induction motor has
the following impedances in ohms per phase referred to the stator circuit:
R1 = 0.641ohm Xl = 1.106 ohm
R2 = 0.332 ohm X2 = 0.464 ohm XM = 26.3 ohm
(a) What is the maximum torque of this motor? At what speed and slip does it occur?
(b) What is the starting torque of this motor?
(c) When the rotor resistance is doubled. what is the speed at which the maximum torque
now occurs? What is the new starting torque of the motor?
(d) Calculate and plot the torque-speed characteristics of this motor both with the original
rotor resistance and with the rotor resistance doubled.
Solution

By Gedef Y. 47
 (d)Torque speed
characrerstics curve

By Gedef Y. 48
 Tests of induction machine
Determining circuit model parameters can be obtained by using tests of induction machines.
The equivalent circuit of an induction motor is a very useful tool for determining the motor's
response to changes in load
However, if a model is to be used for a real machine, it is necessary to determine what the
element values are that go into the model.
How can R1, R2, X1, X2, and XM be determined for a real motor?
 The DC Test for Stator Resistance
 The No-Load Test
 The Locked-Rotor Test
The DC Test for Stator Resistance
Which is used to determine the stator resistance(R1), independent of R2 , Xl and X2. This
test is called the dc test. Basically, a dc voltage is applied to the stator windings of an
induction motor. Because the current is dc, there is no induced voltage in the rotor circuit and
no resulting rotor current now. Also, the reactance of the motor is zero at direct current.
Therefore, the only quantity limiting current now in the motor is the stator resistance, and
that resistance can be determined.
By Gedef Y. 49
 con’t..
For star connected

For Delta connected

Fig; Test circuit for a dc resistance test
𝑉𝑑𝑐
R1=
Now With this value of R1 the stator copper 0.6667𝐼𝑑𝑐
losses(Psc) = 3𝐼12 𝑅1
The No-Load Test
The no-load test of an induction motor measures the rotational losses of the motor and
provides information about its magnetization current.

Fig; the no-load test of an induction motor test

By Gedef Y. 50
circuit
 Fig; the resulting motor equivalent circuit Note that
at no load the motor's impedance is essentially the
series combination of R1,jX1 and jXM

By Gedef Y. 51
Con’t..

By Gedef Y. 52
 The Locked-Rotor Test
• The third test that can be performed on an induction motor to determine its circuit
parameters is called the locked-rotor test, or sometimes the blocked-rotor test. This
test corresponds to the short-circuit test on a transformer. In this test, the rotor is
locked or blocked so that it cannot move, a voltage is applied to the motor, and the
resulting voltage, current, and power are measured.

Fig; The locked-rotor test for an induction motor: (a) test circuit: (b) motor
equivalent circuit By Gedef Y. 53
 Con’t..
• Notice that since the rotor is not moving, the slip s = 1, and so the rotor resistance R2/s

is just equal to R2 (quite a small value). Since R2 and X2 are so small, almost all the
input current will flow through them, instead of through the much larger magnetizing
reactance XM. Therefore, the circuit under these conditions looks like a series
combination of X1, R1, X2, and R2.

• There is one problem with this test, however. In normal operation, the stator frequency
is the line frequency of the power system (50 or 60 Hz). At starting conditions, the rotor
is also at line frequency. However, at normal operating conditions, the slip of most
motors is only 2 to 4 percent, and the resulting rotor frequency is in the range of 1 to 3
Hz. this creates a problem in that the line frequency does not represent the normal
operating conditions of the rotor.

• NB: In this test the tested frequency is 25% of rated frequency.

The rotor is blocked by using belts.

By Gedef Y. 54
 Con’t…
After a test voltage and frequency have been set up, the current flow in the motor is
quickly adjusted to about the rated value, and the input power, voltage, and current are
measured before the rotor can heat up too much.

The input power to the motor is given by

so the locked-rotor power factor can be found as

By Gedef Y. 55
 Con’t…

where R1 was determined in the dc test. The total rotor reactance referred to the stator
can also be found. Since the reactance is directly proportional to the frequency, the total
equivalent reactance at the normal operating frequency can be found as

Unfortunately, there is no simple way to separate the contributions of the stator and rotor
reactances from each other. Over the years, experience has shown that motors of certain
design types have certain proportions between the rotor and stator reactances.
Figure below summarizes this experience. In normal practice, it really does not matter just
how XLR is broken down, since the reactance appears as the sum XI + X2 in all the torque
equations.

By Gedef Y. 56
 Con’t…
Table: Empirical distribution of leakage reactance Xbr

Example: The following test data were taken on a 7.5 hp, four-
pole, 208-V, 60-Hz, design A, Y-connected induction motor
having a rated current of 28 A.
DC test: VDC = 13.6V IDC = 28.0A
No-load test: f = 60 Hz, Pin = 420W
VT = 208V IA = 8.12A IB = 8.20A IC = 8.18A
Locked-rotor test: VT = 25 V IA = [Link] IB = 28.0A IC = 27.6A
f = 15Hz Pin = 920W
(a) Sketch the per-phase equivalent circuit for this motor.
(b) Find the slip at the pullout torque, and find the value of the
pullout torque itself
By Gedef Y. 57
By Gedef Y. 58
By Gedef Y. 59
 The final per-phase equivalent circuit is shown in Figure

(b) For this equivalent circuit, the Thevenin equivalents are found
from Equations

Tmax
By = 66.2N.m
Gedef Y. 60
 Speed Control of Induction Motors
• The synchronous speed Ns of an ac motor is related to supply frequency f and poles
P by the equation.
As regards induction motor, the rotor is given by
N=(1-s)Ns
It is found from the above two equations that the basic methods of speed control of an
induction motor are:
a) by changing the number of poles and
b) by varying the line (input) frequency. By the above two methods, the synchronous speed
of an induction motor can only be changed. These methods are applicable only to cage
induction motors
The slip can be changed by the following methods.
c) by varying the input voltage
d) by varying the rotor resistance
The methods(c-d) are applicable to slip-ring (wound rotor) induction motors, whereas only
By Gedef Y. 61
the method (c) can be applied to machines with cage rotor.
a) By changing the number of poles (Pole changing methods)
In pole changing induction motors, the stator winding of each phase is divided into two
equal groups of coils. These coil groups are connected in series and parallel with the
current direction being reversed only in one group, to create two different numbers of
poles (even) in the ratio 2.1 respectively. When the connection is changed from series
to parallel or vice versa, the current in one group of coils is also reversed at the same
time.

This technique, termed the consequent pole method, is applied to all three windings
(phases). This type of induction motor has always the squirrel cage rotor, which can
adapt to any number of stator poles.

b) By varying the line (input) frequency)

A variable frequency supply is connected as the key factor in speed control of induction
motors. The emf per phase of an induction motor is given by
By Gedef Y. 62
 Con’t…
• The induced emf E is nearly equal to the applied voltage V (neglecting drop in stator
impedance). Then, we can write

so as to maintain constant flux, otherwise the core will get saturated resulting in excessive
iron losses and magnetizing current. The maximum torque also remains constant under this
condition. However, the voltage is not varied proportionally in the lower frequency range to
account for the voltage drop in the winding resistance. This type of control (constant V/f) is
used for speed control below base frequency (line frequency of 50Hz). As the voltage
increase above rated value, when the input frequency goes above base frequency, only
constant (rated) voltage with variable frequency (frequency control) is used for speed
control. Under this condition, both flux and maximum torque decrease as the frequency is
increased.

By Gedef Y. 63
 c)By varying the line voltage
• Recall that the torque developed in an induction motor is proportional to the square of the
terminal voltage. A set of torque-speed characteristics with various terminal voltages is
shown in Figure below. Note that for this method of speed control the slip increase at lower
speeds, making the operation inefficient. However, for fans, or, similar centrifugal loads in
which torque varies approximately as the square of the speed, the power decreases
significantly with decrease in speed. Therefore, although the power lost in the rotor circuit
(= sPag) may be a significant portion of the air gap power, the air gap power itself is small
and therefore the rotor will not overheat. The voltage controller circuits are simple and,
although inefficient, are suitable for fan, pump, and similar centrifugal drives.

Fig: Torque-speed characteristics with various terminal

voltages By Gedef Y. 64
 d)By Varying the rotor resistance
• The speed of a wound-rotor induction machine can be controlled by connecting external
resistance in the rotor circuit through slip-rings. The torque- speed characteristics for four
external resistances are shown in Figure below. The load torque-speed characteristic is
also shown by dashed line. By varying the external resistance 0 < Rex < Rex4, the speed
of the load can be controlled in the range of N1 < N < N5. Note that by proper adjustment
of the external resistance (Rex=Rex2), maximum starting can be obtained for the load.

Fig: The torque- speed characteristics for four external

resistances By Gedef Y. 65
 Con’t..

• The major disadvantage of the rotor resistance control method is that the efficiency is low
at reduced speed because of higher slips. However, this control method is often employed
because of its simplicity. In application where low-speed operation is only a small
proportion of the work, low efficiency is acceptable. A typical application of the rotor,
resistance control method is the hoist drive of a shop crane. This method also can be used
in fan or pump drives, where speed variation over a small range near the top speed is
required.

Starting of Induction motors

Most induction motors-Large and Small-are rugged enough that they could be started
across the line without incurring any damage to the motor windings, although about five to
eight times the rated current flows through the stator at rated voltage at standstill.

By Gedef Y. 66
 Con’t..
• However, in large induction motors, large starting current are objectionable in two
respects:

 First, the mains supplying the induction motor may not be of a sufficiently large
capacity.

 Second, because of large starting current, the voltage drops in the lines may be
excessive, resulting in reduced voltage across the motor. Because the torque varies
approximately as the square of the voltage, the starting torque may become small at
the reduced line voltage that the motor might not even start on load. Thus we
formulate the basic requirement for starting:

 The line current should be limited by the capacity of the mains, but only to the extent
that the motor can develop sufficient torque to start (on load, if necessary) A number
of methods is available of for starting both cage-rotor and wound-rotor motors

By Gedef Y. 67
 Starting of Squirrel-cage Motors
• For cage motors, the choice of any particular method of
starting depends on
(i) size and design of the motor
(ii) capacity of the power lines and
(iii) type of the driven load.
There are primarily two methods of starting squirrel-cage
induction motors:
(a) full voltage starting and
(b) reduced-voltage starting.
. By Gedef Y. 68
 Con’t…
• The full-voltage starting consists of DOL starting only.
The reduced-voltage starting has the advantage of
reducing the starting current, but it produces an
objectionable reduction in the starting torque, on account
of the fact that motor torque is proportional to the square
of the applied voltage. Despite this, reduced-voltage
starting is the most popular method of starting three-
phase squirrel-cage induction motors and consists of
stator resistor (or reactor) starting, autotransformer
starting and star-delta starting.
By Gedef Y. 69
 Con’t…
a. Direct-on-line (across-the-line) starting
As the name suggests, this method involves the direct switching of
poly phase stator on to the supply mains. The motor takes low-power
factor starting current of 5 to 8 times its full-load current, depending
upon its size and design. Such large currents of short duration don't
harm the rugged squirrel cage motor, but the high currents may cause
objectionable voltage drop in the power supply lines feeding the
induction motor. These large voltage drops cause undesirable dip in
the supply line voltage; consequently the operation of other
equipments connected to the same supply line is effected
considerably. A common example is the momentary dimming of lamp
and tube-lights in the home at the instant a refrigerator motor starts. If
the supply system is of sufficient power capacity and the low-power
factor starting-current surges don't cause objectionable voltage dips in
the supply line voltage, then the direct-on-line starting should be
preferred.
By Gedef Y. 70
 b. Stator resistor (or reactor) starting
• In this method, a resistor or a reactor is inserted in
between motor terminals and the supply mains, as
illustrated in Figure below.

Fig: Reactor (or resistor) starting of squirrel cage

induction motor
By Gedef Y. 71
 C. Autotransformer starting
• A fraction of xV1 of the supply voltage V1 is applied to
the stator terminals at the time of starting, by means of an
autotransformer as shown in Figure below.
This reduces the motor current
and also the current drawn
from the supply. After the
motor has accelerated near to
its operating speed, auto-
transformer is disconnected
and full line voltage is applied
to the induction motor by
connecting it directly across
the supply mains.
Fig: pertaining to auto-transformer starting
of squirrel cage induction motor
By Gedef Y. 72
 d. Star-Delta Method
• A Star-Delta method starting may also be employed to
provide reduced voltage of start. In this method, the
normal connection of the stator windings is delta while
running. If these windings are
connected in star at start,
the phase voltage is
reduced, resulting in less
current of starting. As the
motor approaches its full-
speed, the windings will
Fig: pertaining to the star-delta starting of a 3-phase be connected in delta.
cage induction motor
By Gedef Y. 73
 Starting of Wound-Rotor Motors
• The methods used for starting squirrel cage motors can also be employed for starting
wound-rotor motors, but it is usually not done so because then the advantages of wound
rotor induction motors can't be fully realized. The simplest and cheapest method of
starting wound-rotor induction motors is by means of added rotor resistance, with full
line voltage across the stator terminals. It has already been discussed that at the time of
start, the addition of external resistance in the rotor circuit of a wound-rotor induction
motor. decreases its starting current increases its starting torque (for a suitable external
resistance) and Improves its starting power factor. At the time of start, the entire external
resistance is added in the rotor circuit. As the rotor speeds up, the external resistance is
decreased in steps so that motor torque tends to remain maximum during the accelerating
period. Finally, under normal operation, the external resistance is fully cut off and the slip
rings are short-circuited so that motor now develops full-load torque at low value of slip

for which it is designed.

By Gedef Y. 74