Chapter-4

DC Machines

Cutaway drawing of a dc generation

4.1 Introduction
Electric machines convert electrical energy (power) to mechanical energy (power) or vice versa.
This process of conversion is known as electromechanical energy conversion. An electric
machine is therefore a link between an electrical system and mechanical system.
Although a far greater percentage of the electrical machines in service are a.c. machines, the d.c.
machines are of considerable industrial importance. The principal advantage of the d.c. machine,
particularly the d.c. motor, is that it provides a fine control of speed. Such an advantage is not
claimed by any a.c. motor. However, d.c. generators are not as common as they used to be,
because direct current, when required, is mainly obtained from an a.c. supply by the use of
rectifiers. Nevertheless, an understanding of d.c. generator is important because it represents a
logical introduction to the behaviour of d.c. motors. Indeed, many d.c. motors in industry
actually operate as d.c. generators for a brief period.

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 An electric generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. An
electric generator is based on the principle that whenever flux is cut by a conductor, an e.m.f. is
induced which will cause a current to flow if the conductor circuit is closed. The direction of
induced e.m.f. (and hence current) is given by Fleming‟s right hand rule. Therefore, the essential
components of a generator are: (a) Magnetic field
(b) Conductor or a group of conductors
(c) Motion of conductor w.r.t. magnetic field

4.2. Construction of DC Machines

The d.c. generators and d.c. motors have the same general construction. In fact, when the
machine is being assembled, the workmen usually do not know whether it is a d.c. generator or
motor. Any d.c. generator can be run as a d.c. motor and vice-versa.
All d.c. machines have five principal components viz.

i. Field system
ii. Armature core
iii. Armature winding
iv. Commutator
v. Brushes

Figure 4.1

i. Field system: The function of the field system is to produce uniform magnetic field within
which the armature rotates. It consists of a number of salient poles (of course, even number)
bolted to the inside of circular frame (generally called yoke). The yoke is usually made of solid

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cast steel whereas the pole pieces are composed of stacked laminations. Field coils are mounted
on the poles and carry the d.c. exciting current. The field coils are connected in such a way that
adjacent poles have opposite polarity.
The m.m.f. developed by the field coils produces a magnetic flux that passes through the pole
pieces, the air gap, the armature and the frame (See Fig. 4.1(ii)).Practical d.c. machines have air
gaps ranging from 0.5 mm to 1.5 mm. Since armature and field systems are composed of
materials that have high permeability, most of the m.m.f. of field coils is required to set up flux
in the air gap. By reducing the length of air gap, we can reduce the size of field coils (i.e. number
of turns).
II. Armature core: The armature core is keyed to the machine shaft and rotates between the
field poles. It consists of slotted soft-iron laminations (about 0.4 to 0.6 mm thick) that are
stacked to form a cylindrical core as shown in Fig (4.2(i)). The laminations (See Fig. 4.2(ii)) are
individually coated with a thin insulating film so that they do not come in electrical contact with
each other. The purpose of laminating the core is to reduce the eddy current loss. The
laminations are slotted to accommodate and provide mechanical security to the armature winding
and to give shorter air gap for the flux to cross between the pole face and the armature “teeth”.

iii. Armature winding: The slots of the armature core hold insulated conductors that are
connected in a suitable manner. This is known as armature winding. This is the winding in which
“working” e.m.f. is induced. The armature conductors are connected in series-parallel; the
conductors being connected in series so as to increase the voltage and in parallel paths so as to
increase the current. The armature winding of a d.c. machine is a closed-circuit winding; the

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conductors being connected in a symmetrical manner forming a closed loop or series of closed
loops.
iv. Commutator: A commutator is a mechanical rectifier which converts the alternating
voltage generated in the armature winding into direct voltage across the brushes. The
commutator is made of copper segments insulated from each other by mica sheets and mounted
on the shaft of the machine (See Fig 4.3(i)). The armature conductors are soldered to the
commutator segments in a suitable manner to give rise to the armature winding.

Depending upon the manner in which the armature conductors are connected to the commutator
segments, there are two types of armature winding in a d.c. machine viz.,
(a) lap winding
(b) wave winding.
Great care is taken in building the commutator because any eccentricity will cause the brushes to
bounce, producing unacceptable sparking. The sparks may bum the brushes and overheat and
carbonise the commutator.
v. Brushes: The purpose of brushes is to ensure electrical connections between the rotating
commutator and stationary external load circuit. The brushes are made of carbon and rest on the
commutator. The brush pressure is adjusted by means of adjustable springs (See Fig. 4.3(ii)). If
the brush pressure is very large, the friction produces heating of the commutator and the brushes.
On the other hand, if it is too weak, the imperfect contact with the commutator may produce
sparking. Multi pole machines have as many brushes as they have poles. For example, a 4-pole
machine has 4 brushes. As we go round the commutator, the successive brushes have positive
and negative polarities. Brushes having the same polarity are connected together so that we have
two terminals viz., the +ve terminal and the -ve terminal.

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4.3 Basic principle of DC Generator
Dc generator is a machine which converts mechanical energy (or power) into electrical energy
(or power). The energy conversion is based on the principle of the production of dynamically (or
motionally) induced e.m.f. As seen from Fig. 4.4, whenever a conductor cuts magnetic flux,
dynamically induced e.m.f. is produced in it according to Faraday‟s Laws of Electromagnetic
Induction. This e.m.f. causes a current to flow if the conductor circuit is closed.

Fig 4.4
To construct single loop generator In Fig 4.4 above a single-turn rectangular copper coil
ABCD rotating about its own axis in a magnetic field provided by either permanent magnet is or
electromagnets. The two ends of the coil are joined to two slip-rings „a‟ and „b‟ which are
insulated from each other and from the central shaft. Two collecting brushes (of carbon or
copper) press against the slip-rings. Their function is to collect the current induced in the coil
and to convey it to the external load resistance R. The rotating coil may be called „armature‟ and
the magnets as „field magnets‟.
Working:

Fig 4.5 Fig 4.6

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Imagine the coil to be rotating in clock-wise direction (Fig. 4.5). As the coil assumes successive
positions in the field, the flux linked with it changes. Hence, an e.m.f. is induced in it which is
proportional to the rate of change of flux linkages (e = NdΦ/dt).
When the plane of the coil is at right angles to lines of flux i.e. when it is in position, 1, then flux
linked with the coil is maximum but rate of change of flux linkages is minimum. It is so because
in this position, the coil sides AB and CD do not cut or shear the flux, rather they slide along
them i.e. they move parallel to them. Hence, there is no induced e.m.f. in the coil. Let us take
this no-e.m.f. or vertical position of the coil as the starting position. The angle of rotation or time
will be measured from this position.
As the coil continues rotating further, the rate of change of flux linkages (and hence induced
e.m.f. in it) increases, till position 3 is reached where θ = 90º. Here, the coil plane is horizontal
i.e. parallel to the lines of flux. As seen, the flux linked with the coil is minimum but rate of
change of flux linkages is maximum. Hence, maximum e.m.f. is induced in the coil when in this
position (Fig. 4.6). In the next quarter revolution i.e. from 90º to 180º, the flux linked with the
coil gradually increases but the rate of change of flux linkages decreases. Hence, the induced
e.m.f. decreases gradually till in position 5 of the coil, it is reduced to zero value. So, we find
that in the first half revolution of the coil, no (or minimum) e.m.f. is induced in it when in
position 1, maximum when in position 3 and no e.m.f. when in position 5. The direction of this
induced e.m.f. can be found by applying Fleming‟s Right-hand rule which gives its direction
from A to B and C to D. Hence, the direction of current flow is ABMLCD (Fig. 4.4). The
current through the load resistance R flows from M to L during the first half revolution of the
coil. In the next half revolution i.e. from 180º to 360º, the variations in the magnitude of e.m.f.
are similar to those in the first half revolution. Its value is maximum when coil is in position 7
and minimum when in position 1. But it will be found that the direction of the induced current is
from D to C and B to A as shown in Fig. 4.4 (b). Hence, the path of current flow is along
DCLMBA which is just the reverse of the previous direction of flow. Therefore, we find that the
current which we obtain from such a simple generator reverses its direction after every half
revolution. Such a current undergoing periodic reversals is known as alternating current. It is,
obviously, different from a direct current which continuously flows in one and the same
direction. It should be noted that alternating current not only reverses its direction, it does not
even keep its magnitude constant while flowing in any one direction. The two half-cycles may

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be called positive and negative half-cycles respectively (Fig. 4.6). For making the flow of current
unidirectional in the external circuit, the slip-rings are replaced by split-rings (Fig. 4.7).

The split-rings are made out of a conducting cylinder which is cut into two halves or segments
insulated from each other by a thin sheet of mica or some other insulating material.

4.4 Types of Dc Generators

Dc Generators are usually classified according to the way in which their fields are excited.
Dc generators may be divided into
(a) separately-excited dc generators
(b) Self-excited dc generators
(a) Separately-excited dc generators: are those whose field magnets are energized from
an independent external source of d.c. current. It is shown in below Fig.4.7.

Fig 4.7 separately excited dc generator

(b) Self-excited dc generators: are those whose field magnets are energized by the current
produced by the generators themselves. Due to residual magnetism, there is always present some
flux in the poles. When the armature is rotated, some e.m.f. and hence some induced current is
produced which is partly or fully passed through the field coils thereby strengthening the residual
pole flux.
There are three types of self-excited generators named according to the manner in which their
field coils (or windings) are connected to the armature.
(i). Series excitation/wound

(ii). Shunt excitation/wound

(iii). Compound excitation/wound

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(i). Series excitation/wound: In this case, the field windings are joined in series with the
armature conductors (Fig.4.8). As they carry full load current, they consist of relatively few
turns of thick wire or strips. Such generators are rarely used except for special purposes i.e. as
boosters etc.

Fig 4.8 series excitation

(ii). Shunt excitation/wound: The field windings are connected across or in parallel with
the armature conductors and have the full voltage of the generator applied across them.

Fig 4.9 shunt excitation

Ia = Ish + I
Eg = Vl + IaRa

Ish =
(iii). Compound excitation/wound: It is a combination of a few series and a few shunt
windings and can be either short-shunt or long-shunt as shown in Fig. 4.10 (a) and Fig. 4.10 (b)
respectively. In a compound generator, the shunt field is stronger than the series field. When
series field aids the shunt field, generator is said to be commutatively-compounded. On the other
hand if series field opposes the shunt field, the generator is said to be differentially compounded.

Fig 4.10 compound dc generator

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Brush contact drop: It is the voltage drop over the brush contact resistance when current passes
from commutator segments to brushes and finally to the external load. Its value depends on the
amount of current and the value of contact resistance. This drop is usually small and includes
brushes of both polarities. However, in practice, the brush contact drop is assumed to have
following constant values for all loads.
0.5 V for metal-graphite brushes
2.0 V for carbon brushes

Example A short-shunt compound generator delivers a load current of 30 A at 220 V, and has
armature, series-field and shunt-field resistances of 0.05 Ω , 0.30 Ω and 200 Ω respectively.
Calculate
A) The induced e.m.f
B) The armature current
C) Total generated power
D) Power lost in the armature
E) Power delivered to the load
Allow 1.0 V per brush for contact drop.
Solution:

Iseries = Il = 30A
Voltage drop in series winding = 30 × 0.3 = 9 V
Voltage across shunt winding = 220 + 9 = 229 V
Ish = 229/200 = 1.145 A
B) Ia = 30 + 1.145 = 31.145 A
IaRa = 31.145 × 0.05 = 1.56 V
Brush drop = 2 × 1 = 2 V
A) Eg = V + series drop + brush drop + IaRa = 220 + 9 + 2 + 1.56 = 232.56 V
B) Ia = 30 + 1.145 = 31.145 A
C) Generated power = Eg*Ia = 232.56v *31.145A = 7.243kw

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 D) Power lost in the armature(Parmature) = *Ra = 31.145A *0.05 = 48.5w
E) Pdel = Vl*Il = 220v*30A = 6.6kw
Example A separately excited dc generator is rated at 172kw, 430v, 400A, and 1800rpm, this
machine has the following characteristics.

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4.5 Losses and Power Flows in Dc Machines
The Losses in DC Machines
The losses that occur in dc machines can be divided into five basic categories:
1) Electrical or copper losses
2) Brush losses
3) Core losses

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 4) Mechanical losses
5) Stray load losses
1) Electrical or Copper Losses. Copper losses are the losses that occur in the armature and
field windings of the machine. The copper losses for the armature and field windings are
given by:

The resistance used in these calculations is usually the winding

resistance at normal operating temperature.
2. Brush Losses. The brush drop loss is the power lost across the contact potential at the brushes
of the machine. It is given by the equation

3. Core Losses. The core losses are the hysteresis losses and eddy current losses occurring in
the metal of the motor. These losses vary as the square of the flux density and. for the rotor, as
the 1.5th power of the speed of rotation.
4. Mechanical Losses. The mechanical losses in a dc machine are the losses associated with
mechanical effects. There are two basic types of mechanical losses: friction and windage losses.
Friction losses are losses caused by the friction of the bearings in the machine, while windage
losses are caused by the friction between the moving parts of the machine and the air inside the
motor's casing. These losses vary as the cube of the speed of rotation of the machine.
5. Stray Losses (Or Miscellaneous Losses). Stray losses are losses that cannot be placed in one
of the previous categories. No matter how carefully losses are accounted for, some always escape

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inclusion in one of the above categories. All such losses are lumped into stray losses. For most
machines, stray losses are taken by convention to be I percent of full load.
The Power-Flow Diagram
One of the most convenient techniques for accounting for power losses in a machine is the
power-flow diagram. A power-flow diagram for a dc generator is shown in Figure 4.11 a. In the
case of dc motors, this power-now diagram is simply reversed. The power-now diagram for a
motor is shown in Figure 4.11b.

Fig 4.11 Power-flow diagrams for dc machine: (a) generator: (b) motor.
4.6 EMF equation of a DC generator
Let P = number of poles
Ø = flux/pole in webers
Z = total number of armature conductors = number of slots x number of conductors/slot
N = armature rotation in revolutions (speed for armature) per minute (rpm)
A = No. of parallel paths into which the „z‟ no. of conductors are divided.
E = emf induced in any parallel path
Eg = emf generated in any one parallel path in the armature.
Average emf generated/conductor = dØ/dt volt

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Flux current/conductor in one revolution dt = d x p.
In one revolution, the conductor will cut total flux produced by all poles = d x p
No. of revolutions/second = N/60
Therefore, Time for one revolution, dt = 60/N second
According to Faraday‟s laws of Electromagnetic Induction,
emf generated/conductor = dØ x p x N / 60 volts. This is emf induced in one conductor.
Types of armature winding: Armature conductors are connected in a specific manner called as
armature winding and according to the way of connecting the conductors; armature winding is
divided into two types.
Lap winding: In this case, if connection is started from conductor in slot 1 then the connections
overlap each other as winding proceeds, till starting point is reached again. There is overlapping
of coils while proceeding. Due to such connection, the total number of conductors get divided
into „P‟ number of parallel paths, where P = number of poles in the machine. Large number of
parallel paths indicates high current capacity of machine hence lap winding is pertained for high
current rating generators.
Wave winding: In this type, winding always travels ahead avoiding over lapping. It travels like
a progressive wave hence called wave winding. Both coils starting from slot 1 and slot 2 are
progressing in wave fashion. Due to this type of connection, the total number of conductors gets
divided into two numbers of parallel paths always, irrespective of number of poles of machine.
As number of parallel paths is less, it is preferable for low current, high voltage capacity
generators.

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For a simplex wave-wound generator No. of parallel paths = 2.
No. of conductors in (series) in one path = Z/2
EMF generated/path = ØPN/60 x Z/2 = ØZPN/120 volt
For a simple lap-wound generator Number of parallel paths = P
Number of conductors in one path = Z/P
EMF generated/path = ØPN/60 (Z/P) = ØZN/60volt
4.7 Armature Reaction
So far we have assumed that the only flux acting in a d.c. machine is that due to the main poles
called main flux. However, current flowing through armature conductors also creates a magnetic
flux (called armature flux) that distorts and weakens the flux coming from the poles. This
distortion and field weakening takes place in both generators and motors. The action of armature
flux on the main flux is known as armature reaction.
i. Geometrical and Magnetic Neutral Axes
The geometrical neutral axis (G.N.A.) is the axis that bisects the angle between the Centre line
of adjacent poles [See Fig. 4.12 (i)]. Clearly, it is the axis of symmetry between two adjacent
poles.

Fig 4.12
The magnetic neutral axis (M. N. A.) is the axis drawn perpendicular to the mean direction of the
flux passing through the centre of the armature. Clearly, no e.m.f. is produced in the armature
conductors along this axis because then they cut no flux. With no current in the armature
conductors, the M.N.A. coincides with G, N. A. as shown in Fig. (4.12(ii))

Explanation of Armature Reaction: With no current in armature conductors, the M.N.A.

coincides with G.N.A. However, when current flows in armature conductors, the combined
action of main flux and armature flux shifts the M.N.A. from G.N.A. In case of a generator, the

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M.N.A. is shifted in the direction of rotation of the machine. In order to achieve spark less
commutation, the brushes have to be moved along the new M.N.A.
Under such a condition, the armature reaction produces the following two effects:
1. It demagnetizes or weakens the main flux.
2. It cross-magnetizes or distorts the main flux.
Let us discuss these effects of armature reaction by considering a 2-pole generator (though the
following remarks also hold good for a multipolar generator).
i. Fig. (4.13) (i) shows the flux due to main poles (main flux) when the armature conductors
carry no current. The flux across the air gap is uniform. The m.m.f. producing the main flux is
represented in magnitude and direction by the vector OF min Fig. (4.13) (i). Note that OFm is
perpendicular to G.N.A.
ii. Fig. (4.13) (ii) shows the flux due to current flowing in armature conductors alone (main poles
unexcited). The armature conductors to the left of G.N.A. carry current “in” (×) and those to the
right carry current “out” (•). The direction of magnetic lines of force can be found by cork screw
rule. It is clear that armature flux is directed downward parallel to the brush axis. The m.m.f.
producing the armature flux is represented in magnitude and direction by the vector OFA in Fig.
(4.13)(ii).
iii. Fig. (4.13) (iii) shows the flux due to the main poles and that due to current in armature
conductors acting together. The resultant m.m.f. OF is the vector sum of OFm and OFA as
shown in Fig. (4.13)(iii). Since M.N.A. is always perpendicular to the resultant m.m.f., the
M.N.A. is shifted through an angle ɵ. Note that M.N.A. is shifted in the direction of rotation of
the generator.
iv. Fig (4.13) (iv). Due to brush In order to achieve spark less commutation, the brushes must lie
along the M.N.A. Consequently, the brushes are shifted through an angle ɵ so as to lie along the
new M.N.A. as shown in Fig. shift, the m.m.f. FA of the armature is also rotated through the
same angle q. It is because some of the conductors which were earlier under N-pole now come
under S-pole and vice-versa. The result is that armature m.m.f. FA will no longer be vertically
downward but will be rotated in the direction of rotation through an angle ɵ as shown in
Fig.(4.13) (iv). Now FA can be resolved into rectangular components Fc and Fd.

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 Fig 4.13
The component Fd is in direct opposition to the m.m.f. OFm due to main poles. It has a
demagnetizing effect on the flux due to main poles. For this reason, it is called the demagnetizing
or weakening component of armature reaction.

field. For this reason, it is called the cross magnetizing or distorting component of armature
reaction.

effects will increase.

Conclusion
 With brushes located along G.N.A. (i.e., ɵ= 0°), there is no demagnetizing component of
armature reaction (Fd = 0). There is only distorting or cross magnetizing effect of
armature reaction.
 With the brushes shifted from G.N.A., armature reaction will have both demagnetizing
and distorting effects. Their relative magnitudes depend on the amount of shift. This shift
is directly proportional to the armature current.
 The demagnetizing component of armature reaction weakens the main flux. On the other
hand, the distorting component of armature reaction distorts the main flux.

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  The demagnetizing effect leads to reduced generated voltage while cross magnetizing
effect leads to sparking at the brushes.
Note: the main effects of armature reaction are:
a) Cross magnetizing effect
b) Distortion of the main fields
c) Demagnetizing effect
Methods of reducing the effect of armature reaction
1. High reluctance pole tip
a. By assembling the lamination of the pole
b. Make the main field mmf stronger in comparison to the full load armature mmf
2. Inter pole
3. Compensating winding

4.8 Commutation
Fig (4.14) shows the schematic diagram of 2-pole lap-wound generator. There are two parallel
paths between the brushes. Therefore, each coil of the winding carries one half (Ia/2 in this case)
of the total current (Ia) entering or leaving the armature. Note that the currents in the coils
connected to a brush are either all towards the brush (positive brush) or all directed away from
the brush (negative brush). Therefore, current in a coil will reverse as the coil passes a brush.
This reversal of current as the coil passes & brush is called commutation.

Fig 4.14
 The reversal of current in a coil as the coil passes the brush axis is called commutation.

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 When commutation takes place, the coil undergoing commutation is short circuited by the
brush. The brief period during which the coil remains short circuited is known as
commutation period Tc. If the current reversal is completed by the end of commutation
period, it is called ideal commutation. If the current reversal is not completed by that time,
then sparking occurs between the brush and the commutator which results in progressive
damage to both.

Fig 4.15
i. In Fig. (4.15 (i), the brush is in contact with segment 1 of the commutator. The commutator
segment 1 conducts a current of 40 A to the brush; 20 A from coil A and 20 A from the adjacent
coil as shown. The coil A has yet to undergo commutation.
ii. As the armature rotates, the brush will make contact with segment 2 and thus short-circuits the
coil A as shown in Fig. (4.15) (ii). There are now two parallel paths into the brush as long as the
short circuit of coil A exists. Fig. (4.15) (ii) shows the instant when the brush is one-fourth on
segment 2 and three-fourth on segment 1. For this condition, the resistance of the path through
segment 2 is three times the resistance of the path through segment 1 (Contact resistance varies
inversely as the area of contact of brush with the segment). The brush again conducts a current of
40 A; 30 A through segment 1 and 10 A through segment 2. Note that current in coil A (the coil
undergoing commutation) is reduced from 20 A to 10 A.

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iii. Fig. (4.15) (iii) shows the instant when the brush is one-half on segment 2 and one-half on
segment 1. The brush again conducts 40 A; 20 A through segment 1 and 20 A through segment 2
(now the resistances of the two parallel paths are equal). Note that now current in coil A is zero.
iv. Fig. (4.15) (iv) shows the instant when the brush is three-fourth on segment 2 and one-fourth
on segment 1. The brush conducts a current of 40 A; 30 A through segment 2 and 10 A through
segment 1. Note that current in coil A is 10 A but in the reverse direction to that before the start
of commutation. The reader may see the action of the commutator in reversing the current in a
coil as the coil passes the brush axis.
v. Fig. (4.15) (v) shows the instant when the brush is in contact only with segment 2. The brush
again conducts 40 A; 20 A from coil A and 20 A from the adjacent coil to coil A. Note that now
current in coil A is 20 A but in the reverse direction. Thus the coil A has undergone
commutation. Each coil undergoes commutation in this way as it passes the brush axis. Note that
during commutation, the coil under consideration remains short circuited by the brush.
Methods of Improving Commutation
Improving commutation means to make current reversal in the short-circuited coil as spark less
as possible. The following are the two principal methods of improving commutation:
(i) Resistance commutation
The reversal of current in a coil (i.e., commutation) takes place while the coil is short-circuited
by the brush. Therefore, there are two parallel paths for the current as long as the short circuit
exists. If the contact resistance between the brush and the commutator is made large, then current
would divide in the inverse ratio of contact resistances (as for any two resistances in parallel).
This is the key point in improving commutation. This is achieved by using carbon brushes
(instead of Cu brushes) which have high contact resistance. This method of improving
commutation is called resistance commutation.
(ii) E.M.F. commutation
In this method, an arrangement is made to neutralize the reactance voltage by producing a
reversing voltage in the coil undergoing commutation. The reversing voltage acts in opposition
to the reactance voltage and neutralizes it to some extent. If the reversing voltage is equal to the
reactance voltage, the effect of the latter is completely wiped out and we get spark less
commutation. The reversing voltage may be produced in the following two ways:

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a) By brush shifting
In this method, the brushes are given sufficient forward lead (for a generator) to bring the short-
circuited coil (i.e., coil undergoing commutation) under the influence of the next pole of opposite
polarity. Since the short-circuited coil is now in the reversing field, the reversing voltage
produced cancels the reactance voltage. This method suffers from the following drawbacks:

on the magnitude of armature current which keeps on changing. This necessitates frequent
shifting of brushes.
t be the forward lead for a generator. This
increases the demagnetizing effect of armature reaction and further weakens the main field.
b) By using inter poles or com poles
The best way to produce reversing voltage to neutralize the reactance voltage is by using
interpoles or compoles. These are small poles fixed to the yoke and spaced mid-way between the
main poles. Functions of Inter poles

the coil (undergoing commutation) which opposes reactance voltage. This leads to spark less
commutation. The e.m.f. induced by com poles is known as commutating or reversing e.m.f.
Since the inter poles carry the armature current and the reactance voltage is also proportional to
armature current, the neutralization of reactance voltage is automatic.
-magnetizing effect of armature reaction in
small region in the space between the main poles. It is because the two m.m.f.s oppose each
other in this region.

4.9 Characterstics of Dc Generators

The following are the three most important characteristics of a d.c. generator:
1. Open Circuit Characteristic (O.C.C.)
This curve shows the relation between the generated e.m.f. at no-load (E0) and the field current
(If) at constant speed. It is also known as magnetic characteristic or no-load saturation curve. Its
shape is practically the same for all generators whether separately or self-excited. The data for
O.C.C. curve are obtained experimentally by operating the generator at no load and constant
speed and recording the change in terminal voltage as the field current is varied.

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2. Internal or Total characteristic (E/Ia)
This curve shows the relation between the generated e.m.f on load (E) and the armature current
(Ia). The e.m.f. E is less than E0 due to the demagnetizing effect of armature reaction. Therefore,
this curve will lie below the open circuit characteristic (O.C.C.). The internal characteristic is of
interest chiefly to the designer. It cannot be obtained directly by experiment. It is because a
voltmeter cannot read the e.m.f. generated on load due to the voltage drop in armature resistance.
The internal characteristic can be obtained from external characteristic if winding resistances are
known because armature reaction effect is included in both characteristics.
3. External characteristic (V/IL)
This curve shows the relation between the terminal voltage (V) and load current (IL). The
terminal voltage V will be less than E due to voltage drop in the armature circuit. Therefore, this
curve will lie below the internal characteristic. This characteristic is very important in
determining the suitability of a generator for a given purpose. It can be obtained by making
simultaneous measurements of terminal voltage and load current (with voltmeter and ammeter)
of a loaded generator.
Open Circuit Characteristic of a D.C. Generator The O.C.C. for a d.c. generator is determined as
follows. The field winding of the d.c. generator (series or shunt) is disconnected from the
machine and is separately excited from an external d.c. source as shown in Fig. (4.16) (ii). The
generator is run at fixed speed (i.e., normal speed). The field current (If) is increased from zero
in steps and the corresponding values of generated e.m.f. (E0) read off on a voltmeter connected
across the armature terminals. On plotting the relation between E0 and If, we get the open circuit
characteristic as shown in Fig. (4.16) (i).

Fig 4.16

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 (i) When the field current is zero, there is some generated e.m.f. OA. This is due to the
residual magnetism in the field poles.
(ii) Over a fairly wide range of field current (up to point B in the curve), the curve is
linear. It is because in this range, reluctance of iron is negligible as compared with
that of air gap. The air gap reluctance is constant and hence linear relationship.
(iii) After point B on the curve, the reluctance of iron also comes into picture. It is
because at higher flux densities, µr for iron decreases and reluctance of iron is no
longer negligible. Consequently, the curve deviates from linear relationship.
(iv) After point C on the curve, the magnetic saturation of poles begins and E0 tends to
level off.

4.10 Dc Motor
An Electric motor is a machine which converts electric energy into mechanical energy. Its action
is based on the principle that when a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it
experiences a mechanical force whose direction is given by Fleming‟s Left-hand Rule and whose
magnitude is given by F = BIl Newton.

Fig 4.17 principle of dc motor

There were several reasons for the continued popularity of dc motors. One was that dc power
systems are still common in cars, trucks, and aircraft. When a vehicle has a dc power system, it
makes sense to consider using dc motors. Another application for dc motors was a situation in
which wide variations in speed are needed. Before the widespread use of power electronic
rectifier-inverters, dc motors were unexcelled in speed control applications. Even if no dc power
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source were available, solid-state rectifier and chopper circuits were used to create the necessary
dc power, and dc motors were used to provide the desired speed control.
DC motors are often compared by their speed regulations. The speed regulation (SR) of a motor
is defined by;

It is a rough measure of the shape of a motor's torque- speed characteristic-a positive speed
regulation means that a motor's speed drops with increasing load, and a negative speed regulation
means a motor's speed increases with increasing load.
There are five major types of dc motors in general use:

1. The separately excited dc motor

2. The shunt dc motor
3. The permanent-magnet dc motor
4. The series dc motor
5. The compounded dc motor
Each of these types will be examined in turn
The Equivalent Circuit of a dc Motor
The equivalent circuit of a dc motor is shown in Figure 4.17.The internal generated voltage in
this machine and the induced torque developed by the machine is given by the equation;

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Fig 4.17(a) the equivalent circuit of a dc motor. (b) A simplified equivalent circuit eliminating
the brush voltage drop and combining Radj with the field resistance.
The Magnetization Curve of a Dc Machine
The internal generated voltage Ea/Eb of a dc motor or generator is given by Equation

Therefore, Ea is directly proportional to the flux in the machine and the speed of rotation of the
machine. How is the internal generated voltage related to the field current in the machine?

Fig 4.18 The magnetization curve of a ferromagnetic material( flux vs magnetomotive force)

Fig 4.19The magnetization curve of a dc machine expressed as a plot of Ea versus If. for a fixed speed
"Wo.”

The field current in a dc machine produces a field magnetomotive force given by = Nf If.f
This magnetomotive force produces a flux in the machine in accordance with its magnetization
curve. Since the field current is directly proportional to the magnetomotive force and since EA is

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directly proportional to the flux, it is customary to present the magnetization curve as a plot of
EA versus field current for a given speed Wo.

Separately Excited and Shunt Dc Motors

The equivalent circuit of a separately excited dc motor is shown in Figure 4.20a, and the
equivalent circuit of a shunt dc motor is shown in Figure 4.20b. A separately excited dc motor is
a motor whose field circuit is supplied from a separate constant-voltage power supply, while a
shunt dc motor is a motor whose field circuit gets its power directly across the armature
terminals of the motor. When the supply voltage to a motor is assumed constant, there is no
practical difference in behavior between these two machines. Unless otherwise specified,
whenever the behavior of a shunt motor is described, the separately excited motor is included,
too.

Fig 4.20 (a) The equivalent circuit of a separately excited dc motor. (b) The equivalent circuit of
a shunt dc motor.
The Kirchhoff's voltage law (KVL) equation for the armature circuit of these motors is

The Terminal Characteristic of a Shunt DC Motor

A terminal characteristic of a machine is a plot of the machine's output quantities versus each
other. For a motor, the output quantities are shaft torque and speed, so the terminal characteristic
of a motor is a plot of its output torque versus speed.
How does a shunt dc motor respond to a load?

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This equation is just a straight line with a negative slope. The resulting torque- speed
characteristic of a shunt dc motor is shown in Figure 4.21a.

Fig 4.21(a)Torque-speed characteristic of a shunt or separately excited dc motor with compensating windings to
eliminate armature reaction. (b) Torque-speed characteristic of the motor with armature reaction present.

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(a) Find the speed of this motor when its input current is 100 A.
(b) Find the speed of this motor when its input current is 200 A.
(c) Find the speed of this motor when its input current is 300 A.
(d) Plot the torque-speed characteristic of this motor.
Solution
The internal generated voltage of a dc machine with its speed expressed in revolutions per
minute is given by;

Since the field current in the machine is constant (because VT and the field resistance are both
constant), and since there are no armature reaction effects, the flux in this motor is constant. The
relationship between the speeds and internal generated voltages of the motor at two different load
conditions is thus

The constant K' cancels, since it is a constant for any given machine, and the flux cancels as

described above. Therefore

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At no load, the armature current is zero, so Ea1 = VT = 250 V, while the speed nl = 1200 r/min.
If we can calculate the internal generated voltage at any other load, it will be possible to
determine the motor speed at that load from Equation

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Magneto motive force in a machine will have a nonlinear effect on the internal generated voltage
of the machine. Since the change in Ea cannot be calculated analytically, the magnetization curve
of the machine must be used to accurately determine its Ea for a given magnetomotive force. The
two principal contributors to the magnetomotive force in the machine are its field current and its
armature reaction, if present. Since the magnetization curve is a direct plot of Ea versus IF for a
given speed wo, the effect of changing a machine's field current can be determined directly from
its magnetization curve. If a machine has armature reaction, its flux will be reduced with each
increase in load. The total magnetomotive force in a shunt dc motor is the field circuit
magnetomotive force less the magnetomotive force due to armature reaction(AR).

Since magnetization curves are expressed as plots of Ell versus field current, it is customary to
define an equivalent field current that wou ld produce the same output voltage as the
combination of all the magnetomotive forces in the machine. 1lle resulting voltage Ell can then
be detennined by locating that equivalent field current on the magnetization curve. 1lle
equivalent field current of a shunt dc motor is given by

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One other effect must be considered when nonlinear analysis is used to determine the internal
generated voltage ofa dc motor. The magnetization curves for a machine are drawn for a
particular speed, usually the rated speed of the machine. How can the effects of a given field
current be determined if the motor is turning at other than rated speed? The equation for the
induced voltage in a dc machine when speed is expressed in revolutions per minute is

For a given effective field current, the flu x in a machine is fixed, so the internal generated
voltage is related to speed by

The magnetization curve of a typical 250v dc motor , taken at speed of 1200 r/min.

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(a) Find the speed of this motor when its input current is 200 A.
(b) This motor is essentially identical to the one in previous example except for the absence of
compensating windings. How does its speed compare to that of the previous motor at a load
current of 200 A?
(c) Calculate and plot the torque-speed characteristic for this motor

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Speed Control of Shunt DC Motors

How can the speed of a shunt dc motor be controlled? There are two common methods and one
less common method in use. The two common ways in which the speed of a shunt dc machine
can be controlled are by;
1. Adjusting the field resistance RF (and thus the field flux)
2. Adjusting the terminal voltage applied to the armature.
The less common method of speed control is by
3. Inserting a resistor in series with the armature circuit.

Changing the Field Resistance

To understand what happens when the field resistor of a dc motor is changed. Assume that the
field resistor increases and observe the response. If the field resistance increases, then the field
current decreases (IF = VT/RF ), and as the field current decreases, the flux( decreases with
it. A decrease in flux causes an instantaneous decrease in the internal generated voltage EA (=
K w), which causes a large increase in the machine's armature current, since

The induced torque in a motor is given by since the flux( in this machine
decreases while the current IA increases, which way does the induced torque change? The easiest
way to answer this question is to look at an example below.

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The effect of field resistance speed control on a shunt motor's torque-speed characteristic: (a) over the
motor's normal operating range: (b) over the entire range from no-load to stall conditions.

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The effect of increasing the field resistance on the output characteristic of a shunt motor is shown
in Figure a. Notice that as the flux in the machine decreases, the no-load speed of the motor
increases, while the slope of the torque-speed curve becomes steeper. Naturally, decreasing RF
would reverse the whole process, and the speed of the motor would drop.
Changing the Armature Voltage
The second form of speed control involves changing the voltage applied to the armature of the
motor without changing the voltage applied to the field. A connection similar to that in Figure
below is necessary for this type of control. In effect, the motor must be separately excited to use
armature voltage control.

Fig 4.22 Armature voltage control of a shunt (or separately excited) dc motor.

Fig 4.23 the effect of armature voltage speed control on a shunt motor's torque-speed
characteristic

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Inserting a Resistor in Series with the Armature Circuit
The insertion of a resistor is a very wasteful method of speed control, since the losses in the
inserted resistor are very large. For this reason, it is rarely used. It will be found only in
applications in which the motor spends almost all its time operating at full speed or in
applications too inexpensive to justify a better form of speed control.

Fig 4.24 the effect of armature resistance speed control on a shunt motor's torque-speed characteristic.

The Permanent-Magnet Dc Motor

A permanent-magnet de (PM DC) motor is a dc motor whose poles are made of permanent
magnets. Permanent-magnet dc motors offer a number of benefits compared with shunt dc
motors in some applications. Since these motors do not require an external field circuit, they do
not have the field circuit copper losses associated with shunt dc motor. Because no field

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windings are required, they can be smaller than corresponding shunt dc motors. PMDC motors
are especially common in smaller fractional- and sub fractional-horsepower sizes, where the
expense and space of a separate field circuit cannot be justified. However, PMDC motors also
have disadvantages. Permanent magnets cannot produce as high a flux density as an externally
supplied shunt field, so a PMDC motor will have a lower induced torque "Tind per ampere of
armature current IA than a shunt motor of the same size and construction. In addition, PMDC
motors run the risk of demagnetization.

The Series Dc Motor

A series dc motor is a dc motor whose field windings consist of a relatively few turns connected
in series with the armature circuit. The equivalent circuit of a series dc motor is shown in Figure
below. In a series motor, the armature current, field current, and line current are all the same. The
Kirchhoff's voltage law equation for this motor is

Fig 4.25 the equivalent circuit of a series dc motor.

Induced Torque in a Series DC Motor
The terminal characteristic of a series dc motor is very different from that of the shunt motor
previously studied. The basic behavior of a series dc motor is due to the fact that the flux is
directly proportional to the armature current, at least until saturation is reached. As the load on
the motor increases, its flux increases too. As seen earlier, an increase in flux in the motor causes
a decrease in its speed. The result is that a series motor has a sharply drooping torque-speed
characteristic. The induced torque in this machine is given by Equation;

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The flux in this machine is directly proportional to its armature current (at least until the metal
saturates).therefore, the flux in the machine can be given by;

Where c is a constant of proportionality. The induced torque in this machine is thus given by

In other words, the torque in the motor is proportional to the square of its armature current. As a
result of this relationship, it is easy to see that a series motor gives more torque per ampere than
any other dc motor. It is therefore used in applications requiring very high torques. Examples of
such applications are the starter motors in cars, elevator motors, and tractor motors in
locomotives.
The Terminal Characteristic of a Series DC Motor
To determine the terminal characteristic of a series dc motor, an analysis will be based on the
assumption of a linear magnetization curve, and then the effects of saturation will be considered
in a graphical analysis. The assumption of a linear magnetization curve implies that the flux in
the motor will be given by Equation.

.
This equation will be used to derive the torque-speed characteristic curve for the series motor.
The derivation of a series motor's torque-speed characteristic starts with Kirchhoff's voltage law.

From induced torque the armature current can be expressed as

Also, substituting these expressions in Kirchhoff's voltage law yields

If the flux can be eliminated from this expression, it will directly relate the torque of a motor to
its speed. To eliminate the flux from the expression, notice that

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And the induced torque equation can be rewritten as

Therefore, the flux in the motor can be rewritten as

Then substituting this value in VT and solve the speed it gives

Fig 4.26 the torque-speed characteristic of a series dc motor

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Speed Control of Series DC Motors
Unlike with the shunt dc motor, there is only one efficient way to change the speed of a series dc
motor. That method is to change the terminal voltage of the motor. If the terminal voltage is

increased, the first term in Equation is increased, resulting in a

higher speed for any given torque. The speed of series dc motors can also be controlled by the
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insertion of a series resistor into the motor circuit, but this technique is very wasteful of power
and is used only for intermittent periods during the start-up of some motors.

The Compounded Dc Motor

A compounded dc motor is a motor with both a shunt and a series field. Such a motor is shown
in Figure below. The dots that appear on the two field coils have the same meaning as the dots on
a transformer. Current flowing into a dot produces a positive magneto motive force. If current
flows into the dots on both field coils, the resulting magnetomotive forces add to produce a
larger total magnetomotive force. This situation is known as cumulative compounding. If
current flows into the dot on one field coil and out of the dot on the other field coil, the resulting
magnetomotive forces subtract. In Figure below the round dots correspond to cumulative
compounding of the motor, and the squares correspond to differential compounding. The
Kirchhoff's voltage law equation for a compounded dc motor is

The currents in the compounded motor are related by;

The net magnetomotive force and the effective shunt field current in the compounded motor are
given by

Where the positive sign in the equations is associated with a cumulatively compounded motor
and the negative sign is associated with a differentially compounded motor.

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Fig 4.27 the equivalent circuit of compounded dc motors: (a.) long-shunt connection: (b) short-shunt connection.

The Torque-Speed Characteristic of a Cumulatively Compounded DC Motor

In the cumulatively compounded dc motor, there is a component of flux which is constant and
another component which is proportional to its armature current (and thus to its load). Therefore,
the cumulatively compounded motor has a higher starting torque than a shunt motor (whose flux
is constant) but a lower starting torque than a series motor (whose entire flux is proportional to
armature current). In a sense, the cumulatively compounded dc motor combines the best features
of both the shunt and the series motors. Like a series motor, it has extra torque for starting; like a
shunt motor, it does not over speed at no load. At light loads, the series field has a very small
effect, so the motor behaves approximately as a shunt dc motor. As the load gets very large, the
series flux becomes quite important and the torque-speed curve begins to look like a series
motor's characteristic. A comparison of the torque-speed characteristics of each of these types of
machines is shown in Figure below.

Fig 4.28 (a) the torque-speed characteristic of a cumulatively compounded dc motor compared to
series and shunt motors with the same full-load rating. (b) The torque-speed characteristic of a
cumulatively compounded dc motor compared to a shunt motor with the same no-load speed

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The Torque-Speed Characteristic of a Differentially Compounded DC Motor
In a differentially compounded dc motor, the shunt magnetomotive force and series
magnetomotive force subtract from each other. This means that as the load on the motor
increases, lit increases and the flux in the motor decreases.But as the flux decreases, the speed of
the motor increases. This speed increase causes another increase in load, which further increases
lit, further decreasing the flux, and increasing the speed again. The result is that a differentially
compounded motor is unstable and tends to run away. This instability is much worse than that of
a shunt motor with armature reaction. It is so bad that a differentially compounded motor is
unsuitable for any application. Because of the stability problems of the differentially
compounded de motor, it is almost never intentionally used. However, a differentially
compounded motor can result if the direction of power flow reverses in a cumulatively
compounded generator.

Fig 4.29 the Torque-Speed Characteristic of a Differentially Compounded DC Motor

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Speed Control in the Cumulatively Compounded DC Motor

The techniques available for the control of speed in a cumulatively compounded dc motor are the
same as those available for a shunt motor:

1. Change the field resistance RF

2. Change the armature voltage VA
3. Change the armature resistance RA.

The arguments describing the effects of changing RF or VA are very similar to the arguments
given earlier for the shunt motor. Theoretically, the differentially compounded dc motor could be
controlled in a similar manner. Since the differentially compounded motor is almost never used,
that fact hardly matters.

Dc Motor Starters
In order for a dc motor to function properly on the job, it must have some special control and
protection equipment associated with it. The purposes of this equipment are
1. To protect the motor against damage due to short circuits in the equipment
2. To protect the motor against damage from long-term overloads
3. To protect the motor against damage from excessive starting currents
4. To provide a convenient manner in which to control the operating speed of the motor
Methods for DC motor starters
1. by inserting resistance in the armature
2. By applied low Dc voltage supply
3. By using power electronics devices/Thyristor

Discuss each methods of starting?????

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