Unit 1: States of matter

Everything is made of particles. Particles in solid are not free to move around.
Liquids and gases can. As particles move they collide with each other and bounce
off in all directions. This is called random motion. In 2 substances, when mixed,
particles bounce off in all directions when they collide. This mixing process is called
diffusion. It’s also the movement of particles without a force. The smallest particle
that cannot be broken down by chemical means is called an atom. ·In some
substances, particles are just single atoms. For example the gas argon, found in air,
is made up of single argon atoms. In many substances, particles consist of 2 atoms
joined together. These are called molecules. In other substances, particles consist of
atoms or groups of atoms that carry a charge. These particles are called ions.

Solids liquids and gases

Solid Properties:
• Definite shape and volume
• Normally hard and rigid
• Large force required to change shape
• High Density
• Incompressible
Model:
• Closely packed
• Occupy minimum space
• Regular pattern
• Vibrate in fixed position
• Not free to move

Liquid Properties:
• Definite volume but no shape.
• High Density
• Not compressible
Model:
• Occur in clusters with molecules slightly further apart compared to solids
• Free to move about within a confined vessel
Gas Properties:
• No Fixed volume and no fixed shape
• Low density
• Compressible
Model:
• Very far apart
• Travel at high speed
• Independent and random motions
• Negligible forces of attraction between them

Diffusion in Gases

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Gases diffuse in different rates. Those rates depend on their factors:
1.Mass of the particles -The lower the mass of its particles the faster a gas will
diffuse. Why?
Because the lighter the molecules...the faster it will travel (obviously...)

2. The temperature-The higher the temperature, the faster a gas will diffuse.
Why?
Because particles gain energy as they are heated

Mixtures, Solutions, and Solvents

Mixture: Contains more the one substance. They are just mixed together and not
chemically combined.
Example: Sand and water.
Solution: It is when a solute and a solvent mix. The solute dissolves in the solvent
making a solution. Example: sugar (solute) dissolves in water (solvent) making a
solution of sugar and water.

The solubility of every substance is different. To help a solute dissolve you could:
• Stir it OR rise the temperature
If you add excess amount of sugar in a small amount of water...it won’t dissolve as
there is no space for it. The solution becomes saturated.

Solvent: A substance that allows solutes to dissolve in Example: Water, Ethanol

Pure substances and impurities

A pure substance is a substance that has no particles of any other substance mixed
with it. An unwanted substance, mixed with a wanted substance, is called an
impurity. To check if a substance is pure, you have to check its melting and boiling
points. A pure substance has a definite, sharp, melting point. When a substance is
impure, the melting point falls and its boiling point rises. So the more impurity
present, the wider and bigger the change in melting and boiling point.

Separation methods

Filter ------------------------- Solid from liquid

Centrifuge ------------------ Solid from liquid
Evaporation ---------------- Solid from its solution
Crystallization -------------- Solid from its solution
Distillation ------------------ Solvent from a solution
Fractional distillation ----- Liquid from each other
Chromatography ---------- Different substances from a solution

1. Filtering- Example: A mixture of chalk and water...

1. A filter paper is placed in a funnel, the funnel placed on a flask.
2. The mixture is poured on the filter paper.
The chalk (the residue) will remain in the filter paper and the water (the filtrate) will
fall down in the flask.

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2. Centrifuging-This method is used to separate small amounts of solid and liquid.
Inside a centrifuge
(it’s a machine), test tubes are spun very fast so the solid gets flung to the bottom.

3. Evaporation -This method is used to separate a solution in which the solid is

dissolved in the liquid. The solution is heated so that the liquid evaporates and the
solid remains in the bottom of the evaporating dish.

4. Crystallization-This method is similar to evaporation but here the solid forms

crystals then the crystals are left to dry.
Separating a mixture of two solids
1. This can be done by dissolving one in an appropriate solvent.
2. Then filtering one and extracting the other from the solution by evaporation.

5. Simple distillation
1. The impure liquid is heated.
2. It boils, and steam rises into the condenser.
3. The impurities are left behind.
4. The condenser is cold so the steam condenses to the pure liquid and it drops out
on the beaker.

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6. Fractional distillation
1. The mixture is heated.
2. The wanted substance boils and evaporates (some of the unwanted liquid will
evaporate too) and rises up the column.
3. The substance will condense on the beads in the column causing them to heat.
4. When the beads reach a certain temperature when the wanted liquid won’t
condense anymore (That’s the boiling point) it will rise while the unwanted liquid
will condense and drop. The wanted liquid will make its way through the condenser
where it will condense and drop down in the beaker.

7. Chromatography -This method is used to separate a mixture of substances. For

example you can use it to find how many colored substances there are in black ink.
Steps:
1. Drop the black ink on to the center of a filter paper and allow it to dry.
2. Drop water on to the ink spot, one drop at a time.
3. Suppose there are three rings: yellow, red and blue. This shows the ink contains 3
colored substances.
The substances travel across the paper at different rates. That’s why they separate
into rings. The filter paper showing the separate substances is called a
chromatogram. This method works because different substances travel at different
speeds because they have different levels of attraction to it.

Uses of chromatography:
• Separate mixtures of substances
• Purify a substance by separating the impurities from it
• Identify a substance

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 Unit 2: The Atom
Atoms are the smallest particles. Each atom consists of a nucleus and a cloud of
particles called electrons that whizz around the nucleus. An element is a substance
that contains only one kind of atom. The periodic table is the “map/address book”
for elements where each element is given a symbol (E.g. K for potassium). The
group of elements that have similar properties are put in a numbered column. For
example, if you know how one element in group 1 behaves, you can easily guess
how the others in the same group will behave. The rows are called periods. The
zigzag line separates metals from non-metals, with the non-metals on the right. So
most of the elements are metals.

A compound contains atoms of different elements joined together where the atoms
are chemically combined. For example carbon dioxide is a compound of carbon and
oxygen (1 carbon and 2 oxygen molecules) The symbol for compound is made from
the symbols of the elements in it. So the formula
for carbon dioxide is CO2.

Isotopes and Radioactivity

You can identify an atom by the number of protons in it. For example, only sodium
atoms
have 11 protons. Isotopes are atoms of the same element, with different numbers of
neutrons.

Some isotopes are radioactive. That means its nucleus is unstable, sooner or later
the atoms breaks down or decays, giving out radiation in the form of rays and tiny
particles, as well as large amount of energy. Like carbon-14, a number of other
elements have radioisotopes that occur naturally and eventually decays. But the
other two isotopes of carbon (like most natural isotopes) are non-radioactive. You
can know when radioisotopes decay by looking at their half life. Radiation affects
humans as it may cause them radiation sickness but radiation also has some uses.

Uses of radiation:
1. Check for leaks in pipes (industry)-This is done by adding a radioisotope to the oil
or gas. At a leak, the radiation is detected using an instrument. Radioisotopes used
in this way are called tracers.

2. in cancer treatment (Medical)-Radioisotopes can cause cancer but yet also can
cure it. Using radiotherapy the radioisotope will decay and give out rays that can kill
cancer cells. These rays will be aimed exactly at the cancer cells.

3. To find the age of old remains-A tiny percentage of a living thing contains carbon-
14 atoms. When living thing dies it no longer takes in new carbon atoms. But

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existing carbon-14 atom decay over time - we can measure the faint radiation from
them.

How electrons are arranged

The electrons in an atom circle fast around the nucleus, at different levels from it.
These energy levels are caller electron shells. The further the shell is from the
nucleus, the higher the energy level. Each shell can hold a limited number of
electrons. First shell can hold up to 2 electrons, second shell can hold up to 8
electrons the third shell can also hold up to 8 electrons

Electronic configuration means the arrangement of electrons in an atom.

Example:
• Argon has the electronic configuration: 2,8,8
Magnesium has the electronic configuration: 2,8,2
NB: • The shells fill in order, from lowest energy level to highest energy level
• All the elements in a group have the same number of electrons in their
outer shells. These are called valency
electrons.
• The group number is the same number of outer shell electrons
• The period number shows how many shells there are.
• If an element posses a full outer shell, the element become unreactive

Unit 3: Atoms combining

Most elements form compounds because they want a full outer shell and to achieve
that they must react with other atoms. For example, sodium has just one electron in
its outer shell. It can obtain a full outer shell by losing this electron to anther atoms
and by that it becomes a sodium ion. Now because sodium lost a electron...it now
has 10 electrons but 11 protons...so it has a 1 positive charge. An ion is a charged
particle. It is charged because it has an unequal number of protons and electrons.

The ionic bond

Example: Sodium and chlorine react together; sodium gives its electron to chlorine.
Now both elements have a full outer shell, but with a charge. Now they are ions.
Sodium now has 10 electrons but 11 protons so it has a positive charge. Chlorine
now has 18 electrons but 17 protons so it has a negative charge. The two ions have
opposite charges, so they attract each other. The force of attraction between them
is strong. It is called an ionic bond.

When sodium reacts with chlorine, billions and billions of sodium and chlorine ions
form and they attract each other. But the ions don’t stay in pairs. They cluster
together so that each ion is surrounded by 6 ions of opposite charges. The pattern
grows until a giant structure of ions is formed. The overall charge of the structure is
0 since 1 positive charge and 1 negative charge neutralize each other.

The ionic bonding is only between metals and non-metals.

Important notes:

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 • Hydrogen and the metals form positive ions
• Non-metals form negative ions, and their names end in -ide
• Group 4 and 5 do not usually form ions because they would have to lose or
gain several electrons and that takes too much energy
• Group 0 elements do not form ions; they already have full outer shells
• Some of the transition metals form more than one ion.
• Some ions can be formed from groups of joined atoms. These are called
compound ions.

Properties of ionic compound

1. Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points. This is because ionic
bonds are very strong, so it takes a lot of heat energy to break up the lattice.
2. Ionic compounds are usually soluble in water. The water molecules can attract
the ions away from the lattice. The ions can then move freely, surrounded by water
molecules.
3. Ionic compounds can conduct electricity when they are melted or dissolved.

When melted the lattice breaks up and the ions are free to move. Since they are
charged, this means they can conduct electricity. The solutions of ionic compounds
conduct electricity too because they are also free to move.

The covalent bond

Giving and losing an electron is not the only way to gain full outer shells since
atoms can also share electrons. Covalent bonding is for non-metals only since only
non-metals need to gain electrons. A molecule is a group of atoms held together by
covalent bonds. When a pair of electrons is shared, it is called a single covalent
bond, or just single bond. When 2 pairs of electrons are shared, it is called a double
covalent bond, or just double bond. When 3 pairs of electrons are shared, it is called
a triple covalent bond, or just triple bond.

Covalent compounds -A covalent compound is when atoms of different elements

share electrons with each other. The molecules in a covalent compound isn’t flat
because each electron repel each other
and try to get as far apart from each other.

Molecular substances -Most molecular substances are gases or liquids at room

temperature. Molecular solids are held in a lattice but the forces between the
molecules are weak. All molecular solids have similar structure. The molecules are
held in regular pattern in a lattice. So the solids are crystalline.

When you cool down a molecular liquid or gas the molecules lose energy so they
start moving slowly and at the freezing point, they form a lattice (a good example
would be ice)

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Properties of covalent bonding
1. Covalent compounds have low melting and boiling point. This is because the
forces between the molecules are weak.
2. They do not conduct electricity this is because molecules are not charged, so
they cannot conduct, even when melted.

Giant covalent structures -A giant covalent structure, or macromolecules are

made of billions of atoms bonded together in a covalent structure.

Diamond – a giant covalent structure diamond is made of carbon atoms held in a

strong lattice. Each carbon atom forms a covalent bond to four others. Eventually
billions of carbon atoms bond together to form a crystal of diamond.

Diamond properties:
1. It is very hard because each atom is held by four strong bonds.
2. It has a very high melting point because of the strong bonds.
3. It can’t conduct electricity because there are no free electrons to carry the
charge.

Silica is similar to diamond.

Graphite – a very different giant structure Like diamond graphite is made only of
carbon atoms. So diamond is and graphite are allotropes of carbon (means they are
two forms of the same element) Graphite, unlike diamond, is one of the softest
solids on earth. In graphite, each carbon atom forms a covalent bond to three
others. This gives rings of six atoms.

Graphite properties:
1. Is soft and slippery because the sheets can slide over each other
2. Is a good conductor of electricity because each carbon atom has four outer
electrons and graphite bonds 3 only so the fourth electron is free to move carrying a
charge.

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 Metallic bonding

Metals form giant structures in which electrons in the outer shells of the metal
atoms are free to move. The metallic bond is the force of attraction between these
free electrons and metal ions. Metallic bonds are strong, so metals can maintain a
regular structure and usually have high melting and boiling points.

Properties of metals:
1. Metals have high melting points -This is because it takes a lot of heat energy to
break up the lattice.
2. Metals are malleable and ductile- They can be bent and pressed into shapes.
Ductile: They can be drawn out into wires. This is because the layers can slide
without the metallic bond breaking, because the electrons are free to move too.
3. Metals are good conductors of heat- That’s because the free electrons take in
heat energy, which makes them move faster and they quickly transfer the heat
through the metal structure.
4. Metals are good conductors of electricity -This is because the free electrons can
move through the lattice carrying the charge.

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 Unit 4: The Periodic Table

The periodic table is a list of all the elements, in order of increasing atomic number.
The columns are called groups. The rows are called periods.

Groups
• The group number tells you how many electrons there are in the outer shell of the
atoms.
• The outer-shell electrons are also called valency electrons and their number
shows how the elements behave.
• All elements in a group have similar properties.
• Group 0 elements have a full outer shell. This makes them unreactive.
• Some of the groups have special names:
Group 1 – The alkali metals
Group 2 – The alkaline earth metals
Group 7 – The halogens
Group 0 – The noble gases

Periods
The period number gives information about the number of electron shells that are
available in that period. Hydrogen sits alone in the table because it’s the only
element with one electron shell.Trends in the periodic table. The elements in each
numbered group shows trends in their properties. For example as you go down
group 1, the elements become more reactive or as you go down group 7 the
elements become less reactive and so on.

Group 1: The alkali metals

Their physical properties:
1. Like all metals, they are good conductors of heat and electricity.
2. They are softer than most other metals and they have low density.
3. They have low melting and boiling points, compared to most metals.

Their chemical properties:

1. All alkali metals react vigorously with water, releasing hydrogen gas and forming
hydroxides. The hydroxides give alkaline solutions.
2. They react with non-metals. With chlorine they react to make chlorides and with
oxygen they make oxides.
They form ionic compounds in which the metal ion has a charge of 1+. The
compounds are white solids, which dissolve in water to give a colorless solution

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Why they have similar properties? Because atoms with the same number of
valency electrons react in a similar way. As you go down the group reactivity
increase. Why? Because the atoms get larger down the group because they add
electron shells.

Group 7: The halogens

A non-metal group
• Form colored gases.
• Are poisonous
• Are brittle and crumbly in their solid form, and do not conduct electricity.
• Form diatomic molecules (means they exist as 2 atoms)

Trends in their chemical properties

Reactivity increases as you go up group 7. Why? Because the smaller the atom, the
easier it is to attract the electron – so the more reactive the element will be.
Why are they so reactive? Because their atoms are only one electron short of a full
shell.

Group 0: The noble gases

A non-metal group
• Contains colorless gases, which occur naturally in air
• Monatomic – they exist as single atoms
• Unreactive because they have a full outer shell.

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 The transition elements

The transition elements are the block of 30 elements in the middle of the periodic
table. They are all metals.

Their physical properties

• Hard, tough and strong
• High melting points (mercury is an exception)
• Malleable and ductile
• Good conductors of heat and electricity
• High density

Their chemical properties

1. They are much less reactive than the metals of group 1.
2. They show no clear trend in reactivity, unlike the metals of group 1.
3. Most transition metals form colored compounds
4. Most can form ions with different charges (they have variable valency)
5. They can form more than one compound with another element
6. Most transition metals can form complex ions

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Uses of transition metals
• The hard strong transition metals are used in structure such as bridges,
buildings, cars etc.
• Many transition metals are used in making alloys.
• Transition metals are used as conductors of heat and electricity.
• Many transition metals and their compounds act as catalysts

Unit 6: Chemical equations

Physical and chemical change
A substance can be changed by heating it, adding water to it, mixing another
substance with it, and so on. The change that takes place will be either chemical
change or a physical change.

Chemical change
In a chemical change, a new chemical substance is produced.
The difference between a mixture and a compound
Mixture: 2 substances are mixed together but not chemically bonded.
Compound: 2 substances are chemically bonded together

The signs of a chemical change- A chemical change is usually called a chemical

reaction. You can tell when a chemical reaction has taken place by these signs:

1. Once or more new chemical substances are formed- The new substance usually
looks different from the starting substances.
2. Energy is taken in or given out during the reaction- A change that gives out heat
energy is called exothermic- A change that takes in heat energy is called
endothermic
3. The change is usually difficult to reverse- This means it will be hard to get back
the raw materials of the reaction.

Physical change

If no new chemical substance is formed, a change is a physical change.

Equations for chemical reactions
The reaction between carbon and oxygen. When they react together, they form
carbon
dioxide. Carbon and oxygen are the reactants. Carbon dioxide is the product of the
reaction.

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Or in a shorter way, using symbols and numbers like this: C + O 2  CO2 This short
way to describe the reaction is called a chemical equation.

The reaction between hydrogen and oxygen:

Adding state symbols

- (s) for solid

- (l) for liquid
- (g) for gas
- (aq) for aqueous solution (solution in water)

Unit 8: Acids and alkalis

Acids-You can tell if something is acid, by its effect on litmus. Litmus is a purple
dye. It can be used as a solution, or on paper. Acids turn litmus red. Alkali turn
litmus blue Litmus is called an indicator, because it indicates whether something is
an acid or an alkali. Neutral substances- Many substances are not acids or alkalis.
They are neutral. Example is pure water.

You can say how acidic or alkaline a solution is using a scale of numbers called pH
scale. The numbers go from 0 to 14:
On this scale:

An acidic solution has a pH number less than 7

An alkaline solution has a pH number greater than 7

A neutral solution has a pH number of exactly 7

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Acids produce hydrogen ions Acidic solutions contain hydrogen ions, this what
makes them ‘acidic’

The difference between strong and weak acids

In solution of strong acids, all molecules become ions (complete ionization). In

solution of weak acids, only some do (partial ionization).

The higher the concentration of hydrogen ions, the lower the pH, the stronger the
acid.

Alkalis produce hydroxide ions. Alkaline solutions contain hydroxide ions, this is
what makes them alkaline.

The difference between a strong alkali and weak alkali

In solution of strong alkali, it contains more hydroxide ions. In solution of weak

alkali, it contains less hydroxide ions.

The higher the concentration of hydroxide ions, the higher the pH.

To tell if the solution is a weak or strong acid. You can also measure there
conductivity. A strong acid will show high conductivity and low pH. A weak acid does
not conduct well, and has a higher pH. For alkali’s, a strong alkali will show high
conductivity and high pH. A weak acid will show low conductivity and low pH.

Reaction of acids with metals

When an acid reacts with a metal, hydrogen is displaced, leaving a salt in solution.
It’s a redox reaction.

Reaction of acids with bases

Bases are a group of compound that reacts with acids, and neutralize them, giving a
salt and water. Bases include alkalis, and insoluble metal oxides, hydroxides and
carbonates.

1. With alkalis acid + alkali salt + water

2. With metal oxides Acid + metal oxide salt + water
3. With carbonates Acid + metal carbonatesalt + water + carbon dioxide

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Reactions of bases

1. Neutralizing acids, giving salt and water. With carbonates carbon dioxide is
produce too.
2. All the alkalis (except ammonia) will react with ammonium compounds, giving
ammonia out.

The ionic equation

An ionic equation shows only the ions that actually take part in a reaction. It leaves
out
the rest.

1. First write down all the ions present in the equation(except for gases and solids)
2. Now cross out any ions that appear, unchanged, on both sides of the equation
3. What’s left is the ionic equation for the reaction

Proton donors and acceptors

Acids donate its protons to bases and bases accept them.

For example: Magnesium oxide is a insoluble base. The acid donates its H+ protons
and the oxygen
from magnesium oxide react with it to make water molecules.

Acidity in soil- Most crops grow best when the pH of the soil is near 7. If soil is too
acidic or too alkaline, crops grow badly or not at all. Usually acidity is the problem.
Why? Because of a lot of vegetation rotting in it or because too much fertilizer was
used in the past. To reduce the acidity, the soil is treated with a base like limestone
or quicklime or slaked lime.

Acid rain is caused by factories, power stations, homes who burn fossil fuels to
make electricity. The waste gases from all these reactions include sulphur dioxide,
and oxides of nitrogen. They go into the air and react with air and water to produce
sulphuric acid and nitric acid which are strong acids.

Making salts
You can make salts by reacting metals, insoluble bases, or soluble bases with acids.

With metals:
Example:
1. Add the zinc to the sulphuric acid in a beaker, It will start to dissolve and
hydrogen bubbles are given off. Stops when all the acid is used up.
2. Excess zinc is removed by filtering. This leaves a aqueous solution of zinc
sulphate.
3. The solution is heated to evaporate some water. Then it is left to cool and
crystals of zinc sulphate start to form.

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With insoluble base:

It’s the same method as the one above but, the metal won’t react with the acid. So
you must start with a metal oxide.

With an alkali (soluble base):

1. Put the alkali into a flask and add some drops of indicator
2. Add the acid from a burette, just a little at a time. Swirl the flask to help the acid
and alkali mix.
3. When the indicator turns green stop adding acid.
4. Calculate how much acid was used.
5. Carry out the experiment again without the indicator and add same amount of
acid that was used before. This is because the indicator will make the salt impure.
6. Heat the solution from the flask and crystals will start to form.

Making insoluble salts by precipitation

Not all salts are soluble

Insoluble salts can be made by precipitation

Preparing barium sulphate

Barium sulphate is an insoluble salt. You can make it by mixing solutions of barium
chloride and magnesium sulphate.

1. Make up solutions of barium chloride and magnesium sulphate.

2. Mix them. A white precipitate of barium sulphate forms at once.
3. Filter the mixture. The precipitate is trapped in the filter paper.
4. Rinse the precipitate by running distilled water through it.
5. Then place it in a warm oven to dry

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To precipitate an insoluble salt, you must mix a solution that contains its positive
ions with one that contains its negative ions.

Rates of reaction

Some reactions are fast and some are slow.

What is rate?
Rate is a measure of how fast or slow something is.
Rate is a measure of the change that happens in a single unit of time.
To find rate of a reaction, you should measure:
• The amount of a reactant used up per unit of time

Or
• The amount of a product produced per unit of time

A reaction that produces a gas

When you react magnesium and hydrochloric acid, it produces hydrogen gas. To
measure the rate of this reaction this method is set up:

Stop clock
Using this you can measure the amount of hydrogen produced in a period of time.

Collisions

For a chemical reaction to occur, the reactant particles must collide. But collisions
with too little energy do not produce a reaction.
The particles must have enough energy for the collision to be successful in
producing a reaction.
The rate of reaction depends on the rate of successful collisions between reactant
particles. The more successful collisions there are, the faster the rate of reaction.

Changing the temperature

If the temperature is increased:
• the reactant particles move more quickly

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• they have more energy
• the particles collide more often, and more of the collisions result in a reaction
• the rate of reaction increases

Changing the concentration or pressure

If the concentration of a dissolved reactant is increased, or the pressure of a
reacting gas is increased:
• the reactant particles become more crowded
• there is a greater chance of the particles colliding
• the rate of reaction increases

Changing the surface area

If a solid reactant is broken into small pieces or ground into a powder:
• its surface area increases
• more particles are exposed to the other reactant
• there are more collisions
• the rate of reaction increases

The effect of light

Some chemical reactions obtain the energy from light. They are called
photochemical reactions. For example:
1. Silver bromide is pale yellow, but darkens on exposure to light because the light
causes it to decompose to silver:

Light
2AgBr  2Ag + Br²
2. Plants use carbon dioxide from the air to make sugar called glucose, in a
reaction called photosynthesis. This uses the energy in sunlight. The green
substance – chlorophyll – in leaves speeds up the reaction:

Light
6CO² + 6H²O  C6 H12 O6 + 6O²
chlorophyll
Carbon dioxide + water  glucose + oxygen
In both these reaction, the stronger the light, the more energy it provides so the
faster the reaction goes.
Effect of catalysts
A catalyst is a substance that can increase the rate of a reaction. The catalyst itself
remains unchanged at the end of the reaction it catalyses. Only a very small
amount of catalyst is needed to increase the rate of reaction between large
amounts of reactants.
A catalyst works by lowering the activation energy for the reaction.
Enzymes: biological catalysts
Enzymes are proteins that act as catalysts. So they are often called biological
catalysts.
How enzymes work
First the enzyme and the reactant molecule fit together like jigsaw pieces. The
reactant molecule has to be the right shape. The enzyme breaks down the molecule
to smaller pieces and so on.
Important notes:

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• An enzyme works best in conditions that match those in the living cells it came
from.
• This means most enzymes work best in the temperature range 25-45ºC
• If the temperature is too high, an enzyme loses its shape and it becomes
denatured.
• An enzyme also works best in a particular pH range.

Uses of enzymes
1. In making ethanol
2. In making bread
3. In biological detergents

Redox reactions

This page looks at the various definitions of oxidation and reduction (redox) in terms
of the transfer of oxygen, hydrogen and electrons. It also explains the terms
oxidising agent and reducing agent.

Oxidation and reduction in terms of oxygen transfer

Definitions
 Oxidation is gain of oxygen.
 Reduction is loss of oxygen.
For example, in the extraction of iron from its ore:

Because both reduction and oxidation are going on side-by-side, this is known as a
redox reaction.
Oxidising and reducing agents
An oxidising agent is substance which oxidises something else. In the above
example, the iron(III) oxide is the oxidising agent.
A reducing agent reduces something else. In the equation, the carbon monoxide is
the reducing agent.
 Oxidising agents give oxygen to another substance.
 Reducing agents remove oxygen from another substance.

Oxidation and reduction in terms of hydrogen transfer

These are old definitions which aren't used very much nowadays. The most likely
place you will come across them is in organic chemistry.
Definitions
 Oxidation is loss of hydrogen.
 Reduction is gain of hydrogen.
Notice that these are exactly the opposite of the oxygen definitions.
For example, ethanol can be oxidised to ethanal:

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You would need to use an oxidising agent to remove the hydrogen from the ethanol.
A commonly used oxidising agent is potassium dichromate(VI) solution acidified
with dilute sulphuric acid.
Ethanal can also be reduced back to ethanol again by adding hydrogen to it. A
possible reducing agent is sodium tetrahydridoborate, NaBH 4. Again the equation is
too complicated to be worth bothering about at this point.

An update on oxidising and reducing agents

 Oxidising agents give oxygen to another substance or remove hydrogen from
it.
 Reducing agents remove oxygen from another substance or give hydrogen to
it.

Oxidation and reduction in terms of electron transfer

This is easily the most important use of the terms oxidation and reduction.
Definitions
 Oxidation is loss of electrons.
 Reduction is gain of electrons.
It is essential that you remember these definitions. There is a very easy way to do
this. As long as you remember that you are talking about electron transfer:
OIL RIG
Oxidation Is Reduction Is
Loss Gain
A simple example
The equation shows a simple redox reaction which can obviously be described in
terms of oxygen transfer.
CuO + Mg → Cu + MgO
Copper(II) oxide and magnesium oxide are both ionic. The metals obviously aren't. If
you rewrite this as an ionic equation, it turns out that the oxide ions are spectator
ions and you are left with:

A last comment on oxidising and reducing agents

If you look at the equation above, the magnesium is reducing the copper(II) ions by
giving them electrons to neutralise the charge. Magnesium is a reducing agent.
Looking at it the other way round, the copper(II) ions are removing electrons from
the magnesium to create the magnesium ions. The copper(II) ions are acting as an
oxidising agent.

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Warning!
This is potentially very confusing if you try to learn both what oxidation and
reduction mean in terms of electron transfer, and also learn definitions of oxidising
and reducing agents in the same terms.
It is recommend that you work it out if you need it. The argument (going on inside
your head) would go like this if you wanted to know, for example, what an oxidising
agent did in terms of electrons:
 An oxidising agent oxidises something else.
 Oxidation is loss of electrons (OIL RIG).
 That means that an oxidising agent takes electrons from that other
substance.
 So an oxidising agent must gain electrons.
Or you could think it out like this:
 An oxidising agent oxidises something else.
 That means that the oxidising agent must be being reduced.
 Reduction is gain of electrons (OIL RIG).
 So an oxidising agent must gain electrons.
Understanding is a lot safer than thoughtless learning!

ELECTROLYSIS

The decomposition of a substance using electrical energy. Electric current is passed

through the substance to be decomposed.

DEFINITION OF TERMS

Electrodes – these are conducting plates through which current enters and leaves
electrolyte. The electrodes have the positive (anode) and the negative (Cathode)
ends.

Anodes – this is the positive electrode through which current enters the
electrolyte. Negative ions migrate to the anode and lose electrons to it. Oxidation
takes place at the anode.

Cathode - this is the negative electrode through which current leaves the
electrolyte. Electrons flow from cathode to the anode. Reduction takes place at the
cathode.

Active electrodes - electrodes which react with products of

electrolysis/electrolytes hence affect the course of the electrolysis. e.g using
copper electrodes in electrolysis of CuSO 4.

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Inert electrodes – electrodes which do not react with the products of
electrolyte during electrolysis. Eg Platinum and carbon (graphite) are normally used
as inert electrodes.

Electrolyte - a substance which conducts electricity when molten or in

solution. This is a liquid which allows electric current to pass through e.g NaCl,
solution of acid in water, molten salts e.t.c.

Non-electrolyte- a compound in molten state which does not allow electric

current to pass through. E.g ethanol, pure water, sugar solution.

AN ELECTRIC CELL

NB: +ve ions (cations) are attracted towards the cathode- (negative
electrodes).
-ve ions (anions) are attracted towards the anode+ (positive
electrodes).

ELECTROLYSIS OF MOLTEN COMPOUNDS (Pure Science)

Electrolysis of molten lead ( ) bromide (PbBr 2). The melting point of lead ( )
bromide is 370˚C. ions present, Pb+2, Br-.

At the anode ………….........................

Bromide ions are attracted. They give up their electrons and turn into bromine
molecules.
2Br-(l) →Br2(g) + 2e-

At the cathode………………………………….
Lead ions are attracted. Lead ions take in the electrons and change to atoms.
Pb+2 + 2e- →Pb(…)

NB: the metal of the compound will be formed at the cathode. Non-metals
will be formed at the Anode.

ELECTROLYSIS OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS (All sciences)

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The products form electrolysis of a solution of a salt may differ from those obtained
by electrolysis of
molten salt. This is because water itself produces ions, but only a few molecules
split into ions.
These ions migrate to the respective electrodes and compet3e with the ions of the
electrolyte for discharge.

FACTORS AFFECTING DISCHARGE OF IONS AT ELECTRODES

When two or more ions of similar charge are present under similar conditions in a
solution e.g H+ and Na+ or OH- and Cl-. One is selected for a discharge over the
other. The preferential discharge depends on the following factors:

a. Position of the ion or group in the electrochemical series.

b. Concentration of the solution.
c. Nature electrode.

A. POSITION OF THE ION OR GROUP IN THE ELECTROCHEMICAL SERIES

At the cathode a more reactive metal will tend to say as ions e.g Na + can not
discharge while the ions of a less reactive metal like Cu +2 are present (electrons
readily to form atoms). Any ion will be discharged from solution in preference to
those above it in the electrochemical series.

ELECTROCHEMICAL SERIES

CATIONS NOT EASY TO DISCHARGE ANIONS

K+ Ease of discharge increase SO4-2
Na+ Most NO3-
Ca+2 reactive Cl-
Mg+2 Br-
Zn+2 I-
Fe+2 OH-
Pb+2
H+
Cu+2

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Ag+

Less reactive

Easily discharge

NB: the more the reactive an element is, its ion remains in solution but
the least reaction the more easily it becomes discharged.

2. CONCENTRATION
If a solution is concentrated the anions which are greater in concentration
compared to the hydroxide ions will be discharged. If a solution is dilute the
hydroxide ion will be discharged on preference to the halogens.

3 NATURE OF ELECTRODES
This factor depends on whether the electrodes are active or inert. Active electrodes
usually affect the products of electrolysis.

ELECTROLYSIS OF CONCENTRATED AQUEOUS HYDROCHLORIDE ACID

The anode must be carbon to resist attack by chloride. Cathode could be carbon or
platinum.

Ions present: H+ and Cl- from acid

H and OH- from water
+

REACTION AT THE CATHODE

2H+ (aq) + 2e- →H2(g) Reduction

REACTION AT THE ANODE

The chloride ions and hydroxide ions are attracted to the anode. Chloride ion is
discharged in preference to the hydroxide because of its high concentration.
Hydroxide ion is expected to be discharged because of its position in the
electrochemical series, but its concentration is very low and therefore chloride ion is
discharged.

2Cl- (aq)→ Cl2 + 2e- oxidation

Electrolysis of concentrated aqueous sodium chloride (NaCl) using inert electrodes.

Ions present: Na+, Cl- from NaCl

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 H+, OH- from water

At the cathode
2H+ (aq) + 2 e- →H2(g) Reduction

At the anode
2Cl- (aq) → Cl2(g) + 2e-

NB: Concentrated aqueous NaCl is known as BRINE. The sodium ions will combine
with the hydroxide ions forming sodium hydroxide (NaOH) which is also an
important
product. The electrolyte will then change from being neutral to alkaline.

ELECTROLYSIS OF DILUTE SULPHURIC ACID USING INERT ELECTRODES/THE

SO CALLED ELECTROLYSIS OF ACIDIFIED WATER

THE HOOFMANN VOLTAMETER

CATHODE REACTION

4H+(aq) + 4e- →2H2(g)

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ANODE REACTION

4OH- (aq) →2H2O(l) + O2(g) + 4e-

NB: Ions of water are discharged leaving behind ions of H2SO4. The electrolyte
therefore become more concentrated with sulphuric acid.

The same number of electrons are evolve at each chloride. From the equation, one
molecule of oxygen is produced for every two molecules of hydrogen. 2 volumes of
hydrogen at the cathode and 1 volume of O2 at the anode is equivalent to the
electrolysis of water.

The volume of O2 obtained is half of H2 because O2 is more soluble in H2O.

ELECTROLYSIS OF AQUEUOS COPPER(II) SULPHATE USING CARBON

ELECTRODES(Inert electrode)

Ions present : Cu+2, ……… from CuSO4

H+, OH- from H2O

Cathode reaction
Cu+2(aq) + 2e- →Cu(s)
(Brown copper deposit is observed at the cathode)

OBSERVATION MADE
The solution changes from blue to light blue to colourless ie the intensity of the blue
colour reduces with time.

Copper (II) ions (Cu+2) in solution are blue, so the solution loses its colour, they are
being discharged.

Bubble of oxygen gas at the anode.

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Brown copper deposit at the cathode.

ELECTROLYSIS OF AQUEOUS COPPER (II) SULPHATE USING COPPER

ELECTRODES (ACTIVE ELECTRODES)

Ions present : Cu+2, …….

H+, OH-

At the cathode
Cu+2 (aq) + 2e- →Cu(s)

At the anode
Both ……………… and OH- ions migrate here but neither of them is discharged,
instead
the copper anode dissolves in the solution by giving away its electrons. This is
called
electrode ionisations.

Cu(s) →Cu+2(aq) + 2e-

Observations
=the CuSo solution remains the same colour. Why?
*the anode is reduced in mass and the cathode increases.

Mass of copper gained = mass of copper lost

at the cathode at the anode

PURIFICATON OF COPPER

Copper is a very good conduct of electricity. It must be pure to be used for

electrical
wiring and cables. To ensure the level of purity, copper has to be purified by
electrolysis.

NOTE:
 the electrolyte is a solution of copper (II) sulphate or copper (II) salt solution
 the impure copper is used as the anodes
 the cathode is made from pure copper

at the anode
The impure copper is used as the anode. The anode loses mass because the copper
atoms lose eletrons and become copper ions.

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Therefore the impurities fall to the bottom of the cell.

Cu (s) → Cu+2(aq) + 2e-

At the cathode
The copper ions are discharged and pure copper is deposited on the cathode.

ELECTROPLATING
It is defined as the process of coating one metal with another metal using electricity
or by
electrolysis.

IMPORTANT POINTS:
 The substance electroplated is made the cathode
 The metal used for electroplating is made the anode
 The electrolyte is a salt solution of the metal used for electroplating.

Example
Electroplating an ion nail with copper

Remember:
the ion nail is made the cathode
copper is made the anode
a copper salt solution e.g CuCl2, CuSO4 is used as the electrolyte

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At the cathode
Cu+2(aq) + 2e-→Cu(s)

At the anode
Cu(s) → Cu+2(aq) + 2e-

USES OF ELECTROPLATING
 To protect against corrosion
 To improve appearance or for decoration

USES OF ELECTROLYSIS
 Extraction of metal(s)
 Electroplating
 Purification of metals e.g copper
 Manufacture of chemicals e.g NaOH

ELECTROLYSIS CALCUTIONS

The quantity of electricity or charge (Q) flowing through an electrolysis all is

measured in
Coulombus (C)
*one coulomb (1C) is equivalent to a current of 1 ampere (1A) following for 1
second.

FARADAY’S FIRST LAW OF ELECTROLYSIS (Pure Science)

The mass of a substance deposited or liberated at an electrode during electrolysis is
proportioned to the quantity of electricity passing through one electrolyte.

Quantity of = current (I) x time (t)

Charge (Q)

Q = It

Current is measured in ampere (A). Change is measured in Coulombus (C) and

time in
seconds (s).

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The quantity of electricity (charge) transferred by 1 mole of electrons is equal to
96 500
coulombs per mole. This is called the Faraday’s constant.

Faranday’s constant = 96 500 c/mol

1 Faraday = 96 500C
2 Faraday = 96 500 C x 2
1 mole of e- = 96 500 C

Number of moles of = charge (Q)

e- Faraday constant

Mol of e- = Q
F

Number of moles = moles of e-

Of an element charge of 1 ion of element

Mol of E = Mole of e-
Charge of ion

Metals

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The Reactivity Series of Metals:
The reactivity series is metal is an arrangement of the metals (and
carbon and hydrogen) in order of their reactivity starting with the
most reactive metal at the top and ending with the least reactive
metal at the bottom.
The reactivity of a metal is determined by its ability to form a
positive ion. For example, potassium is extremely reactive because
it has only one valence electron, so it is very easy to lose it
forming a positive ion.
One the other hand, copper is a weakly reactive metal because it
has more valence electrons so it is harder for it to become a
positive ion.
Reactions of Metals:
The reactivity series of metals was deduced by performing several
experiments in the lab which enabled scientists to arrange metals
according to their reactivity with dilute acid, oxygen (air), and
water.
Reactions with Dilute Hydrochloric Acid:
In the previous chapter, you studied those reactions involving a metal and an acid
are used to prepare soluble salts and that this method is only suitable for preparing
salts of moderately reactive metals (MAZIT). This is because any metal more
reactive that magnesium will react very violently with acids which is dangerous.
Metal + HCl → Metal Chloride + Hydrogen
The photo on the right shows magnesium reacting with dilute
hydrochloric acid. Those effervescences are caused by the evolution of
hydrogen gas, which is a product in this reaction. This reaction was
repeated using the other metals of the reactivity series. The rate of
evolution of hydrogen gas in each experiment was measured. The
metals were arranged in order of reactivity starting with the most
reactive metal which had the highest rate of effervescence of hydrogen
gas. The rate of effervescence is also the rate of this reaction is
measured by measuring the volume of hydrogen produced per unit time.
Metals Reactivity with Dilute HCl
Potassium, Sodium & React extremely violently with rapid
Calcium effervescence and splashing
Magnesium & React violently with rapid
Aluminum effervescence
Zinc, Iron & Lead React slowly with bubbles
Copper, Silver, Gold &
Do not react
Platinum

Reactions with Oxygen in Air:

Most metals react with oxygen from air forming a metal oxide. You have previously
studied that metal oxides are basic oxides and that some of them are insoluble in
water and some of them are soluble in water forming an alkaline solution. The most
reactive metals like potassium, sodium, calcium and magnesium react with oxygen
with a very bright flame and producing white ashes and their oxides are soluble.

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Moderately reactive metals like aluminum and zinc react with oxygen forming white
powdered ashes but their oxides are insoluble. Iron and copper react very slowly
with oxygen. The result of iron oxygen reactions is rust which is reddish brown iron
oxide. When a copper lump reacts with oxygen, a white layer of black copper oxide
forms on it. When the lump gets covered by this layer; the reaction stops. Oxides of
iron and copper are insoluble. Metals that are less reactive than copper like silver,
gold and platinum do not react with oxygen.

Note: When aluminum reacts with oxygen, a layer of aluminum oxide adheres and
covers the aluminum. At this point no further reaction can take place.

Reactions of Metals with Water and Steam:

Some metals are so reactive that they will just react with water immediately if they
come in contact. Other metals will react slowly will cold water, but with steam they
react much faster. And other metals can only react slowly with steam. Unreactive
metals such as silver and gold do not react with water.
Potassium, sodium and calcium react vigorously with cold water and may catch on
fire. The products of these reactions are metal hydroxide and hydrogen gas. If
hydrogen gas being produced accumulates it may ignite and cause an explosion.
Metal + Water → Metal hydroxide + Hydrogen
E.g.: 2Na + 2H2O → 2NaOH + H2
Magnesium, aluminum, zinc and iron are less reactive. They react with steam
forming metal oxide and hydrogen. Magnesium and aluminum will react vigorously
with steam while zinc and iron react slowly.
Metal + Steam → Metal Oxide + Hydrogen
E.g.: Magnesium + Steam → Magnesium oxide + Hydrogen

Competition Reactions in Solid State:

Previously you’ve studied displacement reactions which are pre-formed in aqueous
states. A very similar reaction takes place in the solid state, it is called thermite
reaction. This reaction is used to repair damaged railway lines. In this reaction,
aluminum and iron (III) oxide are the reactants. In the reaction, aluminum removes
the oxygen ion from iron and bonds with it. This happens because aluminum is
more reactive than iron. The products are aluminum oxide and iron in molten form.
In the fixing procedure, the reactants are put in the cut in the railway line and the
reaction is triggered by heating using a magnesium fuse. The reaction leaves
aluminum oxide and molten iron with then condenses in the cut welding it. Like
displacement reactions, this reaction is exothermic.
2Al + Fe2O3 → Al2O3 +2Fe

Competition Reactions in Aqueous State:

These are ordinary displacement reactions in which the two positive ions compete
for the negative ion. The ion of the more reactive metal wins. Zinc is higher than
copper in the reactivity series. If zinc is added to a solution of copper nitrate, a
displacement reaction will take place in which the zinc will displace the copper ion
from the solution in its salt. The products of this reaction are zinc nitrate and
copper. Copper salt solutions have a blue color which fades away as the reaction
proceeds because the concentration of the copper salt decreases. This type of
reaction also helped in confirming reactivity of metals since the more reactive metal
displaces the less reactive one.

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Zn + Cu(NO3)2 → Zn(NO3)2 + Cu

Action of Heat on Metal Compounds:

Applying heat to a metal compound such as potassium nitrate will cause it to
decompose into potassium nitrite and oxygen. This is a thermal decomposition
reaction.

Anion:
Metal:
Nitrate (NO3) Carbonate (CO3) Hydroxide (OH)
Potassiu
Metal Nitrate → Metal
m NO DECOMPOSITION
nitrite + Oxygen
Sodium
Calcium
Magnesi
um
Aluminu Metal Nitrate → Metal Metal hydroxide
Metal Carbonate → Metal
m oxide + Nitrogen dioxide →Metal oxide +
oxide + Carbon dioxide
Zinc + Oxygen Hydrogen
Iron
Lead
Copper
Metal Nitrate → Metal + Metal Carbonate → Metal -
Silver
Nitrogen dioxide + + Carbon dioxide +
Gold
Oxygen Oxygen

Silver and gold hydroxides do not exist.

Ions of more reactive metals tend to hold on tightly to their anions and do not
decompose easily this is why lots of heat is needed.

Extracting Metals From Their Ores:

Most metals do not exist in nature as pure elements. Instead, they are found as
naturally occurring compounds called ores. Ores are naturally occurring minerals
from which a metal can be extracted. Most ores are metals oxide, carbonate or
sulfide mixed with other impurities. The extraction of metal from ores begun long
ago when people started purifying iron from its iron oxide ore by reducing it using
charcoal. This was possible because carbon is more reactive than iron so it can
reduce it take the oxygen ion from it. But then other metals were discovered which
were higher than carbon in the reactivity series. Those metals were not possibly
extracted from their ores until in the 19th century when a method of extracting
them by electrolysis was invented. The method extracting a metal depends on its
reactivity.

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 Metals - in decreasing
Reactivity
order of reactivity
 potassium
 sodium
 calcium Extract by electrolysis
 magnesium
 aluminium
 carbon
 zinc
 iron Extract by reaction with carbon
 tin or carbon monoxide
 lead
 hydrogen
 copper
 silver Extracted by various chemical
 gold reactions
 platinum

Extraction of Aluminum: (Pure Science)

Aluminum exists naturally as aluminum oxide (alumina) in its ore, which is called
bauxite. Because aluminum is a very reactive metal, it holds on very tightly to the
anion it bonds with, which is oxide in this case. This is why the best way to extract
and purify aluminum is by electrolysis in a cell like the one below.

In this cell, the electrodes are made of graphite (Carbon). The cathode is a layer at
the bottom of the cell and the anodes are bars dipped in the electrolyte. The
electrolyte in this process is a molten mixture of aluminum oxide and cryolite.
Aluminum oxide by its self has a very high melting point of 2050oC which is higher
than the melting point of the steel container in which this process is done. That
means the steel container will melt before the aluminum oxide. This is why
aluminum oxide is mixed with cryolite which decreases the melting point of it to
under 1000oC, thus saving a lot of money because heating is expensive and
preventing the steel container from melting. Heat must be continuously supplied to

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the mixture to keep it molten. Aluminum oxide does not conduct electricity when
solid because it does not have free mobile ions to carry the charge.

 Aluminum oxide is purified from impurities of oxide by adding sodium

hydroxide
 Aluminum oxide is mixed with cryolite and put in the electrolysis cell
 Heat is given in until the mixture becomes molten
 Electrolysis start
 Oxide ions get attracted to the anode and discharged (oxidation); 2O 2-, 4e
→ O2
 Aluminum ions get attracted to the cathode and discharged and settle at the
bottom
of the container (reduction); Al3+ + 3e → Al
 Oxygen gas evolves and is collected with waste gases
 Aluminum is sucked out of the container at regular intervals
Oxygen gas which evolves reacts with carbon from the cathode forming CO2. The
cathode gets worn away. To solve this, the cathode is replaced at regular intervals.
Heat supply is very expensive; this is why cryolite is used to decrease the melting
point of aluminum oxide and this process is done in plants which use hydroelectric
energy because it is cheap.

Uses of aluminum:
 Construction of air-craft bodies because aluminum is very strong and very
light and it is resistant to corrosion
 Food containers because it is resistant to corrosion
 Overhead power cables because it conducts electricity, is very light,
malleable and ductile. Although it is strengthened with steel core

Extraction of Iron: (All Sciences)

The ore of iron is called hematite. It consists of 60% iron in form of Iron oxide
(Fe2O3) with other impurities such as silicon
oxide (SiO2). This process takes place in a tower called a Blast furnace.
Products and Waste
Substances
Materials
 Iron ore (Hematite)
 Pure Iron
 Coke (heated coal)
 Carbon dioxide
 Lime stone (Calcium
 Air
carbonate)
 Slag (Calcium silicate)
 Hot Air
 Substances are put in the blast furnace
 The process starts by blowing in hot air at the bottom of the furnace
 Coke burns in oxygen from the hot air producing carbon dioxide; C + O 2
→ CO2
 Heat makes lime stone decompose into calcium oxide and carbon dioxide;
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
 Carbon dioxide produced goes up the furnace and reacts with more coke up
there producing
carbon monoxide; CO2 + C → 2CO

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  Carbon monoxide is a reducing agent. It rises further up the furnace where it
meets iron oxide and starts reducing it producing iron and carbon dioxide;
Fe2O3 + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO2
 Calcium oxide which was produced from the thermal decomposition of lime
stone is a base. It reacts with impurities of hematite such as silicon oxide
which is acidic forming calcium silicate which is called slag; CaO + SiO 2
→ CaSiO3
 Molten Iron and slag produced trickles down and settles at the bottom of the
furnace. Iron is denser than slag so it settles beneath it.
Iron and slag are tapped off separately at regular intervals and pure iron is
collected alone
 Waste gases such as carbon dioxide formed in the process and nitrogen and
other gases from air blown in escape at the top of the furnace.

Conversion of Iron into Steel:

Iron produced in the blast furnace is called pig iron. It contains 4% carbon as well as
other impurities such as sulfur, silicon and phosphorus which make it hard and
brittle. It got that name from the fact that it has to be poured into mould called pigs
before it is converted into steel. Most of produced iron is converted into steel
because steel has better properties.
Making steel out of pig iron is a process done in a basic oxygen furnace:
 Molten pig iron is poured into the oxygen furnace
 A water cooled lance is introduced which blows oxygen onto the surface of
the molten iron
 Impurities start to react
 Carbon is oxidized into carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide and escape
 Sulfur is oxidized into sulfur dioxide and escapes
 Silicon and phosphorus are oxidized into silicon oxide and phosphorus
pentoxide which are solids.
 Calcium oxide (lime) is added to remove the solid impurities as slag which is
skimmed off the surface
 Throughout the process, sample of the iron are being taken and analyzed for
the percentage of carbon present in it. When the percentage of carbon
desired is reached, the furnace is switched off and the steel is collected.

There are many different forms of steel. Each has different components and
properties and is used for different purposes.
Compositi
Steel Properties Uses
on

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 99.5% Iron Car bodies
Easily worked lost
Mild Steel 0.5% large structures
brittleness
Carbon Machinery
99% Iron
Hard Steel Tough and brittle Cutting tools and chisels
1% Carbon
87% Iron
Stainless Drill bits and springs and
13% Tough and springy
Steel chemical plants
Manganese
74% Iron
Manganese 18% Tough and resistant to Cutlery and surgical
Steel Chromium corrosion tools, kitchen sinks
8% Nickel
95% Iron
Tungsten Tough and hard even at Edges of high speed
5%
Steel high temperatures cutting tools
Tungsten

Extraction of Zinc:
The ore of zinc is called zinc blende and it is made of zinc sulfide. Zinc is obtained
from zinc sulfide by converting it into zinc oxide then reducing it using coke, but
first zinc sulfide must be concentrated.
Zinc sulfide from zinc blende is concentrated by a process called froth floatation. In
this process, the ore is crushed and put into tanks of water containing a frothing
agent which makes the mixture froth up. Hot air is blown in and froth starts to form.
Rock impurities in the ore get soaked and sink to the bottom of the tank. Zinc
sulfide particles cannot be soaked by water; they are lifted by the bubbles of air up
with the froth and are then skimmed off. This is now concentrated zinc sulfide.
Then, zinc sulfide gets heated very strongly with hot air in a furnace. Zinc sulfide
reacts with oxygen from the air to produce zinc oxide and sulfur dioxide gas which
escapes as waste gas.
2ZnS + 3O2 → 2ZnO + 2SO2
Sulfur dioxide is used in the manufacture of sulfuric acid.
Zinc oxide produced is put into a furnace with powdered coke. The mixture is
heated till 1400oC. Carbon from the coke reduces the zinc oxide into zinc producing
carbon monoxide which escapes as waste gas.
ZnO + C → Zn + CO
Carbon monoxide produced is hot and is used to heat the furnace to reduce heating
costs. The pure zinc produced is collected and left to cool down. Zinc is used in
many ways like the production of the alloy brass, galvanization and making car
batteries.

Extraction of Copper:
Copper is one of the most popular metals. Native copper occurs in some regions in
the world. Otherwise, copper exists in its ore, copper pyrites (2CuFeS2). You have
studied before that copper can be purified by electrolysis. It can also be extracted
from it ore by converting pyrites into copper sulfide by reacting it with oxygen:
2CuFeS2 + 4O2 → Cu2S + 3SO2 + 2FeO
Sulfur oxide produced escapes as waste gas and iron oxide impurities are removed
by heating the mixture with silicon converting it in to iron silicate which is run off.

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The remaining copper sulfide is then heated strongly with air. Copper sulfide reacts
with oxygen from air producing sulfur oxide which escapes as waste gas and pure
copper.
Cu2S + O2 → 2Cu + SO2
Thus copper is extracted.

Uses of Copper:
 In electrical wires because it is a perfect electrical conductor and very ductile,
malleable and cheap
 Making alloys such as bronze and brass
 Cooking utensils because it conducts heat and it is has high melting and
boiling points and also resists corrosion
 Electrodes because it is a good conductor of electricity
 Water pipes because it is resistant to corrosion

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Molf