Introduction

When India was under British rule, they started a railway line project to connect Lahore
and Karachi. While laying rails for the network, some workers find a colossal ground
with well-burnt bricks placed systematically. First, they did not bother about it.
However, later, when other officials arrived, they found other evidence of civilization
there and decided to dig deeper and search extensively around that area.
The civilization they had found was one of the earliest civilizations in the history of
humankind known to historians so far. It was the Indus valley civilization known as the
Harappan civilization.
Indus valley civilization or Harappan civilization was when only two others of such
huge size were present, namely – Egypt and Mesopotamia.
Harappan civilization was spread across the northeast of present-day Afghanistan,
Pakistan, and northwest India. This civilization lasted from 3300 BCE to 1300 BCE and
flourished between 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE. It flourished along the Indus river basin,
which spread across Pakistan.
Two major cities of the civilization were Harappa and Mohenjo Daro. These two cities
grew to accommodate 30,000 to 60,000 civilians. This is considered a vast population
considering other civilizations of the period. These two major cities were surrounded and
connected by small villages.
Harappan civilization was known for its sound drainage system, urban civilization, burnt
brickworks, multi-story structures, handicrafts, seal for currency, and metallurgy of
copper, lead, bronze and tin. Harappan civilization is a bronze age civilization.

HARAPPAN CITIES
Harappan cities are evidence of advanced technology and city planning used in the
planning and construction of the city, making them the first urban centres in the region.
Quality of urban planning and municipal town planning suggests efficient governance,
which places high priorities on hygiene.
The water well was provided to each house or group that provided water to civilians.
Wastewater was directed outwards by a covered well-connected drainage system
throughout the city.
The advanced architecture and engineering can be seen in their dockyards, granaries,
large walled structures, drainage systems, town planning, etc.
HARAPPAN ARTS & CRAFTS
When excavated the various civilization sites in India and Pakistan, various sculptures,
gold jewellery, seals, and bronze vessels were found. Some toys and games were also
found at Harappan civilization sites.
Earlier, these items were at the Delhi museum, but later after partition, both the countries
(India and Pakistan) divided all the findings in half.
Shell working, ceramics, agate, glazed steatite bead making were practised, and
necklaces, bangles, and other ornaments were made out of beads.
HARAPPAN SEALS
Thousands of seals have been recovered from the sites of excavation surviving years
under the Earth’s surface. The size of these seals ranges from a square of 2cm to 4cm.
The great majority of Indus scripts are short groups of signs on seals.
These seals were used for positive imprints and used by traders or the government to
identify or categorise people or commodities.

HARAPPAN LANGUAGE AND WRITING SYSTEM

Indus inscriptions preclude any possibility of a different language being used, and that
Dravidian language must have been part of India or Harappan people. Break-up of proto-
Dravidian culture corresponding to the Late Harappan culture. Now, the Dravidian
language family is mainly concentrated in southern India.
Indus people used to sign or symbol language to communicate. Over 400 to 600 different
symbols have been found on seals, crafts, ceramic pots, and dozens of other materials.
Typical Indus inscription is about 4-5 symbols in length.
The Indus valley civilization is considered a literate civilization considering the
advanced technology and urban planning used and symbols and signs used to convey
messages.
Brainly-
Harappan and Mesopotamian civilizations were two of the earliest urban civilizations in
human history, emerging independently in different regions and showcasing distinctive
features in various aspects of their societies.
Explanation:
A comparative study of their town planning, trade, and religious practices offers
insights into their similarities and differences.
Town Planning:
The Harappan civilization, flourishing around 2600 to 1900 BCE in the Indus Valley
(present-day Pakistan and northwest India), is renowned for its sophisticated urban
planning. Cities like Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa displayed a well-organized grid layout
with streets running at right angles and advanced drainage systems. Houses had access to
water and bathrooms, suggesting a high level of urban planning and sanitation.
In contrast, Mesopotamian civilization, centered in the fertile crescent between the
Tigris and Euphrates rivers (present-day Iraq), also exhibited urban development, but
with a different layout. Cities like Ur and Babylon had irregular street patterns due to the
uneven terrain. Ziggurats, massive stepped temple structures, dominated the urban
landscape, indicating the religious significance of the architecture.
Trade:
Both civilizations engaged in extensive trade networks. Harappan cities had access to
resources like copper from Oman and turquoise from Iran. Evidence of standardized
weights and measures suggests a well-organized trade system. Additionally, the presence
of seals and script-like symbols points to a form of written communication.
Mesopotamia, due to its strategic location between the Mediterranean and the Persian
Gulf, became a hub for trade between different regions. Rivers facilitated the movement
of goods, with the development of the sail, wheel, and plow enhancing trade efficiency.
Cuneiform script on clay tablets documented trade transactions and economic records.
Religion:
In Harappan civilization, our understanding of religious practices is limited due to the
lack of deciphered texts. However, artifacts like seals depicting deities, animals, and
possibly rituals suggest some form of spirituality. The "Great Bath" at Mohenjo-Daro
might have had a religious or ceremonial purpose.
Mesopotamian religion was polytheistic, with a pantheon of gods and goddesses
governing various aspects of life. Temples and ziggurats were dedicated to these deities,
and rituals were performed to appease them. Epic narratives like the "Epic of
Gilgamesh" revealed their religious beliefs and offered moral teachings.
In conclusion, the Harappan and Mesopotamian civilizations shared common features
like urban development and engagement in trade, showcasing human ingenuity in
different geographical contexts. While the Harappans had a more organized town
planning system and enigmatic religious practices, the Mesopotamians excelled in river-
based trade and had a more documented religious belief system. The comparative study
of these civilizations sheds light on the diversity and complexity of early human
societies.
1. Introduction
The Harappan (Indus Valley) and Mesopotamian Civilisations are two of the most
prominent ancient urban societies of the Bronze Age, representing early examples of
human ingenuity in administration, architecture, trade, and societal organization.
Flourishing in two geographically distinct regions — South Asia and West Asia
respectively — these civilisations offer a wealth of insights into early city life, economic
systems, religious beliefs, and artistic expression. While Harappa grew in the fertile
plains of the Indus River system (modern-day Pakistan and northwest India),
Mesopotamia arose between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers (modern-day Iraq), often
dubbed as the “Cradle of Civilization.”
Despite their distance, these societies shared remarkable similarities in urban planning,
trade, and craftsmanship, while also differing in terms of script decipherment, religious
structures, political organization, and historical continuity. This comparative study seeks
to examine these parallels and contrasts through an organized framework, aiding in a
deeper understanding of their development and decline.

2. Bronze Age Civilisation

The term Bronze Age refers to a period (approximately 3300 BCE to 1200 BCE)
marked by the widespread use of bronze (an alloy of copper and tin) for tools, weapons,
and ornaments. This era witnessed the rise of large urban societies, innovations in
metallurgy, advancements in irrigation and agriculture, and the emergence of early
writing systems.
Both Harappan and Mesopotamian civilisations flourished during this age. They
exhibited complex social hierarchies, centralized administration, standardised weights
and measures, and long-distance trade. The Bronze Age was not merely a technological
phase; it also fostered an intellectual and cultural revolution that laid the groundwork for
future human civilization.

3. The Harappan Civilisation

i) Sources
Our understanding of the Harappan Civilisation comes primarily from archaeological
excavations. Unlike Mesopotamia, which has a deciphered script, the Harappan script
remains unreadable, limiting our historical understanding.
 The Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro, one of the earliest public water tanks, indicates
ritualistic or religious use and advanced water management.
 Citadel and Lower Town division show planned urban zoning — possibly
administrative and residential areas.
 Seals made of steatite bear inscriptions and symbolic animal motifs, including the
unicorn, bull, and rhinoceros. These likely served administrative or mercantile
functions.
 Granaries suggest food storage for surplus grain, either for distribution or trade.
ii) Origins
The Harappan Civilisation evolved gradually out of Neolithic cultures, particularly
those associated with the Mehrgarh site in Baluchistan (present-day Pakistan), dating
back to 7000 BCE. Early agrarian communities began settling near the river systems,
benefitting from fertile alluvial plains for cultivation.
By around 2600 BCE, these settlements expanded into larger cities with complex
infrastructure. Harappa (in Punjab) and Mohenjo-daro (in Sindh) became key urban
centers. Unlike Mesopotamia, which experienced early conquests and dynasties,
Harappan development appears to have been more peaceful and continuous, without
the evidence of large-scale warfare.
iii) Town Planning
Harappan town planning is among the most advanced in the ancient world:
 Cities followed a grid pattern with streets laid out at right angles.
 Drainage systems were highly developed; most homes had private bathrooms
connected to covered drains.
 Use of baked bricks with uniform dimensions across cities — a unique feature.
 Wells were common; water management was prioritised.
 Public structures like the Great Bath and granaries suggest civic administration.
 Homes were multi-roomed, often two-storeyed, with courtyards — pointing to
domestic sophistication.
This level of uniformity across cities like Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Dholavira, and Lothal
indicates centralised planning and possibly a shared governance or cultural code.
iv) Trade
Trade was both internal and external:
 Internal trade occurred between cities and villages, dealing in food grains,
pottery, cloth, and tools.
 External trade was conducted with Mesopotamia (referred to as “Meluhha”),
Oman, Bahrain (Dilmun), and Afghanistan.
 Goods exported included carnelian beads, ivory, lapis lazuli, cotton textiles,
and possibly peacocks and exotic woods.
 Trade was facilitated through seals used as trade tokens.
 Dockyard at Lothal reveals maritime trade activity.
 Absence of coinage implies a barter system supported by standardised weights
and seals.
v) Art and Craft
Harappan art reflects both aesthetic and utilitarian values:
 Sculpture: Notable pieces include the Dancing Girl (bronze, symbolising grace
and movement), and the Priest King (limestone, suggesting elite class).
  Pottery: Mostly red ware with black motifs, wheel-made, and sometimes painted
with geometric patterns.
 Terracotta toys such as carts and animal figurines highlight both artistic
sensibility and children's recreational life.
vi) Dress and Ornaments
 Clothing was made primarily from cotton; wool was used in colder regions like
Baluchistan.
 Male dress included waistbands and shawls; female figurines suggest elaborate
hairdos and decorative headdresses.
 Ornaments were widely used — bangles, necklaces, earrings, and anklets made
from precious and semi-precious materials.
 Both men and women wore ornaments, indicating a culture appreciative of
personal adornment.
vii) Downfall of the Civilisation
The decline of the Harappan Civilisation was due to:
o Climate change: Shifting monsoon patterns and droughts may have made
agriculture unsustainable.
o River drying: The Ghaggar-Hakra (possibly Saraswati) is thought to have
dried up.
o Floods: Repeated flooding in cities like Mohenjo-daro.
o Trade disruption: Collapse of long-distance trade networks.
o De-urbanisation: Populations possibly migrated to rural areas.
o No evidence of invasion or warfare on a large scale.
The civilisation did not vanish overnight but transformed into regional cultures that laid
the groundwork for later Vedic societies.

4. The Mesopotamian Civilisation

i) Sources
Mesopotamia, literally meaning “land between rivers,” has yielded an abundance of
literary, architectural, and artefactual sources:
 Cuneiform tablets made from clay, recording transactions, myths (e.g., Epic of
Gilgamesh), and legal codes.
 Ziggurats like those in Ur and Babylon, serving religious purposes.
 Law codes, most famously the Code of Hammurabi, provide details about
justice, punishment, property rights, and gender roles.
Unlike Harappa, Mesopotamian texts allow a direct understanding of language, beliefs,
economy, and governance.
ii) Origins
Mesopotamian civilization began with the Sumerians around 3500 BCE. Early
settlements like Eridu and Uruk developed near riverbanks due to fertile alluvium and
irrigation.
Mesopotamian history includes multiple phases:
 Sumerian City-States (3500–2334 BCE)
 Akkadian Empire under Sargon (2334–2193 BCE)
 Babylonian Empire (c. 1894–539 BCE)
 Assyrian Empire, and later Neo-Babylonian and Persian conquests.
Each brought new architectural styles, military expansions, and legal codes, making
Mesopotamian civilization more politically fragmented and dynamic compared to
Harappa.

iii) Town Planning

Mesopotamian cities were less standardised:
  Organic growth led to narrow, winding streets.
 Centralised temples (ziggurats) and palaces dominated city centers.
 Houses were made of sun-dried bricks and featured central courtyards.
 Irrigation canals and water management were vital due to irregular flooding.
 Walls surrounded cities for protection, indicating frequent warfare.
iv) Trade
Mesopotamia was rich in grain but lacked stone, timber, and metals:
 Trade was necessary for importing cedar wood (Lebanon), tin (Anatolia), lapis
lazuli (Afghanistan), and pearls (Dilmun).
 Extensive land and river routes connected Mesopotamia to India, Egypt, and
Central Asia.
 Barter system was initially used, later replaced by silver-based economy.
 Merchant guilds and temple-controlled economy ensured regulated trade.
v) Art and Craft
Mesopotamian art was symbolic and monumental:
 Bas-reliefs and murals depicted gods, kings, war, and ceremonies.
 Statues of worshippers placed in temples show prayer and devotion.
 Pottery was both utilitarian and decorative.
 Assyrian and Babylonian palace reliefs demonstrated military conquests and
divine authority.
vi) Dress and Ornaments
 Men wore woolen skirts or kilts; women wore full-length dresses.
 Royalty and elites wore embroidered robes with gold borders.
 Jewelry included rings, earrings, and pendants made from gold, silver, and lapis
lazuli.
 Beards and hairstyles were styled elaborately, especially among Assyrians.
vii) Downfall of the Civilisation
Mesopotamian civilization underwent multiple phases of decline:
 Continuous foreign invasions weakened political stability — Hittites, Kassites,
Persians.
 Ecological stress: Over-irrigation led to salinization of farmlands.
 Political fragmentation made cities vulnerable.
 The fall of Babylon to Cyrus the Great in 539 BCE marked the formal end, but
cultural practices continued in modified forms under Persian and Hellenistic rule.

5. Conclusion
The Harappan and Mesopotamian civilizations represent two distinct trajectories of early
urban development. Harappan society was marked by meticulous planning, sanitation,
and egalitarian features, with a still-undeciphered script that keeps its culture mysterious.
Mesopotamia, on the other hand, offers a vivid narrative of its history, with written
records, law codes, and monumental religious architecture.
While Mesopotamia experienced repeated conquests and cultural transformations,
Harappa seems to have declined more subtly through environmental and economic
stress. Yet both civilizations laid the groundwork for future societies in their regions —
in law, art, trade, and governance. Their study not only informs us about ancient life but
also about the enduring legacy of human civilization itself.

Bibliography:
1. Textbook

2. Encyclopedia Britannica. Indus civilization.

https://www.britannica.com/topic/Indus-civilization

3. Encyclopedia Britannica. Mesopotamia.

https://www.britannica.com/place/Mesopotamia-historical-region-Asia
4. British Museum
https://www.britishmuseum.org