@pplied linguistics chptr .

3,4,5,6…

What is vocabulary?

One of the hardest questions in vocabulary studies is: What is a word? There are different
answers depending on why we're asking the question. If we want to count how long a book is or
how fast someone can speak or read (in words per minute), we count tokens.
For example, the sentence:
"To be or not to be, that is the question"
has ten tokens.
Even though “be” appears twice, it is counted each time.
When counting tokens, we must also decide whether to count I’m or we’ll as one or two tokens.
In spoken language, should we count things like “um” and “er”? Or count repeated words like
“I... I... I said”?
We can only answer these questions based on why we are counting.

Sometimes, we care about how many different words someone knows or uses.
For example, if we want to know how many words a learner can recognize quickly, we count
word types.
In the same sentence:
"To be or not to be, that is the question",
there are eight word types, because “to” and “be” appear twice but are only counted once.

Problems with counting types include:

 Do “High” and “high” count as two different types because of the

capital letter?
 What about words that are spelled the same but mean different things,
like “generation” (electricity vs. young people)?

If we want to count words for vocabulary learning, we need to choose a unit that reflects how
people actually use language. There is research (by Nagy, Anderson, Schommer, Scott, and
Stallman, 1989) showing that people see related words like mend, mends, mended, mending as
part of the same word family.
The more often any form appears, the more familiar all forms become.
So, word-building rules (like adding -ed or -ing) create forms that feel very closely related.

But a big problem with counting word families is deciding what counts as a family member.

The most careful or conservative way is to count lemmas.

A lemma is a group of related words that:

 share the same base form (or stem),

 include only inflected forms (like -s, -ed, -ing),
  and are all the same part of speech.

For example:
Approach, approaches, approached, approaching (all verbs) are the same lemma.
But approach (noun) and approaches (noun) would be a different lemma.

A less strict definition of a word family includes words with added parts like un-, non-, -ness, -
ly, etc. According to Bauer and Nation (1993), as learners get better at a language, the number of
words in their word families usually grows.

 For receptive knowledge (what learners can understand), the word

family is the best unit.
 For productive knowledge (what learners can use in speaking or
writing), the word type (or maybe the lemma) is better.

Formulaic Language (Fixed Phrases)

Some groups of words—like good morning or at the end of the day—act like single words.

 Some are memorized and used as a whole.

 Others are built from known words but used so often that they feel like
one unit.

Pawley and Syder (1983) say that native speakers speak fluently because they know and use a lot
of this kind of formulaic language.

This kind of language has different names:

 Preformulated language: phrases stored in memory, ready to use.

 Formulas: phrases used often, instead of creating new sentences
every time.
 Lexical phrases: phrases used to do specific things, like “Have you
heard the one about...” (used to start a joke).
 Formulaic sequences or multi-word items: the actual word groups
used.

From a learning point of view, Grant and Nation (2006) divide formulaic language into three
main groups:
1. Core Idioms

 The meaning of the whole phrase does not match the meanings of
the parts.
 Examples: as well (as), of course, out of hand, take the piss,
serve (someone) right.
 There are only about 100 of these in English.
 These must be memorized as fixed expressions, even though they
sometimes have changeable forms.

2. Figuratives

 These phrases have both literal and figurative meanings.

 Example:
“We have to make sure we are singing from the same hymn sheet”
Literally, it refers to singing from the same paper.
Figuratively, it means “we need to agree or follow the same plan”.
 There are thousands of these, and new ones are always being added.
 They make up most of what we find in idiom dictionaries.
 These are often easier to understand than core idioms because the figurative meaning is
still linked to the literal one.

3. Literals

 These are the most common.

 The meaning of the whole phrase is clearly made up of the meanings of the parts.
 Examples: you know, I think, thank you, in fact, talk about, I suppose.
 Most collocations (common word combinations) fall under this group.
 These don’t need any special strategy to understand, but they are useful to memorize to
sound more fluent and natural.

What Vocabulary Should Be Learned?

Which vocabulary learners should focus on depends on two main things:

1. The needs of the learners, and

2. How useful the vocabulary items are.

A traditional way to measure usefulness is to check how frequently and widely words appear in
real language (a corpus is a large collection of real-world language examples). When doing this,
three key things stand out:

 Some words occur very often, while many others occur only once.
  A small number of words can cover a large portion of any text.
 Most words appear rarely, and they only make up a small portion
of the text.

These points are clearly shown in Table 3.1 and Table 3.2 below:

Table 3.1: A frequency list of a 500-word text

Frequen Frequen Frequen

Word Word Word
cy cy cy

Conservati
The 22 I 4 2
ve

Of 18 It 4 Contains 2

To 17 Occurs 4 Deciding 2

And 16 Related 4 Different 2

Is 16 With 4 Each 2

A 14 Words 4 Form 2

That 12 Counted 3 ... ...

We 12 For 3 About 1

Word 11 Forms 3 Affixes 1

Or 10 How 3 After 1

Are 8 Include 3 Also 1

Be 8 Items 3 Anderson 1

Langua
In 8 3 Answers 1
ge

As 7 Like 3 Any 1

Count 7 Not 3 Approach 1

Approache
Counting 7 One 3 1
d

Tokens 7 Only 3 Approache 1

 Frequen Frequen Frequen
Word Word Word
cy cy cy

Questio Approachin
Family 6 3 1
n g

What 6 Stem 3 Asking 1

If 5 Then 3 Bauer 1

Same 5 Twice 3 Because 1

Types 5 Would 3 Being 1

Vocabular
5 Answer 2 ... ...
y

All 4 Can 2

Do 4 Closely 2

Table 3.2: Number of words and coverage for each frequency

Number of Cumulative coverage of

Frequency
types text (%)

10 and
10 word types 29.6%
above

8
3 34.4%
occurrences

7 4 40.0%

6 2 42.4%

5 4 46.4%

4 8 52.8%

3 16 62.4%

2 32 75.2%
 Number of Cumulative coverage of
Frequency
types text (%)

1 125 100%

By analyzing large sets of language (corpora), researchers have created useful vocabulary lists to
help beginners learn the most important words first. One of the most well-known is Michael
West’s General Service List (GSL) from 1953, which contains 2000 of the most frequent
English words. There is strong evidence that a list of around 2000 words is a good starting point
for learners. But because the GSL is based on written language, it should be updated using data
from both spoken and written language.

✅ (Tables 3.1 and 3.2 inserted here)

These frequency studies lead to a cost–benefit way of thinking about

vocabulary learning.

 High-frequency words should be the first and main learning goal.

They occur so often and are so useful that teachers and learners
should spend a lot of time making sure these are learned well.
 Low-frequency words occur rarely, are limited in use, and are too
many in number. They are not worth class time. Instead, learners
should keep learning them on their own—either accidentally
(incidentally) or on purpose (deliberately).

Teachers should focus on helping learners build strategies for learning these words, such as:

 Guessing meaning from context

 Using flashcards
 Learning word parts (prefixes/suffixes)
 Using dictionaries

These strategies will be explained more later in the chapter. Sometimes learners need to know
more words than just the high-frequency ones, especially if they are studying for a specific
purpose. In this case, special vocabulary lists are helpful.

One useful list is the Academic Word List (AWL) by Coxhead (2000). This list is for learners
who plan to do academic work in English. It contains 570 word families that appear in 8.5% to
10% of words in academic texts. Examples include:
  Evaluate
 Invest
 Technology
 Valid

For learners with academic goals, these words are essential—there are about 30 of them on
every page of an academic text! Some words have more than one meaning, like:

 Issue = “problem”
 Issue = “to produce or send out”

But one meaning is usually much more common than the other. In specialized fields, technical
vocabulary is very important. It can make up 20–30% of the words in a specialized text (Chung
& Nation, 2003). For example, anatomy includes technical words like:

 Xiphoid
 Vascular
 Cranial
 Trachea
 Girdle

Some of these words are common English words. Others may be on the AWL. But many are
used only in that field. Because technical words are much more frequent in their field than in
general English, they can be identified by comparing their frequency in specialized texts vs.
general texts.

For learners focused on a specific field, technical vocabulary should be learned just like high-
frequency words—through focused study and real use.

How Should Vocabulary Be Learned?

Most teachers think vocabulary is mainly taught directly in class, but learning vocabulary should
be broader than that. According to Nation (2007), there are four key parts (called strands) to
vocabulary learning. A good language course should include all four in roughly equal amounts.

1. Learning Vocabulary from Meaning-Focused Input (Listening

and Reading)

This means learning vocabulary through listening and reading, without directly focusing on the
words. This is how most first-language vocabulary is learned. Though less certain than direct
learning, it works well for native speakers because they get a lot of input.
For non-native speakers, three things are needed:

1. Very few unknown words – ideally only 1 unknown word in every 50

(about 2%).
2. A lot of input – preferably reading or hearing over one million words
per year.
3. More focus on unknown words – these words should also appear in
other parts of the course where they are taught directly. It helps to
highlight, gloss, or look them up in dictionaries.

Research shows that combining incidental (natural) learning with deliberate (focused) learning
works best (Schmitt, 2008). Incidental learning happens gradually, so the same words need to be
seen multiple times for learning to improve and deepen.

A key part of this kind of learning is extensive reading, especially using graded readers. These
are books written with controlled vocabulary, making them easier for learners. They start with
simple books (5000 words long, 300–500 word families) and gradually increase in difficulty (up
to 25,000–35,000 words long, with 2000–2500 word families). Nation and Wang (1999) suggest
learners read at least one graded reader every two weeks for noticeable progress.

In the past, graded readers were criticized for being unnatural and poorly written. However,
today’s graded readers are well-made and enjoyable, letting learners read for pleasure even with
limited vocabulary.

Listening is also important for learning through meaning-focused input. The same three
conditions apply: few unknown words, lots of input, and attention to unknown words. Learners
can listen to the same material several times, while teachers can define unknown words, write
them on the board, or let learners ask questions. Though negotiating meaning helps learning
(Newton, 1995), most vocabulary is still learned without it, just from context, because such
opportunities happen more often.

2. Learning Vocabulary from Meaning-Focused Output (Speaking

and Writing)

This means learning vocabulary through speaking and writing. It's important because it helps
turn passive knowledge into active use.

Ways this happens:

1. Activities using pictures or definitions can encourage learners to

use new words.
2. Group speaking activities allow learners to discuss and figure out
meanings of unknown words together.
3. Using partly known words in speaking or writing helps strengthen
and enrich vocabulary knowledge.
Joe, Nation, and Newton (1996) suggest designing speaking tasks carefully by:

 Predicting which vocabulary will be used,

 Using tasks like retelling stories, role plays, or problem-solving,
 Encouraging learners to use vocabulary in new and creative ways.

Writing tasks can also use written input in similar ways to speaking tasks.

3. Deliberate Vocabulary Learning

Research shows that deliberate vocabulary learning (directly studying words) is more effective
than incidental learning. This is because it involves attention and has clear goals. Nation (2001)
gives helpful guidelines using word cards:

1. Retrieve, don’t just recognize – Put the word on one side of a card
and its translation on the other. Retrieving helps memory more than
seeing both sides at once.
2. Start with small groups – Begin with 15–20 cards, then increase
gradually.
3. Space the practice – Review cards after a few minutes, then an hour,
the next day, a week later, etc. This works better than studying them
all at once.
4. Repeat out loud or silently – Helps words stay in long-term memory.
5. Think deeply about words – Use techniques like visualization,
breaking into parts, and thinking of the word in different contexts.
6. Avoid interference – Don’t study similar words (like days of the
week) together. They can confuse learners.
7. Change word order often – Avoid learning words just by their place
in the list.
8. Use context – Add common collocations or phrases, especially for
verbs.

Deliberate learning helps build vocabulary quickly. However, this knowledge should be
supported and expanded by listening, reading, speaking, and writing activities. While deliberate
learning builds strong memory, it doesn’t teach how a word behaves in grammar or in context—
those are learned better through real use.

Deliberate teaching can also help. It has three goals:

1. Strong learning – Requires “rich instruction,” which means spending

time on spelling, meaning, grammar, and usage. This is best for
common words.
2. Raising awareness – Helps learners notice words when they see
them again.
 3. Teaching strategies – Shows learners how the language works (e.g.,
sound-spelling rules, prefixes/suffixes, collocations).

Deliberate teaching methods include:

 Pre-teaching vocabulary before activities,

 Dealing with words during reading,
 Post-listening or reading exercises (e.g., matching definitions),
 Activities like word detectives or collocations,
 Quickly addressing new words during lessons.

4. Developing Fluency with Vocabulary Across the Four Skills

Knowing vocabulary is not enough—it needs to be used fluently. Fluency means using known
words quickly and easily. Fluency activities should use only familiar words and involve:

 Large amounts of easy material,

 Focus on communication (not grammar or vocabulary),
 Pressure to perform faster than usual.

There are two ways to build fluency:

1. The Repetition Approach (Well-Beaten Path)

Repeat the same material until it becomes automatic. Examples:
o Repeated reading,
o 4/3/2 technique (speak about a topic for 4, then 3, then 2
minutes),
o Best recording (keep recording a spoken version to improve it),
o Rehearsed talks.

2. The Variety Approach (Richness)

Use known words in many different ways and situations. Examples:
o Speed reading,
o Easy extensive reading,
o Continuous writing,
o Retelling stories.

The goal is to build a strong, organized vocabulary system that can be used efficiently. This is
one of the main aims of learning a language. This also applies to formulaic sequences (common
word combinations). These are best learned through real language use, especially meaning-
focused activities, rather than memorization. Fluency practice is helpful for building these too.

Strategy Development

There are four main strategies to help learners understand new words and remember them better:

1. Guessing from context

2. Using word cards
3. Using word parts (prefixes, roots, suffixes)
4. Using dictionaries

These strategies are very effective and can be used in many situations. Since they help learners
understand lots of words, teachers should spend a good amount of time on them in class.
Learners need to practice these strategies until they become natural and easy to use. These
strategies are useful for learning common (high-frequency) words and are essential for learning
rare (low-frequency) words. Since there are thousands of rare words and each is not used very
often, teachers shouldn’t try to teach each one directly. Instead, they should train students in
these strategies so learners can learn those rare words on their own.

Guessing from Context

Guessing a word’s meaning from context is the most useful strategy of all. But to use this
strategy well, learners need to understand 95–98% of the words in a text. That means there must
be enough clear and helpful information around the unknown word to guess its meaning.

Learning the meaning of a word happens step by step. Even if the context doesn’t give complete
information, it can still give some help that adds to what the learner knows. Research by Nagy,
Herman, and Anderson (1985) found that native speakers get useful clues about about 10% of
the unknown words in a text just by reading. This may not seem like much, but if someone
reads a lot throughout the year, they could learn 1000 or more new words this way.

For second language learners, guessing from context is part of learning from meaning-focused
input. This should be combined with direct learning of the same words and opportunities to
use them in speaking or writing. Research shows that training helps improve guessing skills
(Fukkink & de Glopper, 1998; Kuhn & Stahl, 1998). Training should focus on:

 Clues in the sentence where the unknown word appears

 Clues from the larger text (like conjunctions or transitions)
 Common sense and background knowledge

Word parts are not always reliable for guessing, but they’re helpful for checking if a guess is
correct. Also, to guess well, learners need to have good reading and listening skills. So,
teaching how to guess from context should be part of overall reading and listening training, and
it should go on for several weeks until learners can guess easily and accurately.

Learning from Word Cards and Using Word Parts

Using word cards (like flashcards) is a good way to learn vocabulary. Learners can make their
own cards to study new words. Although some teachers don’t like rote learning (memorization),
research shows that it works well (Nation, 2001).

A helpful technique to make this method even better is the keyword technique. This technique
can improve learning by about 25% compared to normal memorization. Here’s how it works:

 Step 1: Think of a word in your first language that sounds like the
English word. This is your keyword.
 Step 2: Create a picture in your mind that connects the meaning of
the English word with the keyword.

Example:
A Thai learner wants to learn the English word fun. Thai also has a word fun that means teeth.
The learner can imagine a person smiling with teeth showing because they are having fun. This
mental picture helps link the form and the meaning of the word. Another helpful strategy is using
word parts. For example, take the word apposition, which means “happening next to each
other.”

 ap- = to or next to
 pos = to place
 -ition = noun ending
Putting this together: “placed next to” = apposition.

To use word parts well, learners need to:

 Learn about 20 common prefixes and suffixes

 Be able to recognize these parts in different words
 Understand how the meaning of each part helps explain the whole
word

This strategy is especially useful because 60% of rare English words come from French,
Latin, or Greek, and many of these words are made up of parts with clear meanings.

Dictionary Use

There are three types of dictionaries learners can use:

 1. Monolingual – all in English (or the target language)
2. Bilingual – English to first language (and vice versa)
3. Bilingualized – mostly in English, but includes first language support

Most learners prefer bilingual dictionaries. Research shows that bilingualized dictionaries work
well because they match different learning styles (Laufer & Kimmel, 1997; Laufer & Hadar,
1997). Dictionaries can be used in two ways:

 Receptively – to help understand reading or listening

 Productively – to help with writing or speaking

However, many learners don’t use dictionaries effectively. So, teaching dictionary skills can be
very helpful. These skills include:

 Reading phonemic transcriptions (to pronounce the word correctly)

 Understanding grammar information
 Using example sentences to figure out the meaning
 Using the context to choose the right meaning

Dictionaries can also help with learning and remembering words. For example:

 Looking at different meanings of a word and finding the common

idea
 Looking at related words (e.g., base, basic, basis, basal) to
understand connections
 Creating mental images using example sentences

Teaching Vocabulary Strategies

To help learners use these strategies well, teachers should:

1. Assess what learners already know

2. Plan a program to help them improve the strategy
3. Help them appreciate the value of the strategy and where to use it
4. Monitor and assess their progress

Each of these four strategies can be used to learn thousands of words, so they deserve serious
attention from both teachers and students.

Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge

Vocabulary tests are used for different purposes. These include:

  Measuring vocabulary size – to place learners in the right class or
check overall language ability.
 Measuring recent learning – to check what learners have just
learned (short-term).
 Measuring learning over time – to see what learners have learned
during a course (long-term).
 Finding strengths and weaknesses – to see which areas need
improvement (diagnostic test).

Several vocabulary tests are well supported by research (see Chapter 15 on Assessment). These
include:

Vocabulary Levels Test

 Created by Schmitt (2000), Nation (2001), and others.

 Tests knowledge of words from different frequency levels (e.g., most common words to
rarer words).
 Uses a matching format. For example:
 1 business
 2 clock ________ part of a house
 3 horse ________ animal with four legs
 4 pencil ________ something used for writing
 5 shoe
 6 wall

 Helps teachers decide the right vocabulary level for learners.

 Also helps plan whether to focus on high-frequency or low-frequency vocabulary.

Productive Levels Test

 Developed by Laufer and Nation (1999).

 Checks if learners can produce vocabulary, not just recognize it.
 Learners complete a sentence with a word. For example:

They keep their valuables in a va________ at the bank.

 The first few letters are given to guide the learner and prevent synonyms.

X_Lex and Y_Lex Tests

 Created by Meara.
 Done on a computer.
 Learners see a word and answer “yes” if they know it.
  Some fake words (like skemp) are included to check honesty.
 The score shows how many real words the learner knows and which
frequency levels they cover.
 X_Lex tests 0–5000 word levels, Y_Lex tests 6000–10,000 word levels.
 Website: [Link]

Vocabulary Dictation Test

 Created by Fountain and Nation (2000).

 A listening test that includes 5 paragraphs.
 Each paragraph contains rarer words than the last.
 Only 20 target words in each paragraph are marked.
 Four different versions are available.
 Quick way to measure listening vocabulary.

Vocabulary Size Test

 Made by Nation and Beglar (2007).

 Measures the total number of words a learner knows.
 Available online at:
o [Link]/lals/staff/paul-nation/[Link]
o [Link]

 The test has:

o 140 multiple-choice items.
o One sentence per question with the target word.
o Words tested across 14 levels (1000 words per level, 10
questions per level).
o The score is multiplied by 100 to estimate vocabulary size.

Why the Vocabulary Size Test Works Well

 It works for learners of all skill levels.

 It measures only vocabulary knowledge and not other skills.
 It clearly shows differences between learners and helps track progress.
 It is consistent and reliable, even under different test conditions (e.g.,
different genders, shorter test versions, varying proficiency).
 The reliability score (Rasch reliability) is around 0.96, which is very
high.
 Easy to score and understand.
 The questions are clear.
 Can be used flexibly – learners don’t have to take all levels. They
should take 2–3 levels above their estimated knowledge. For example,
 if someone knows about 3000 words, they should take the first 5–6
levels.

Why These Tests Are Useful

 The tests cover many word levels.

 They include many items, and even shorter versions still work well.
 The test questions are well made.
 They focus on one clear goal: measuring vocabulary knowledge.

The Importance of Test Format

 Vocabulary can be tested in many ways.

 Even if two tests check the same words, the results may differ
depending on the format.
 Different formats often measure different aspects of vocabulary
knowledge.
 Research shows that these different test types usually relate to each
other with a score of about 0.7, which is a medium-strong correlation.

Limitations on Applying Vocabulary Research to Other Languages

Most vocabulary research has been done within English Language Teaching (ELT). This is
unfortunate because English is quite unusual, especially in its vocabulary. Therefore, findings
about English vocabulary may not apply easily to other languages.

One major feature of English is its large vocabulary. For example, the words book, write, read,
desk, letter, secretary, and scribe are all related to writing, but they look completely different.
Learners have to memorize each word separately. In contrast, in Arabic, all these meanings come
from the same root—k-t-b—and are changed by adding different vowels. This makes Arabic
easier to learn in this regard.
English vocabulary is also complex for historical reasons. Originally based on Anglo-Saxon,
English took in many French words after the Norman invasion in 1066. Later, in the 1700s,
scholars added many words from Latin and Greek. This created layers of vocabulary that carry
different stylistic meanings. For instance:

 cow – beef – bovine

 pig – pork – porcine

Here:

 The first word is used in everyday language (Anglo-Saxon).

 The second is from French and used in cooking.
 The third is from Latin or Greek and used in science.

This layering is common across English vocabulary. In fact, around 60% of English words come
from French, Latin, or [Link] also prefers unique words where other languages might use
simple phrases. For example:

 Plagiarism (stealing written work)

 Rustling (stealing cows)
 Hijacking (stealing airplanes)

These words don’t give any clue about their meaning. Other languages might use clearer phrases
like "stealing writing" or "stealing cows," which are easier to understand.

The “Lexical Bar” in English

These difficult and unclear words are not optional—they're essential. Corson (1995) called this
the lexical bar, which separates educated English speakers from others.

For example, doctors need to know:

 Everyday words (eye, ear, back)

 Scientific terms (ocular, auricular, lumbar)
 Taboo or informal words (belly, bum, arse, bottom)

Different terms are used depending on the audience—patients, children, colleagues, or formal
reports. Using the wrong word can be embarrassing or offensive. This creates a big challenge for
non-native learners. Other languages may not have this problem. Instead of having many
separate words, they use systems to create new words. For example:

 In some languages, you can turn a noun into a verb or adjective by

adding an ending.
  In German, new words are formed by combining simple words
(compounding).

Native speakers in these languages learn the rules to build and understand new words. This
means they may not need to learn as many separate words as in English. Because of this, some
statistics about English vocabulary may not apply to other languages. In English:

 4000–5000 word families = intermediate level

 6000–9000 word families = advanced level

But in other languages, with strong word-building systems, knowing 2000–3000 basic words
may be enough to understand many more words that can be built from them. Without proper
research, it's hard to confirm this, but it's clear we shouldn't assume English vocabulary patterns
apply to other languages.

Vocabulary Size and Language Ability

This also means that vocabulary size may not reflect language ability equally in all languages. In
English, the number of words you know often matches how well you read, listen, or perform in
language tests. But let’s imagine a simple language—call it Simplish. Simplish has:

 Only 2000 core words

 A strong compounding system to build new words

Once a learner masters the core 2000 words and learns the compounding
rules, they can understand and create all other words. Long or complex
words won’t be a problem—they can be broken down and understood easily.

For learners of Simplish:

 Vocabulary learning would be light

 Reading most texts would be easy
 They could build new words on the go

Teachers would only need to track how many core words students know and teach them how to
build and unpack compound words. Vocabulary size wouldn’t be important anymore.
Unfortunately, few languages are as simple as Simplish. But if we think of English as unusually
hard in terms of vocabulary, then many real-world languages might be closer to Simplish. In
these languages:

 Vocabulary might not limit reading ability

 Simplified books (like graded readers) may not be needed
 Advanced learners might not use more complex words
 Specialized vocabulary (academic, legal, business) may not be as
distinct or necessary
Final Thoughts

English’s large vocabulary affects how it is taught and learned. To become fluent, learners need
to know a lot of words. Learning these words takes time and motivation. But this approach won’t
work well if you’re teaching a simpler language. In such cases, it’s better to teach the core
vocabulary quickly, since knowing it gives big benefits.

In conclusion, many languages may be simpler than English in terms of vocabulary structure.
Therefore, we shouldn’t assume that findings from English vocabulary research will apply to all
languages. Teaching strategies for English vocabulary may not always be suitable for teaching
vocabulary in other languages. This comparison shows why it's so important to have a clear plan
for teaching English vocabulary. A good plan should:

 Focus on teaching high-frequency words first

 Use strategies for dealing with less common words