Materials Science
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karunakaranlearnenggMaterials Science
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karunakaranlearnenggMATERIALS SCIENCE
File AU.MS.1.1.1.swf
1) IONIC OR ELECTROVALENT BOND
2) Na
3) Cl
4) The transfer of valence electron from one atom to the others is called ionic bond.
5) The electronic configuration of sodium atom is less; K = 2, L = 8 and M = 1. So the atom can release
one electron to get stable configuration.
6) When sodium atom loses a electron it becomes a positive ion and as chlorine atom gains one
electron, it becomes a negative ion.
7) The Electrostatic attraction
8) The ions attract each other with coulombic forces which lead to the formation of an electrovalent
or ionic bond between two neighbouring Na and Cl atoms.
File AU.MS.1.1.2.swf
1) COVALENT BOND
2) Silicon
3) Boron
4) Arsenic
5) Silicon structure
6) Covalent bond
7) The valence electrons of neighboring atoms are shared among the atoms
8) There is no ion forming in covalent bonding
File AU.MS.1.1.3.swf
1) METALLIC BOND
2) Positive ions
3) Free electron
4) Metallic Bond:
5) The electrostatic form of attraction between free electron and the positive ions.
File AU.MS.1.2.1.swf
1) Na+
2) Cl-
3) CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS(COPPER STRUCTURE)
4) Crystalline solid atoms are arranged uniformly throughout the three dimensional direction.
5) Each atom is fixed at a definite point in space at a definite distance and in a definite angular
orientation to all other atoms in the surrounding.
6) Crystalline solids have well defined geometrical form (pattern). They have well defined faces and
angles between them.
7) When crystal breaks, the broken pieces are all having regular shape.
8) The solid contains only one crystal or an aggregate of many small crystals (or) grains separated by
well defined grain boundaries also known as polycrystalline solid.
9) Crystalline
10) Polycrystalline
11) Examples for crystalline solids:
12) Copper
13) Silver
14) Aluminum
15) Iron
File AU.MS.1.2.2.swf
1) AMORPHOUS SOLIDS - GLASS STRUCTURE
2) Amorphous means "without form".
3) An amorphous solid does not have a definite geometric or crystalline shape.
4) Glass structure is a good example of amorphous solids.
5) In amorphous solids the constituent atoms are arranged randomly.
6) These solids have no directional properties and therefore they are called isotropic suspense’
7) For example a common amorphous solid is an amorphous ceramic.
8) Many polymers are amorphous and even foods such as cotton candy are amorphous solids.
9) Any noncrystalline solid in which the atoms and molecules are not organized in a definite lattice
pattern.
10) Amorphous solid
11) Crystalline solid
12) Examples of such solids include glass, plastic, and gel.
File AU.MS.1.2.3.swf
1) SPACE LATTICE (OR)CRYSTAL LATTICE
2) A space lattice is an array of points showing how particles (atoms, ions or molecules) are arranged
at different sites in three dimensional spaces.
3) Space lattice is an idealized geometrical (imaginary) concept by which crystal structures can be,
described.
4) A metal consists of a number of crystals, and each crystal inturn consists of a large number of
atoms.
5) The cross-section of a crystal in the atoms be arranged in a rectangular pattern.
6) Each atom, present in the crystal has its surroundings identical to every other atom.
7) If we replace all the atoms in this cross-section by points (corresponding to the centers of all
atoms), then the resulting collection of points is called lattice.
8) Examples for space lattice are one dimensional, two dimensional and a three dimensional space
lattice.
9) One dimensional lattice
10) Two dimensional lattice
11) Three dimensional lattice
File AU.MS.1.2.4.swf
1) UNIT CELL
2) Unit cell
3) The unit cell is defined as the smallest geometric figure, the repetition of which gives the actual
crystal structure.
File AU.MS.1.2.5.swf
1) THE SEVEN CRYSTAL SYSTEMS
2) c
3) b
4) a
5) g
6) x
7) y
8) Cubic structure
9) a = b= c
10) a = b = g = 90ï
11) Tetragonal structure
12) a = b 
13) Orthorhombic structure
14) a  b ï
15) Trigonal (Rhombohedral) structure
16) a = b = c
17) a = b = g  90 <
18) Monoclinic
19) a = g = 90ï‚
20) b  90
21) Hexagonal
22) a = b = 90ï‚
23) g = 120ï‚
24) Triclinic
25) a  b  g ï‚
File AU.MS.1.2.6.swf
1) CUBE CRYSTAL SYSTEM
2) In crystallography, the cubic (or isometric) crystal system is a crystal system where the unit cell is in
the shape of a cube.
3) This is one of the most common and simplest shapes found in crystals and minerals.
4) There are three main varieties of these crystals :
5) Primitive cubic
6) Face -centered cubic
7) Body-centered cubic
8) Cube crystal system
9) Cubic crystal system, the three crystal axes are perpendicular to each other and the axial lengths
(repetitive unit) is the same along all the three axis.
File AU.MS.1.2.7.swf
1) TETRAGONAL CRYSTAL SYSTEM
2) The tetragonal crystal system is one of the 7 lattice point groups.
3) Tetragonal crystal lattices result from stretching a cubic lattice along one of its lattice vectors, so
that the cube becomes a rectangular prism with a square base.
4) There are two tetragonal crystal structure types. Bravais lattices: the Simple tetragonal and the
Centered tetragonal.
5) Simple tetragonal unit cell
6) Centered tetrogonal
7) Tetragonal crystal system
8) The Tetragonal Crystal System differs from the Isometric System in the fact that one of its three
axes of its axial system stands out, and can be interpreted as the main axis.
9) The three crystal axes are perpendicular to each other. Two of the three axial lengths are the same,
but the third axial length is different.
10) The main axis is either shorter or longer than the secondary axes.
11) Faces: 6
12) a
13) c
14) b
15) g
16) Tetragonal Crystal shapes include:
17) Four-sided prisms and pyramids.
18) Prism
19) Pyramid
20) Trapezohedrons.
21) Eight-sided and double pyramids.
File AU.MS.1.2.8.swf
1) ORTHORHOMBIC CRYSTAL SYSTEM
2) In crystallography, the orthorhombic crystal system is one of the seven lattice point groups.
3) Orthorhombic lattices result from stretching a cubic lattice along two of its orthogonal pairs by two
different factors, resulting in a rectangular prism with a rectangular base.
4) There are four orthorhombic Bravais lattices: simple orthorhombic, body-centered orthorhombic,
base-centered orthorhombic, and face-centered orthorhombic.
5) Simple orthorhombic
6) Body- centered orthorhombic
7) Base- centered orthorhimbic
8) Face- centered orthorhombic
9) All three bases intersect at 90° angles
10) The three crystal axes are perpendicular to each other. In this system, all the three axial lengths
are of unequal lengths (different).
11) Orthorhombic crystal shapes include:
12) c
13) a
14) b
15) (111)
16) i
17) Pinacoids
18) Rhombic prisms
19) Pyramids
20) Double pyramids
File AU.MS.1.2.9.swf
1) MONOCLINIC CRYSTAL SYSTEM
2) A crystal system is described by three vectors.
3) In the monoclinic system, the crystal is described by vectors of unequal lengths, as in the
orthorhombic system.
4) They form a rectangular prism with a parallelogram as its base.
5) Hence two pairs of vectors are perpendicular (meet at right angles), while the third pair makes an
angle other than 90°
6) Two monoclinic Bravais lattices exist: the primitive monoclinic and the base centered monoclinic
lattices, with layers with a rectangular and rhombic lattice, respectively.
7) Simple monoclinic
8) Base-centered monoclinic
9) a ≠b â‰
10) a = b = g ≠9
11) Monoclinic crystal system
12) Two of the crystal axes are perpendicular to each other, but the third is obliquely inclined. The
three axial lengths are different along the axes.
13) Crystal shapes include:
14) Basal pinacoids and prisms with inclined end faces.
15) C
16) m
17) Common Monoclinic Crystals are:
18) Gypsum
19) Diopside
20) Epidote
21) Moonstone
File AU.MS.1.2.10.swf
1) TRICLINIC CRYSTAL SYSTEM
2) A crystal system is described by three basic vectors.
3) In the triclinic system, the crystal is described by vectors of unequal length, as in the orthorhombic
system.
4) In addition, no vector is at right angles (90°) orthogonal to another
5) a
6) b
7) c
8) g
9) The triclinic lattice is the least symmetric of the 14 three-dimensional Bravais lattices.
10) It has the minimum symmetry all lattices have points of inversion at each lattice point.
11) And 7 more points for each lattice point, at the midpoints of the edges and the faces, and at the
center points.
12) It is the only lattice type that itself has no mirror planes.
13) Triclinic crystal system
14) In triclinic crystal system, none of the crystal axes is perpendicular to any of the others. The axial
lengths are different along the three axes.
15) Hexene is a good example of triclinic crystal.
16) Common Triclinic Crystals are:
17) Turquoise
18) Amazonite
19) Rhodonite
File AU.MS.1.2.11.swf
1) TRIGONAL (OR) RHOMBOHEDRAL CRYSTAL SYSTEM
2) In crystallography, the trigonal crystal system is one of the seven crystal systems.
3) The term rhombohedral lattice system is used as an exact synonym, whereas it is a subset.
4) 2
5) 3
6) 1
7) 0
8) Crystals in the rhombohedral lattice system are always in the trigonal crystal system, but some
crystals such as quartz are in the trigonal crystal system but not in the rhombohedral lattice system.
9) The trigonal point group describes the symmetry of an object produced by stretching a cube along
the body diagonal.
10) The resultant rhombohedral (or trigonal) Bravais lattice is generated by three primitive vectors of
equal length that make equal angles with one another.
11) "Rhombohedral crystal system" is an ambiguous term that confuses the trigonal crystal system
with the rhombohedral lattice system.
12) The three axes are inclined to each other at an angle other than 90°. The three axial lengths are
equal along the axes
13) Crystal shapes include:
14) Three-sided prisms or pyramids
15) Rhombohedra
16) Scalenohedra
File AU.MS.1.2.12.swf
1) HEXAGONAL CRYSTAL SYSTEM
2) The hexagonal lattice system is one of the 7 lattice systems.
3) The hexagonal lattice system consists of just one Bravais lattice type: the hexagonal one.
4) Hexagonal crystal system
5) Two of the crystal axes are 60° apart. While the third is perpendicular to both of them
6) The axial lengths are the same along the axes that are 60° apart, but the axial length along the
third axis is different
7) Crystal shapes include:
8) Four-sided prisms and pyramids.
9) 2x
10) Twelve-sided pyramids.
11) Double pyramids.
12) P
File AU.MS.1.2.13.swf
1) MILLER INDICES
2) Miller indices form a notation system in crystallography for planes in crystal (Bravais) lattices.
3) Miller indices are used to specify directions and planes.
4) x
5) y
6) z
7) (a,0,0)
8) (0,a,0)
9) (0,0,a)
10) These directions and planes could be in lattices or in crystals.
11) Miller introduced a set of three number to designate a plane in a crystal.
12) [100]
13) [010]
14) [001]
15) Y-axis
16) X-axis
17) Z-axis
18) Specify intercepts in fractional coordinates. Take the reciprocals of the fractional intecepts.
19) 1a
20) 2a
21) 3a
22) 4a
23) 1b
24) 2b
25) 3b
26) 4b
27) 1c
28) 2c
29) 3c
30) 4c
31) Miller indices of X-axis is (1 0 0)
32) Miller indices of Y-axis is (0 1 0)
33) Miller indices of Z-axis is (0 0 1)
34) X' axis
35) -1a
36) -2a
37) -3a
38) -4a
39) Y' axis
40) -1b
41) -2b
42) -3b
43) -4b
44) Z' axis
45) -1c
46) -2c
47) -3c
48) -4c
49) Miller indices of X'-axis is (1 0 0)
50) Miller indices of Y'-axis is (0 1 0)
51) Miller indices of Z'-axis is (0 0 1)
File AU.MS.1.2.14.swf
1) SIMPLE CUBIC STRUCTURE
2) z
3) x
4) y
5) This structure is the simplest among all the structures.
6) The unit cell of this structure has atoms only at the corners of the cube, therefore these atoms
touch along cube edges.
7) This is form when the single similar atom occupy the 8 lattice point at 8 corners of the queue.
8) 8 × 1/8 = 1 atom inside cel
9) This structure is based on the primitive cell of the cubic system.
10) This structure is loosely – packed because each atom has only six nearest neighbors, so the co-
ordination number is si
11) Each corner atom has four neighbors in the same plane, one vertically above and one below, so
the totally six nearest neighboring atoms.
12) The distance between any 2 nearest neighbors is the lattice content A which is the edge length of
the queue.
13) Relation between the A and R is A equals to R.
14) The number of nearest neighbor atoms is 6.
File AU.MS.1.2.15.swf
1) BODY CENTERED CUBIC STRUCTURE
2) The body-centered cubic unit cell is a cube (all sides of the same length and all face perpendicular
to each other) with an atom at each corner of the unit cell and an atom in the center of the unit cell.
3) 1/2
4) BBC
5) This structure has 9 points 8 at the corner one at the center.
6) The atom at the center of the cell has 8 neighbors which are at the 8 corner and all of them attach
at the surface of the atom at the center.
7) (8 × 1/8) + 1 = 2 atoms inside cel
8) The center and corner atom attach one another along the cube diagonals and the unit cell length is
A.
9) This indicates that the ions of the corner of this cell do not touch each other.
10) The length of the cell edge is represented by a. The direction from a corner of a cube to the
farthest corner is called body diagonal (bd).
11) a
File AU.MS.1.2.16.swf
1) FACE CENTERED CUBIC STRUCTURE
2) Face center
3) The face-centered cubic unit cell is a cube (all sides of the same length and all face perpendicular to
each other) with an atom at each corner of the unit cell and an atom situated in the middle of each
face of the unit cell.
4) (8 × 1/8) + ( 6 × 1/2 ) = 4 atoms inside ce
5) The unit cell completely describes the structure of the solid, which can be regarded as an almost
endless repetition of the unit cell.
6) The volume of the unit cell is readily calculated from its shape and dimensions.
7) The atoms attach other along a face diagonal.
8) The length of the diagonal is 4r where r is the radius of each atom.
9) A is the cell edge length .
10) (a)
11) From the figure the total from one corner to its opposite corner is 4r.
12) A
13) B
14) C
15) a
16) 4r
File AU.MS.1.2.17.swf
1) HEXAGONAL CLOSE PACKED STRUCTURE
2) Bottom layer
3) Middle layer
4) Top layer
5) 12 corner atoms, one at each and every corner of the hexagon. 2 base centered atom one at the
top face of the hexagon and another at the bottom face of the hexagon.
6) In addition to these three atoms which are situated in between the top and bottom face of the
hexagon. These are situated inside the faces so that they cant be shared by other unit cells.
7) C
8) C 2
9) (a)
10) (b)
11) Hexagonal Structure
12) Each unit cell shares 14 atoms, 12 corner + 2base atoms.
File AU.MS.1.3.1.swf
1) PROCESS OF CRYSTALLIZATION
2) Grains
3) Grain Boundaries
File AU.MS.1.3.2.swf
1) FORMATION OF GRAIN BOUNDARY
2) Nuclei
3) Liquid
4) Crystals which will form grains
5) Grain boundaries
6) Grains
7) Formation of grain boundary
File AU.MS.1.4.1.swf
1) VACANCY
2) Atom
3) Vacancy
4) Vacancy arise due to the thermal vibrations or imperfect packing.
5) Vacancy refers to the missing atom in a crystal.
File AU.MS.1.4.2.swf
1) INTERSTITIAL IMPURITY
2) Atom
3) Small Atom
4) A small atom occupying the void space in the crystal without disturbing the parent atoms.
File AU.MS.1.4.3.swf
1) SUBSTITUTIONAL IMPURITY
2) Atom
3) A foreign atom that substitutes or replaces a parent atom in the crystal.
4) Stress
5) Substitutional impurity
6) Substitutional atom
File AU.MS.1.4.4.swf
1) SCHOTTKY DEFECT
2) Anion
3) Cation
4) The pair of ion vacancies in a crystal is known as Schottky defect.
File AU.MS.1.4.5.swf
1) FRENKEL DEFECT
2) NaCl Crystal structure
3) Anion
4) Cation
5) Ion displaced from a regular site to an interstitial site is called Frenkel defect.
File AU.MS.1.4.6.swf
1) EDGE DISLOCATION
2) Atom
3) Extra plane
4) An extra plane is inserted in the crystal structure.
5) Slip plane
6) Atoms above the slip plane gets distorted.
7) The line at the edge of the extra plane is edge dislocation.
8) The horizontal line in the symbol represents the line of dislocation and vertical line the incomplete
atomic plane.
File AU.MS.1.4.7.swf
1) POINT DEFECT
2) Crystal structure
3) Atom
4) Point Defect
5) Defects due to imperfect packing of atoms during crystallization is point defect.
6) Point defects are referred as zero dimensional imperfections.
File AU.MS.1.4.8.swf
1) VACANCY DEFECT
2) Atom
3) Vacancy defect
4) Crystal structure
5) Vacant site
6) Vacancy
7) Vacancy is an atom-site from which the atom is missing.
File AU.MS.1.4.9.swf
1) SUBSTITUTIONAL IMPURITY
2) Crystal structure
3) Atom
4) Substitutional impurity
5) A foreign atom replacing a parent atom in the crystal is called substitutional impurity.
File AU.MS.1.4.10.swf
1) INTERSTITIAL IMPURITY
2) Crystal Structure
3) Atom
4) Interstitial Impurity
5) A small sized atom occupying the void space in the parent crystal is called Interstitial Impurity.
File AU.MS.1.5.1.swf
1) DIFFUSION
2) Glass of water
3) Salt
4) A lump of salt is dropped into a beaker of water
5) The salt molecules are begin to break off the lump.
6) At last, all the salt molecules are evenly distribute throughout the water.
7) The spontaneous movement of atoms or molecules to new sites within materials is called diffusion.
File AU.MS.2.1.1.swf
1) PRODUCTS MADE BY IRON
2) PRODUCTS MADE BY IRON
3) Chairs and tables
4) Cooking pan
5) Gas stove
6) Pipe fittings
7) Separators
8) Supports
9) Gas Stove
File AU.MS.2.1.2.swf
1) PRODUCTS MADE BY TIN
2) PRODUCTS MADE BY TIN
3) Candlestick
4) Dolls
5) Seals
6) Tin products
File AU.MS.2.1.3.swf
1) PRODUCTS MADE BY GOLD
2) PRODUCTS MADE BY GOLD
3) Gold rings
4) Gold coins
5) Jewellery
6) Gold spoons
7) Watches
File AU.MS.2.1.4.swf
1) PRODUCTS MADE BY STEEL
2) PRODUCTS MADE BY STEEL
3) Steel rods
4) Screws
5) Steel sheets
6) Tanks
7) Utensils
File AU.MS.2.1.5.swf
1) PRODUCTS MADE BY BRASS
2) PRODUCTS MADE BY BRASS
3) Door handle
4) Pipe fitting
5) Brass rods
6) Screws
7) Toys
File AU.MS.2.1.6.swf
1) PRODUCTS MADE BY BRONZE
2) PRODUCTS MADE BY BRONZE
3) Door hinges
4) Idols
5) Pipe fittings
6) Valves
7) Pipe Fittings
File AU.MS.2.1.7.swf
1) Ethanol
2) Liquid solution
3) Mixing on the molecular scale
4) H2O
5) C2H5OH
6) Water
7) FORMING OF LIQUID SOLUTION
File AU.MS.2.4.1.swf
1) ALLOTROPES OF CARBON
2) An element carbon occurs in different forms in nature with widely varying physical properties.
3) Diamond and graphite are formed by carbon atoms
4) In diamond each carbon atom is bonded to four other carbon atoms forming a rigid three
dimensional structure.
5) In graphite, each carbon atom is bonded to three other carbon atoms in the same pane giving a
hexagonal array.
6) One of these bonds are double bond and thus the valance of carbon is satisfy.
7) These two different structure results in diamond and graphite having vary physical properties even
though the chemical properties are the same.
8) Diamond is the hardest substance known where the graphite is smooth and slippery.
9) Fullerene is forms another classifies of allotropes.
10) This is identify is C-60 has carbon atoms arranged in the shape of a football.
File AU.MS.2.4.2.swf
1) HEXAGONAL STRUCTURE
2) Bottom layer
3) Middle layer
4) Top layer
File AU.MS.2.4.3.swf
1) BODY CENTERED CUBIC STRUCTURE
2) (8 × 1/8) + 1 = 2 atoms inside cel
File AU.MS.2.4.4.swf
1) ALLOTROPIC FORM OF PURE IRON
2) Temperature °
3) Time
4) 1539°
5) 1539Â
6) Liquid
7) 1400Â
8) d - Fe B.C.C
9) 910Â
10) g - Fe F.C.C. Non Magnetic
11) a - Fe B.C.C. Non magnetic (or) b-iron
12) 768Â
13) a - Fe B.C.C. magnetic
File AU.MS.2.5.1.swf
1) IRON-CARBON EQUILIBRIUM DIAGRAM
2) 0.8
3) 4.3
4) E
5) C
6) F
7) K
8) S
9) Temperature,°
10) 200Â
11) 300Â
12) 400Â
13) 500Â
14) 600Â
15) Weight percent carbon
16) Ferrite
17) P
18) 723Â
19) A3
20) Ferrite+Austenite
21) G
22) 910Â
23) 0.025
24) A2
25) Acm
26) Austenite
27) Liquid
28) +
29) 1130°
30) B
31) 1400Â
32) 1539Â
33) H,0.08
34) d+Liquid
35) J,0.18
36) d+Aust.
37) N0.08
38) d-Iron
39) 1492Â
40) D
41) Liquid+Cementite
42) Ferrite+Pearlite
43) A1
44) A1,3
45) Pearlite+cementite
46) Eutectoid (pearlite)
47) Austenite+Cementite
48) Ledeburite+Cementite+ Austenite
49) Pearlite + Transformed Ledeburite+ Cementite
50) Ledeburite+Cementite
51) Eutectic (Ledeburite)
52) Ledeburite+ Cementite
53) Steels
54) Cast irons
55) Ferrite + Austenite
56) Ferrite + Pearlite
57) Liquid + Austenite
58) Austenite + Eutectic
59) Pearlite + Cementite
60) Liquid + Cementite
61) Eutectic + Cementite
File AU.MS.2.5.2.swf
1) EUTECTOID TRANSFORMATION
2) 400
3) 500
4) 600
5) 700
6) 800
7) 900
8) 1000
9) 1100
10) 0
11) 1.0
12) 2.0
13) Composition (with C % )
14) Temperature(°C
15) a + g
16) 727°
17) a
18) g
19) Austenite
20) g+ Fe3C
21) b
22) Fe3C
23) a + Fe3C
File AU.MS.2.6.1.swf
1) VARIATIONS IN MICROSTRUCTURE IN STEELS
2) 400
3) 500
4) 600
5) 700
6) 800
7) 900
8) 1000
9) 0
10) 1.0
11) 2.0
12) Austenite
13) Austenite + Ferrite
14) Ferrite + Pearlite
15) Austenite+ Cementite
16) Cementite+Pearlite
File AU.MS.2.7.1.swf
1) APPLICATION OF CUPRONICKEL
2) Chemical process equipment
3) Coastal Power Plant
4) Distiller
5) Evaporator
6) Heat exchanger
7) Marine condensers
8) Chemical process
9) equipment
10) Coastal Power
11) Plant
12) Heat Exchanger
13) Marine-condensers
File AU.MS.3.1.1.swf
1) Temperature
2) Time
3) Temp °
4) 0
5) Cooling
6) Soaking
7) Heating
8) Generally the Heat Treatment process consists of three stages.
9) TYPICAL HEAT TREATING CYCLE
10) 4
11) 2
12) 5
13) 3
14) 1
15) 6
16) 7
17) 8
18) 9
19) Heating : In this stage, the steel is heated to austenitising temperature to convert the structure of
steel into austenite.
20) Soaking : In this stage, the steel is held at that temperature for some period to obtain the
homogeneous austenite throughout the cross section.
21) Cooling : The steel from austenite structure is cooled to room temperature at different cooling
rates.
22) The cooling rate depends upon the properties required.
23) Before
24) After
File AU.MS.3.1.2.swf
1) VARIOUS PROCESS OF ANNEALING
2) Various types of annealing process are
3) Full annealing
4) Iso-thermal annealing
5) Diffusion annealing
6) Recrystallisation annealing
7) Process annealing
8) Stress relief annealing
9) 0.0
10) 0.2
11) 0.4
12) 0.6
13) 0.8
14) 1.0
15) 1.2
16) 1.4
17) 1.6
18) 1.8
19) 2.0
20) 2000
21) 1800
22) 1600
23) 1400
24) 1200
25) 1100
26) 1000
27) 900
28) 800
29) 700
30) 600
31) Temperature,°
32) Carbon, wt%
33) 2200
34) Annealing
35) Temperature ranges for various types of annealing process
36) Before
37) After
38) Refinement of microstructure
39) Full annealing, Iso-thermal annealing, and Diffusion annealing are used to refine the
microstructure and improve the chemical homogeneity.
40) Chemical inhomogeneity
41) Chemical homogeneity
42) No micro structural changes occur in recrystallization annealing, process annealing and stress
relieving annealing.
43) No micro structural changes occurs
44) Recrystallization annealing and process annealing are used to relieve the internal stresses and to
restore the ductility of the steel.
45) Where as stress relieving annealing is used to relieve the internal stresses partly without losing its
strength and also to improve the corrosion resistance.
File AU.MS.3.2.1.swf
1) PURPOSE OF ANNEALING
2) Internal stresses
3) To relieve internal stresses developed during solidification, machining, forging, rolling or welding.
4) No internal stresses
5) To Improve or restore ductility.
6) To improve toughness.
7) To enhance machinability.
8) Bad machinability
9) Good machinability
10) To eliminate chemical in-homogeneity.
11) Chemical in homogeneity
12) Homogeneity
13) Unrefined grain size
14) Refined grain size
15) Before
16) After
17) To refine grain size.
18) To reduce gaseous content in steel (particularly H2).
19) Gaseous content
20) No gaseous content
21) To enhance magnetic properties.
22) To enhance electrical properties.
File AU.MS.3.2.2.swf
1) ANNEALING
2) The process consists of heating the steel to austenitic region.
3) Steel is heated to about 30-50°C above the upper critical temperature (A3) for hypoeutectoid
steels and 30-50°C above the lower critical temperature (A1) for eutectoid steels
4) The steel is held at this temperature for a predetermined period.
5) And followed by slow cooling usually in furnace.
6) When steel is heated to the lower critical temperature, the pearlite changes to the finer austenite
crystals.
7) Subsequent furnace cooling produces ferrite and pearlite for hypoeutectoid steels and pearlite for
eutectoid steels.
File AU.MS.3.2.3.swf
1) VARIOUS PROCESS OF ANNEALING
2) Various types of annealing process are
3) Full annealing
4) Iso-thermal annealing
5) Diffusion annealing
6) Recrystallisation annealing
7) Process annealing
8) Stress relief annealing
9) 0.0
10) 0.2
11) 0.4
12) 0.6
13) 0.8
14) 1.0
15) 1.2
16) 1.4
17) 1.6
18) 1.8
19) 2.0
20) 2000
21) 1800
22) 1600
23) 1400
24) 1200
25) 1100
26) 1000
27) 900
28) 800
29) 700
30) 600
31) Temperature,°
32) Carbon, wt%
33) 2200
34) Annealing
35) Temperature ranges for various types of annealing process
36) Before
37) After
38) Refinement of microstructure
39) Full annealing, Iso-thermal annealing, and Diffusion annealing are used to refine the
microstructure and improve the chemical homogeneity.
40) Chemical inhomogeneity
41) Chemical homogeneity
42) No micro structural changes occur in recrystallization annealing, process annealing and stress
relieving annealing.
43) No micro structural changes occurs
44) Recrystallization annealing and process annealing are used to relieve the internal stresses and to
restore the ductility of the steel.
45) Where as stress relieving annealing is used to relieve the internal stresses partly without losing its
strength and also to improve the corrosion resistance.
File AU.MS.3.2.4.swf
1) STRUCTURAL CHANGES OF SPHEROIDISING ANNEALING
2) Spheroidising annealing is a heat treatment process in which lamellar cementite and free
cementite is converted into spheroidal carbides.
3) In this process, no phase change takes place.
4) The lamellar and free cementite coalesce into tiny spheroids due to surface tension effect.
5) The final structure consists of spheroids of carbide in a matrix of ferrite.
6) The degree of spheroidisation depends on the heat treatment temperature and the holding time.
File AU.MS.3.3.1.swf
1) PURPOSE OF NORMALISING
2) The dark component is cementite
3) The white component is ferrite
4) To get better dispersion of ferrite and cementite.
5) To get enhanced mechanical properties.
6) Refinement of grain size particularly for rolled and forged components.
7) Refinement of grain size
8) Before
9) After
10) To eliminate proeutectoid cementite in hypereutectoid steels which is very brittle.
11) Pearlite
12) Proeutectoid cementite
File AU.MS.3.3.2.swf
1) NORMALISING
2) The workpiece is heated to 50°C to 60°C above its upper critical temperatur
3) And then cooled in still air to get the desired properties of the workpiece.
File AU.MS.3.3.3.swf
1) 0.0
2) 0.2
3) 0.4
4) 0.6
5) 0.8
6) 1.0
7) 1.2
8) 1.4
9) 1.6
10) 1.8
11) 2.0
12) 2100
13) 1900
14) 1700
15) 1500
16) 1300
17) 1100
18) 1000
19) 900
20) 800
21) 700
22) 600
23) Temperature,°
24) Carbon, wt%
25) Ferrite + pearlite
26) Cementite + pearlite
27) Austenite + cementite
28) Ferrite + austenite
29) Austenite
30) Ferrite
31) A1
32) A3
33) A1,3
34) Normalising
35) NORMALISING VS ANNEALING
36) For hyper eutectoid heating is done just above A3 and for hyper eutectiod steels just A3,1.
37) Annealing
38) For all steels, heating is done in austenitic region.
39) Air cooling
40) Furnace cooling
41) Due to normalising, there is different cooling at different locations and hence, different thickness
regions will have different properties.
42) The furnace imposes identical cooling condition at all locations and hence produce identical
properties.
43) Internal stresses are relatively more.
44) Internal stresses are less.
45) Grain size distribution is less uniform
46) Grain size distribution is more uniform
47) More expensive
48) The microstructure contains more pearlite.
49) The microstructure contains less pearlite.
50) Fine pearlite
51) Coarse pearlite
52) Comparatively higher strength and hardness
53) Comparatively lower strength and hardness
File AU.MS.3.4.1.swf
1) HARDENING
2) Furnace
3) Molten workpiece
4) Quenching tank
5) Workpiece
6) Table
7) Portable hardness tester
8) Hardening is a metal working process used to increase the hardness of a metal.
File AU.MS.3.5.1.swf
1) TEMPERING
2) Furnace
3) Workpiece
4) It is the process of heating a martensite steel at a temperature below the eutectoid
transformation temperature (250°C to 650°C) for a specified time perio
5) Then it is cooled slowly to room temperature.
File AU.MS.3.7.1.swf
1) JOMINY END-QUENCH TEST
2) 4"
3) 1"
4) Jominy end-quench apparatus
5) Furnace
6) 1"
7) 2
8) bore
9) Valve
10) Preheat the furnace to 850°C and place the specimen in that furnace and heat to austenitizing
temperature
11) Test-piece
12) The test specimen is carefully and quickly transferred to quenching machine positioned above a
water jet of the Jominy end quench test apparatus.
13) Specimen is held vertically and sprayed with a controlled flow of water onto one end of the
sample.
File AU.MS.3.7.2.swf
1) MEASUREMENT OF HARDENABILITY
2) After quenching two shallow parallel surfaces are ground about 0.4 mm depth on the opposite side
of the test specimen longitudinally.
3) Rockwell hardness measurements are made along these surfaces at 1.6 mm intervals.
4) Near the quenched end this interval is reduced to 0.8 mm as hardness value vary rapidly.
5) Distance
6) Hardness
7) The results are expressed as a curve of hardness value versus distance from the quenched end.
8) This curve is called the jominy hardenability curve.
File AU.MS.3.9.1.swf
1) PACK CARBURISING
2) Steel container
3) Asbestos
4) Top Lid
5) Charcoal
6) Workpiece
7) The component is packed with activated charcoal in a steel boxes then lid are fixed.
8) They are heat treated up to carburising temperature 900°C to 950°
9) The process takes place up to 6 hours.
10) After process completion the component gets carburized and quenched.
File AU.MS.3.9.2.swf
1) LIQUID CARBURISING
2) Furnace
3) Workpiece
4) The workpiece is heated up to a normal above temperature before carburizing.
5) Cyanide rich mixture
6) The cyanide rich mixture is heated in iron pots to a temperature of 870 to 950 C.
7) Â
8) Then the workpiece is carried in wire baskets and immersed for periods of about five minutes.
9) According to the depth of case required.
10) Liquid carburising takes place due to decomposition of sodium cyanide at the surface of the steel.
File AU.MS.3.9.3.swf
1) GAS CARBURISING
2) In this, the components are heated in the austenitic region in the presence of a carbonaceous gas
such as methane, ethane with a carrier gas.
3) These gases decompose and the carbon diffuses into the steel.
4) To maintain a constant and uniform rate of carbon diffusion, a gas composition is controlled along
with proper circulation of gas in the furnace chamber.
5) It produces extremely uniform cases with shorter times.
File AU.MS.3.9.4.swf
1) APPLICATIONS OF CARBURISED STEELS
2) Applications of carburised steels
3) Automotive and aero reduction gears
4) Bevel pins
5) Clutch gears
6) Crown wheels
7) Gears
8) Shaft
9) Aero reduction gear
10) Crown wheel
File AU.MS.3.10.1.swf
1) GAS NITRIDING
2) Gas tight chamber
3) Workpiece
4) Ammonia gas
5) Parts are heated and maintained at about 500°C for between 40 to 100 hours
6) In gas tight chamber the ammonia gas is allowed to circulate.
7) In this atomic form of nitrogen is absorbed on the surface of steel component and the hydrogen
went away.
File AU.MS.3.11.1.swf
1) CYANIDING PROCESS
2) Electrodes
3) Sodium cyanide
4) Cyaniding bath
5) Work piece
6) The steel is immersed in a molten salt bath of sodium cyanide heated.
7) The salt bath is heated by immersed electrodes at a temperature between 800 and 870°C.
8) After cyaniding, the pieces are quenched directly into oil or water.
File AU.MS.3.11.2.swf
1) CYANIDING PROCESS
2) The steel is immersed in a molten salt bath of sodium cyanide heated by immersed electrodes.
3) The bath is heated at a temperature between 800 and 870°C.
4) NaCN
5) O
6) Molten cyanide decomposes in the presence of air at the surface of the bath to produce sodium
cyanate.
7) NaCNO
8) N
9) CO
10) The sodium cyanate further dissociates to liberate carbon and nitrogen.
11) C
12) Carbon and nitrogen so formed are absorbed at the surface of the steel.
13) After cyaniding, the pieces are quenched directly into oil or water.
File AU.MS.3.12.1.swf
1) FLAME HARDENING
2) Flame hardening coil
3) Quenching coil
4) Fire holes
5) Water holes
6) Workpiece
7) Flame hardening
8) Flame
9) It is a surface hardening method, which heats a metal with a high-temperature flame, followed by
immediate quenching process.
File AU.MS.3.12.2.swf
1) STATIONARY FLAME HARDENING METHOD
2) In this method, small areas or localised surfaces are heated by flame followed by quenching in
water.
3) Here both flame and workpiece are stationary.
File AU.MS.3.12.3.swf
1) PROGRESSIVE FLAME HARDENING METHOD
2) In progressive method, a gas torch with built-in water jet is used.
3) The torch is moved over the stationary surface at a controlled rate and water jet follows closely
behind the flame.
4) This is used for larger and longer parts such as the ways of lathe and racks.
File AU.MS.3.12.4.swf
1) SPINNING FLAME HARDENING METHOD
2) In this method, torch is stationary while the workpiece rotates.
3) When heating is completed, the part is quenched by a water jet.
4) Spinning method is used for parts having a rotational symmetry such as precision gears, pulleys,
etc.
File AU.MS.3.12.5.swf
1) PROGRESSIVE SPINNING FLAME HARDENING METHOD
2) In progressive spinning, the torch moves over the rotating work piece for heating followed by
quenching in water.
3) This method is employed to harden long circular shafts and rolls.
File AU.MS.3.13.1.swf
1) INDUCTION HARDENING
2) Induction hardening machine
3) Induction coil
4) Water holes
5) Work piece
6) Induction hardening
7) It is a form of heat treatment in which a metal part is heated by induction heating and then
immediately quenched.
File AU.MS.3.13.2.swf
1) INDUCTION HARDENING PROCESS
2) Copper tubing
3) Work piece
4) The work part is placed in a conductor coil consisting of several turns of water cooled copper
tubing.
5) When a high frequency alternating current (3-450 kHz) passes through the coil, a high frequency
magnetic field is produced.
6) This magnetic field induces surface currents in the steel part.
7) Because of the resistance of the work piece to current flow, the surface layer is heated up within a
few seconds to its upper critical temperature.
8) After that the component is quenched by water spray.
File AU.MS.3.14.1.swf
1) SOLUTION TREATMENT OF ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
2) In this process, an alloy or metal is heated to a suitable temperature.
3) Holding at the temperature long enough to allow a certain constituent to enter into a solid
solution.
4) Followed by rapid cooling to hold that constituent in the solution.
5) Most solution heat treatments soften the alloys.
6) The microstructure after solutionising is superheated solid solution at low temperature.
File AU.MS.4.2.1.swf
1) APPLICATIONS OF LOW CARBON STEEL
2) Automobile body components
3) Applications of low carbon steel
4) Automobile parts
5) Buildings
6) Channels
7) Pipe Lines
8) Beams
9) Pipeline
10) Body components
File AU.MS.4.2.2.swf
1) APPLICATIONS OF MEDIUM CARBON STEEL
2) Crankshaft
3) Applications of medium carbon steel
4) Gears
5) Railway tracks
6) Railway Wheels
7) Railway-tracks
8) gears
9) Train Wheels
File AU.MS.4.2.3.swf
1) APPLICATION OF HIGH CARBON STEEL
2) Hacksaw blades
3) Application of high carbon steel
4) Hacksaw
5) Knives
6) Razors
7) Springs
8) Tools and Dies
File AU.MS.4.2.4.swf
1) applications of molybdenum steel
2) APPLICATIONS OF MOLYBDENUM STEEL
3) Aircraft landing gear
4) Applications of Molybdenum Steel
5) Leaf spring
6) Pressure Vessels
7) Fuselage
8) Coil springs
9) Transmission Gear
10) Coil Springs
11) Leaf Spring
12) Aluminium Pipe
13) Pressure Vessel
File AU.MS.4.2.5.swf
1) applications of hadfield steels
2) APPLICATION OF HADFIELD STEELS
3) APPLICATIONS OF HADFIELD STEELS
4) Cement Mixer
5) Mining industry
6) Railway switches and crossings
7) Rock crusher
8) Concrete mixer
9) Railway switches and crossing
File AU.MS.4.2.6.swf
1) applications of stainless steel
2) APPLICATIONS OF STAINLESS STEEL
3) APPLICATIONS OF STAINLESS STEEL
4) Construction materials
5) Cookware
6) Stainless steel cutlery
7) Stainless steel plates
8) Stainless steel coils
9) Stainless steel wires
File AU.MS.4.2.7.swf
1) applications of austenite stainless steel
2) APPLICATIONS OF AUSTENITE STAINLESS STEEL
3) Engine Parts
4) Applications of austenite stainless steels
5) Fittings
6) Heat Exchanger
7) Kettles
8) Milk Cans
9) Oil-burner
10) Railway Cars
11) Screws
12) Trailers
File AU.MS.4.2.8.swf
1) applications of ferrite stainless steel
2) APPLICATIONS OF FERRITE STAINLESS STEEL
3) Fittings
4) Applications of ferrite stainless steel
5) Heating Element of Furnace
6) Interior decorative Work
7) Screws
8) Oil Burner
9) Oil burner
File AU.MS.4.2.9.swf
1) Pumps
2) Application of Martensitic stainless steels
3) APPLICATIONS OF MARTENSITE STAINLESS STEEL
4) Ruler
5) Steel Tape
6) Surgical Instruments
7) Tapes
8) Turbine buckets
9) Valves Parts
10) Pump Parts
11) Tape
File AU.MS.4.2.10.swf
1) APPLICATION OF WATER HARDENING TOOL STEELS
2) APPLICATIONS OF TOOL STEELS
3) Boring tools
4) Chisels
5) Cutting & bending dies
6) Hand hammers
7) Heavy forging hammers
8) Knife blades
9) Lathe centers
10) Milling cutters
11) Scissors
12) Watch makers tools
File AU.MS.4.3.1.swf
1) MICROSTRUCTURE OF WHITE CAST IRON
2) White Cast-iron material
3) Microstructure of White cast-iron
File AU.MS.4.3.2.swf
1) APPLICATION OF WHITE CAST IRON
2) Ball mills
3) Application of white cast iron
4) Extrusion nozzles
5) Liners for cement mixers
6) Railway brake blocks
7) Rim of freight car wheels
8) Rollers for crushers
File AU.MS.4.3.3.swf
1) MICROSTRUCTURE OF GREY CAST IRON
2) Flakes on GCI
3) GCI material
4) Microstruture of GCI
5) GCI
File AU.MS.4.3.4.swf
1) MALLEABLEIZING CYCLE
2) Hours
3) Temperature,°
4) 0
5) 12
6) 24
7) 36
8) 48
9) 60
10) 500
11) 1000
12) 1500
13) 2000
14) 2500
15) 3000
16) Pearlite
17) Fe3C
18) Austenite
19) Temper carbon
20) Ferrite
File AU.MS.4.3.5.swf
1) APPLICATION OF MALLEABLE CAST IRON
2) Agricultural implements
3) Application of malleable cast iron
4) Body components
5) Automobile parts
6) Beams
7) Camshaft
8) Channels
9) Electrical switch gear castings
10) Gears
11) Manhole covers
12) Railroad equipments
13) Electrical switch gear
File AU.MS.4.3.6.swf
1) APPLICATION OF NODULAR CAST IRON
2) Air Compressor
3) Application of nodular cast iron
4) Internal combustion engines
5) Paper industries and Machinery
6) Pump
7) Steel roll mills
8) Valves and fittings
9) Paper industries
10) Steel mill rolls
File AU.MS.4.4.1.swf
1) APPLICATIONS OF NON-FERROUS METALS
2) Aircraft body parts
3) Applications of Non-ferrous Metals
4) Aluminium for cooking utensils
5) Copper wire
6) Aluminum cooking utensils
File AU.MS.4.5.1.swf
1) COPPER
2) Copper
3) Copper wire
4) Copper sheet
5) Copper products
File AU.MS.4.5.2.swf
1) COPPER IN IC CHIP
2) Integrated circuit
3) Lid
4) Connection pin
5) Dual in-line package
6) Copper Wire
File AU.MS.4.5.3.swf
1) COPPER WIRE
2) Bulb
3) Switch
4) Copper conductor
5) Copper is the second best conductor of electricity and its conductivity is approximately 100%.
File AU.MS.4.5.4.swf
1) USES OF GILDING METAL
2) Uses of Gilding metal
3) Gilding metal
4) Medals
5) Making coins
6) Fuse caps
File AU.MS.4.5.5.swf
1) USES OF CARTRIDGE BRASS
2) Uses of cartridge brass
3) Cartridge and shell cases
4) Caps of Electric lamp bulbs
5) Door furniture
File AU.MS.4.5.6.swf
1) USES OF ADMIRALTY BRASS
2) Uses of Admiralty brass
3) Thermal conduction
4) Heat-exchanger
5) Impellers
6) Thermal Conduction
7) Impeller
8) Admiralty brass heat-exchanger
File AU.MS.4.5.7.swf
1) USES OF YELLOW METAL
2) Uses of yellow metals
3) Valve stems
4) Architectural work
5) Condenser tubes
6) Architectural works
File AU.MS.4.5.8.swf
1) USES OF LEADED BRASS
2) Uses of leaded brass
3) Pump parts
4) Lock parts
5) Clock parts
6) Brass lock
7) Valve parts
8) Brass lock parts
9) Locks
10) Casting
File AU.MS.4.5.9.swf
1) USES OF NAVAL BRASS
2) Uses of naval brass
3) Pump impellers
4) Propeller shafts
5) Valve stems
6) Pump Impellers
File AU.MS.4.5.10.swf
1) USES OF PHOSPHOR BRONZE
2) Uses of phosphor bronze
3) Clutch discs
4) Pump parts
5) Gears
6) Bearing
7) Engine parts
8) Linings
File AU.MS.4.5.11.swf
1) Uses of aluminium bronze
2) USES OF ALUMINIUM BRONZE
3) Propellers
4) Jewellry
5) Bearings
6) Valve sets
File AU.MS.4.5.12.swf
1) Uses of silicon bronze
2) USES OF SILICON BRONZE
3) Pump parts
4) Bearings
5) Aluminium bronze nuts
6) Bolts
7) Valve
File AU.MS.4.5.13.swf
1) APPLICATION OF CUPRONICKEL
2) APPLICATION OF CUPRONICKEL
3) Chemical process equipment
4) Coastal power plant
5) Distiller
6) Evaporator
7) Heat exchanger
8) Marine condensers
9) Chemical process equipment
10) Coastal power plant
11) Marine-condensers
File AU.MS.4.5.14.swf
1) APPLICATION OF MONEL METAL
2) APPLICATION OF MONEL METAL
3) Rod
4) Sheet
5) Wire
6) Food industry
7) House hold equipment
8) Impellers
9) Pumps
10) Textile industry
11) Turbine blades
12) Valve
File AU.MS.4.5.15.swf
1) APPLICATION OF NICKEL SILVERS
2) APPLICATIONS OF NICKEL SILVERS
3) Costume jwellery
4) Name plates
5) Resistance wire
6) Rivets and screws
7) Surgical equipmetns
8) Surgical equipments
9) Costume jewellery
File AU.MS.4.6.1.swf
1) TRIM AND DECORATIVE FEATURES
2) Trim and decorative features
3) Aluminium doors
4) Aluminium fitting
5) Aluminium tanks
6) Aluminium chair
7) Aluminium windows
File AU.MS.4.6.2.swf
1) APPLICATION OF ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
2) Shipping Containers
3) Application of Aluminium Alloys
4) Aluminum cooking utensils
5) Aluminium containers
6) Al-containers
7) Shipping containers
File AU.MS.4.6.3.swf
1) APPLICATIONS OF ALUMINIUM PRODUCTS
2) Pipes
3) Aluminium products
4) Valves
5) Drums
6) Fittings
7) Gratings
8) Tanks
9) Heat exchangers
10) Smoke Stacks
11) Aluminium Pipe
12) Heat exchanger
13) Smoke Stack
File AU.MS.4.6.4.swf
1) APPLICATIONS OF DURALUMIN
2) Automobile
3) Applications of Duralumin
4) Fluorescent tube caps
5) Surgical instruments
6) Aircraft Industry
7) Aircraft Industry
File AU.MS.4.6.5.swf
1) magnalumin electron applications
2) MAGNALUMIN ELECTRON APPLICATIONS
3) Magnalumin Electron Applications
4) Gear boxes
5) Brake Components
6) Crankcase of engine
7) Oil tanks
File AU.MS.4.6.6.swf
1) TYPICAL APPLICATIONS OF ALUMINIUM COPPER ALLOYS
2) TYPICAL APPLICATIONS OF ALUMINIUM COPPER ALLOYS
3) Aircraft applications
4) Forgings for structural
5) Aluminium sheets
6) Aluminium plates
7) Military vehicles
8) Rocket fins
File AU.MS.4.7.1.swf
1) APPLICATION OF TITANIUM ALLOYS
2) Application of titanium alloys
3) Bio-medical
4) Chemical
5) Marine
6) Chemical
File AU.MS.4.7.2.swf
1) APPLICATIONS OF BETA ALLOYS
2) Applications of beta alloys
3) Medical devices
4) Aircraft
5) Spacecraft
6) Sports equipment
File AU.MS.5.1.1.swf
1) POLYMERS
2) Polymers
3) Large molecule made up of repeating units of monomers
4) M
5) o
6) n
7) m
8) e
9) r
10) s
11) P
12) O
13) L
14) Y
15) E
16) R
17) S
18) MANY
19) =
20) PARTS
21) MONOMERS
File AU.MS.5.1.2.swf
1) POLYETHYLENE
2) Polyethylene (PE) or polythene (IUPAC name polyethene or poly(methylene) is the most
common pl
3) Polyethylene is probably the polymer you see most in daily life. Polyethylene is the most
popular plastic in the world
4) This is the polymer that makes grocery bags, shampoo bottles, children's toys, and even bullet
proof vests.
5) For such a versatile material, it has a very simple structure, the simplest of all commercial
polymers.
6) H
7) C
8) =
9) A molecule of polyethylene is nothing more than a long chain of carbon atoms, with two hydrogen
atoms attached to each carbon atom.Â
10) C = C
11) [
12) n
13) (or)
14) ]
15) CH2 = CH2
16) CH2 - CH2
17) Polyethylene is classified into several different categories based mostly on
its density and branchi
18) With regard to sold volumes, the most important polyethylene grades are HDPE, LLDPE and LDPE.
19) Ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene (UHMWPE
20) Ultra-low-molecular-weight polyethylene (ULMWPE or PE-WAX)
21) High-molecular-weight polyethylene (HMWPE)
22) High-density polyethylene (HDPE
23) High-density cross-linked polyethylene (HDXLPE)
24) Cross-linked polyethylene (PEX or XLPE
25) Medium-density polyethylene (MDPE
26) Linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE
27) Low-density polyethylene (LDPE
28) Very-low-density polyethylene (VLDPE)
29) Chlorinated polyethylene (CPE)
30) Polyethylene at a glance
31) Uses :
32) Monomer :
33) Polymerization :
34) Morphology :
35) Melting temperature :
36) Glass transition temperature :
37) -130 to -80°
38) 137 °
39) Highly crystalline (linear), highly amorphous (branched)
40) Free radical chain polymerization, ziegler - natta polymerization, metallocene catalysis
polymerization
41) Ethylene
42) Thermoplastics, fibers
File AU.MS.5.1.3.swf
1) POLYPROPYLENE
2) C
3) H
4) CH3
5) Polypropylene is a type of thermoplastic polymer resin.
6) It is a part of both the average household and is in commercial and industrial applications.Â
7) Commercial
8) Industrial
9) The chemical designation is C3H6
10) CH
11) CH2
12) n
13) Packaging and labeling
14) Textiles
15) Stationery
16) Plastic parts & reusable containers
17) Automotive components
18) Polymer banknotes
19) Polypropylene at a glance
20) Uses
21) Thermoplastics, fibers, thermoplastic elastomers
22) Monomer
23) Propylene
24) Polymerization
25) Zieglar-Natta polymerization, metallocene catalysis polymerization
26) Morphology
27) Highly crystalline(isotactic), highly amorphous(atactic)
28) Melting temperature
29) 174 °C (100% isotactic
30) Glass transition temperature
31) -17 °
File AU.MS.5.1.4.swf
1) POLY VINYL CHLORIDE
2) Poly vinyl chloride, commonly abbreviated PVC, is the third- most widely produced polymer,
after polyethylene and polypropy
3) Structurally, PVC is a vinyl polymer.
4) C
5) H
6) Cl
7) It's similar to polyethylene, but on every other carbon in the backbone chain, one of the
hydrogen atoms is replaced with a chlorine atom.
8) Vinyl monomer
9) It's produced by the free radical polymerization of vinyl chlorid
10) Vinyl chloride
11) Free radical vinyl polymerization
12) n
13) Poly vinyl chloride
14) PVC comes in two basic forms
15) Rigid and
16) Flexible
17) Bottles
18) Electrical cable insulation
19) Cards
20) Doors and windows
21) Leather
22) Pipes
23) Signage
24) Poly vinyl chloride at a glance
25) Uses
26) Thermoplastics
27) Monomer
28) Polymerization
29) Free radical chain polymerization
30) Morphology
31) Highly amorphous, ~11% crystallinity
32) Glass transition temperature
33) ~84°
File AU.MS.5.1.5.swf
1) POLYSTYRENEÂ
2) Polystyrene (PS) is a synthetic aromatic polymer made from the monomer styrene, a
liquid petroche
3) Polystyrene is a vinyl polymer
4) C
5) n
6) H
7) Polystyrene
8) Structurally, it is a long hydrocarbon chain, with a phenyl group attached to every other carbon
atom.
9) C = C
10) Styrene
11) Polystyrene is produced by free radical vinyl polymerization, from the monomer styrene
12) Free radical vinyl polymerization
13) +
14) Polystyrene uses
15) Protective packaging
16) CD and DVD cases
17) Lids
18) Bottles
19) Trays
20) Tumblers
21) Disposable cutlery
22) Polystyrene at a glance
23) Uses
24) Thermoplastics
25) Monomer
26) Melting temperature
27) 270°C (Syndiotactic
28) Polymerization
29) Free radical chain polymerization (atactic)
30) Ziegler-Natta poly- merization (Syndiotactic)
31) Morphology
32) 100°
33) Glass transition Temperature
File AU.MS.5.1.6.swf
1) POLYACRYLONITRILE
2) Polyacrylonitrile is a synthetic resin prepared by the polymerization of acryloni
3) C = C
4) H
5) C N
6) â
7) C
8) n
9) It is a hard, rigid thermoplastic material that is resistant to most solvents and chemicals, slow to
burn, and of low permeability to gases
10) Most polyacrylonitrile is produced as acrylic and modacrylic fibre, a common substitute
for wool in clothing and home furnishing
11) Polyacrylonitrile is usually used to make other polymers
12) Carbon fiber
13) Outdoor awnings
14) Sails for yachts
15) Fiber reinforced concrete
16) But mostly copolymers containing polyacrylonitrile are used as fibers to m
17) Knitted clothing
18) Sweaters
19) Socks
20) Tents
File AU.MS.5.1.7.swf
1) VINYL ACETATE POLYMERIZATION
2) Vinyl
3) Polyvinylacetate
4) Monomer of a vinyl acetate which combines with each other to form a vinyl acetate polymer.
File AU.MS.5.1.8.swf
1) ACRYLIC ACID POLYMERIZATION
2) Acrylic acid
3) Monomer of a acrylic acid which combines with each other to form a acrylic acid polymer.
4) Poly acrylic acid
File AU.MS.5.1.9.swf
1) METHYL ACRYLATE POLYMERISATION
2) Methyl acrylate
3) Poly Methyl acrylate
4) Monomer of a methyl acrylate which combines with each other to form a methyl acrylate
polymer.
File AU.MS.5.1.10.swf
1) METHYL METHACRYLATE POLYMERIZATION
2) Methyl methacrylate
3) Poly Methyl methacrylate
4) Monomer of a methyl methacrylate which combines with each other to form a methyl
methacrylate polymer.
File AU.MS.5.1.11.swf
1) TETRAFLUORO ETHYLENE POLYMERIZATION
2) Tetrafluoro ethylene
3) Poly Tetrafluoro ethylene
4) Monomer of a Tetrafluoro ethylene which combines with each other to form a tetrafluoro ethylene
polymer.
File AU.MS.5.1.12.swf
1) BUTADIENE POLYMERIZATION
2) Butadiene
3) Polybutadiene
4) Monomer of a butadiene which combines with each other to form a butadiene polymer.
File AU.MS.5.1.13.swf
1) ISOPRENE POLYMERIZATION
2) Isoprene
3) PolyIsoprene
4) Isoprene on polymerisation gives polyisoprene.
File AU.MS.5.1.14.swf
1) NATURAL POLYMERS
2) Natural polymers
3) Natural polymers are long-cycle molecules obtained from plants and animals.
4) Plant
5) Animal
6) Natural rubber
7) Cellulose
8) Starch
9) Protein
10) Rubber tree
11) Natural rubber is obtained from a milky liquid called latex.
12) Latex
13) Wood
14) Paper
15) Cotton
16) Cellulose is found in Cotton, Wood and Paper
17) Rice
18) Potato
19) Corn
20) Wheat
21) Starch is present in Rice, Potato, Corn and Wheat
22) Egg
23) Silk
24) Wool
25) Protein is found in Egg, Silk and Wool
File AU.MS.5.1.15.swf
1) CELLULOSE
2) C
3) O
4) H
5) HO
6) CH2OH
7) OH
8) H2O
9) Plant Cell Walls
10) =
11) Cellulose
12) Examples
File AU.MS.5.1.16.swf
1) SYNTHETIC OR ARTIFICIAL POLYMERS
2) SYNTHETIC POLYMERS
3) Synthetic fibres
4) Plastics
5) Synthetic rubber
6) Synthetic polymers are polymers which are made artificially.
7) Synthetic polymers are long-chain molecules made through of chemical reactions.
8) They are not derived from living organisms.
9) Synthetic polymers are divided into 3 groups.
10) Rubber tyres is a synthetic rubber.
11) Plastics are the widely used product in many fields.
12) Synthetic fibers are used in modern day clothing accessories.
File AU.MS.5.1.17.swf
1) POLYMERIZATION
2) Representation of polymerisation process
3) Monomer
4) Monomers are joined together to form polymers through a process called polymerisation.
5) Polymers
6) Polymerisation
7) This process involves chemical reaction.
8) Conditions for polymerisation
9) The conditions needed for polymerisation are heat, pressure and catalyst.
10) Heat
11) Pressure
12) Catalyst
13) How does polymerisation occur?
14) H
15) C
16) Ethene
17) Let's look at the polymerisation of ethene as an example.
18) In the polymerisation of ethene, the monomer add to one another by using the double bonds to
form bonds between its molecules.
19) The resulting polymer chain consists of thousands of -CH2 CH2- (ethene) units joined together like
beads on a necklace.
File AU.MS.5.1.18.swf
1) ADDITION POLYMERISATION
2) If we look closely at a molecule of a polymer, we can notice that its made up of very large number
of identical units.
3) Monomer
4) The compounds providing the single unit forming a giant molecule are termed monomers.
5) These monomers are compounds consisting of single, small molecules that combine one another
under favorable conditions to form a polymer.
6) Polymerisation
7) Polymer
8) Monomers
9) A reaction where by numbers of small molecules combine into macro molecular compounds is
referred to as polymerization.
File AU.MS.5.1.19.swf
1) PREPARATION OF POLYTHENE
2) Monomer CH2 = CH2 ( Ethylene )
3) Dimer CH2 - CH2 - CH2 - CH2 -
4) Trimer CH2 - CH2 - CH2 - CH2 - CH2 - CH2 -
5) Polymer ---- ( CH2 - CH2 - --- ) n --- ( polyethylene )
6) Polyethylene is formed by addition polymerisation of ethylene under high pressure (1500 atm) and
temperature (180 – 250° C) in presence of oxyg
File AU.MS.5.1.20.swf
1) Polyvinyl chloride
2) PREPARATION OF POLYVINYL CHLORIDE
3) PVC means polyvinyl chloride and is a common plastic used for insulating and jacketing many wire
and cable products.
4) PVC is the most important of all the polyvinyl plastics and is called ‘Korosealâ€
5) Free radical
6) Step -1
7) The monomer vinyl chloride gas is obtained by passing a mixture of dry hydrogen chloride and
acetylene gases at 100 - 250°C over heavy metal salt catalysts.
8) Vinyl chloride
9) Step -2 Polymerisation of vinyl chloride
10) A water emulsion of the vinyl chloride is heated in an autoclave under pressure in the presence of
benzoyl peroxide or hydrogen peroxide initiator to yield PVC.
11) Step -2
12) Free radical
File AU.MS.5.1.21.swf
1) LABORATORY PREPARATION PVC
2) PVC means polyvinyl chloride and is a common plastic used for insulating and jacketing many wire
and cable products.
3) PVC is the most important of all the polyvinyl plastics and is called ‘Korosealâ€
4) Acetylene
5) Hydrogen chloride
6) Heating with (60 - 80°C
7) Uses of PVC
8) It is used in the production of
9) Pipes
10) Cable insulations
11) Rain-coats
12) Table covers
13) It is also used for making sheets which are employed for
14) Tank-linings
15) Light fittings
16) Refrigerator components, etc.
File AU.MS.5.1.22.swf
1) CONDENSATION POLYMERISATION
2) O
3) H
4) This is the other type of polymerization refer to as a condensation polymer.
5) Condensation polymer
6) The synthesis involves the formation of release molecules of simple compound, for example water.
7) 2Ã
8) 3Ã
9) 4Ã
10) PET
11) C
12) n
13) Polymer is known as PET. It is for by reaction between terephthalic acid and ethane - 1,2-doil.
14) HO
15) OH
16) Terephthalic acid
17) OH-CH2-CH2-OH
18) Ethane- 1, 2-diol
19) T
20) E
21) As the PET polymer chains form, water molecules are released. Their forms by components of
hydroxyl groups from the terephthalic acid with hydrogen atoms from ethane -1,2-doil.
22) 5Ã
23) 6Ã
File AU.MS.5.1.23.swf
1) COMPARISON BETWEEN ADDITION POLYMERIZATION AND CONDENSATION POLYMERIZATION
2) Addition polymerisation
3) Condensation polymerisation
4) Formed by unsaturated monomers
5) Formed by functional monomers
6) Triggered by Heat,Pressure or catalyst
7) No triggering is necessary
8) Reaction is very fast
9) Reaction is slow
10) Polymers are of high molecular weight
11) Polymers are of low molecular weight
12) No molecules are removed
13) Small molecules like water, CHCH3OH are removed
14) 1
15) 2
16) 3
17) 4
18) 5
19) S.no
20) Ethene
21) H
22) C
23) Urea
24) O
25) NH2
26) H2N
27) Triggered by Heat,Pressure or catalyst
28) kPa
29) 50
30) 150
31) 0
32) 100
33) 200
34) Polymers are of high molecular weight
35) Polymers are of low molecular weight
36) Condensation polymer
37) 2Ã
38) 3Ã
39) 4Ã
File AU.MS.5.1.24.swf
1) COPOLYMERIZATION
2) Polymerisation
3) Monomers
4) Polymer
5) Copolymerisation
6) Alternating
7) A
8) B
9) Block
10) Random
11) Graft
12) Structural arrangement of copolymers
File AU.MS.5.1.25.swf
1) CO-POLYMERIZATION
2) Co-polymerisation
3) Definition
4) Co-polymerisation is the joint polymerisation in which two (or) more different monomers combine
to give a polymer.
5) Properties
6) Co-polymerisation is mainly carried out to vary the properties of polymers such as hardness,
strength, rigidity, heat resistance etc.
7) Butadiene
8) Structure of Butadiene
9) Hydrogen
10) Carbon
11) Styrene
12) Structure of Styrene
13) Butadiene and styrene co-polymerise to give GR-S rubber.
14) n
15) Styrene butadiene rubber, SB
File AU.MS.5.3.1.swf
1) SCREW INJECTION MOULDING
2) Mould
3) Tie bar
4) Nozzle
5) Platen
6) Heater
7) Mould cavity
8) Screw
9) Hopper
10) Resin charge
11) Working of screw injection moulding
12) In screw injection moulding, the resin charge are loaded into the hopper.
13) By the rotation of screw the loaded resin is drawn into the heater and heated to molten state.
14) Then the heated resin is screwed into nozzle.
15) From the nozzle the hot resin is forced into the mould cavity and allowed to cool.
16) Finally the solidified resin product is rejected by ejector pin.
File AU.MS.5.3.2.swf
1) PLUNGER MOULDING MACHINE
2) Gating
3) Mould
4) Clamping cylinder
5) Torpedo
6) Injection chamber
7) Back pressure plate
8) Heater
9) Barrel
10) Hopper
11) Cooling zone
12) WORKING OF PLUNGER INJECTION MOULDING MACHINE
13) The plastic granular are loaded into injection chamber through the hopper and heated by heater.
14) Then the hydraulic driven plunger inject molten plastic into the mould cavity and allows to
solidify.
15) Finally the solidified plastic part is ejected by ejector pin.
File AU.MS.5.3.3.swf
1) COMPRESSION MOULDING
2) COMPRESSION MOULDING MACHINE
3) Upper mould
4) Bottom mould
5) Control unit
6) Actuator
7) The upper mould can slide up and down by the actuator.
8) Raw plastic
9) The lower mould is fixed.
10) The upper and lower mould join together and form the mould cavity.
11) The control unit monitors the process and control it.
12) Working of compression moulding machine
13) In this, a pre-measured quantity of plastic in the form of charge is placed in the bottom mould and
heated.
14) Then the actuator moves the upper mould downward, and forces the charge into the mould
cavity and returns back.
15) Moulded product
File AU.MS.5.3.4.swf
1) TRANSFER MOULDING
2) Transfer moulding, is a modification of compression moulding.
3) Control unit
4) Actuator
5) Punch
6) Charge
7) Mould cavity
8) In transfer moulding, the thermosetting charge is loaded to transfer pot and heated.
9) Then, the charge is allowed to flow into an orifice mould by applying pressure.
10) After the solidification of charge the moulded product is rejected from the mould cavity.
File AU.MS.5.3.5.swf
1) BLOW MOULDING PROCESS
2) Blow moulding are used to make small parts of bulk production and rotational moulding favours
large hollow shape.
3) Parison
4) A thermoplastic resin is extruded through a die head to form a hollow tube called a parison.
5) Parison is placed in a conveyor and heated by oven.
6) The parison is dropped between two mold halves.
7) The parison is inflated by pressurized air.
8) The plastic solidifies as it is cooled inside the mold.
9) The mold opens and the finished component is removed.
File AU.MS.5.3.6.swf
1) ROTATIONAL MOULDING PROCESS
2) Rotational moulding also referred to as rotomoulding or rotational casting - is one of the fastest
growing plastics processing methods today.
3) Consider a rotational moulding machine.
4) In rotational moulding, rigid, resilient hollow bodies are formed by powdered plastic material
(resin) in heated moulds, which are rotated simultaneously in two planes perpendicuar to each other.
5) Resin
6) The plastic particles make contact and melt on the inner surfaces of the hot moulds and fuse in
layers until all the powder is fused and the desired end product and wall thickness is obtained.
7) The wall thickness is controlled by the amount of powder placed in the mold.
8) Rotationally moulded pieces are stress - free except for slight shrinkage forces because the pieces
are produced without any external pressure.
9) Additionally, there is practically no scrap in rotational moulding.
File AU.MS.5.3.7.swf
1) FILM BLOWING MACHINE
2) The raw plastic material is fed through an extruder to an annular die opening.
3) The hot plastic in the form of cylindrical molten tube is cooled and inflated by blowing air.
4) The bubble formed by air blow is fed and pinched between the pinch rolls before freezing point.
5) The thin film is conveyed by the guide rolls and rolled into coils.
File AU.MS.5.3.8.swf
1) PLASTIC EXTRUSION
2) Hopper
3) Hydraulic drive
4) Heating chamber
5) For extrusion the resin powders are loaded into the heating chamber through the hopper.
6) Screw
7) In heating chamber, the resin powders are heated to molten state.
8) Die
9) Then the molten resin is forced into the die opening, by this molten resin extruded through the die
opening to a continuous length.
File AU.MS.6.1.1.swf
1) DIELECTRIC MATERIAL
2) Dielectric
3) A dielectric is an electrical insulator that can be polarized by an applied electric field.
4) +
5) Electric Field
6) -σ
7) +σ
8) Eext = E
9) P
10) inside
11) E
12) ï
13) r
14) Dielectric Constant = Er > 1
15) When a dielectric is placed in an electric field, electric charges do not flow through the material as
they do in a conductor, but slightly shift from their average equilibrium positions causing dielectric
polarization.
File AU.MS.6.1.2.swf
1) POLARIZATION OF DIELECTRIC
2) In the dielectric slab, there are several molecular dipoles which are randomly distributed in the
whole volume.
3) When an external electric field is applied to the dielectric slab, the positive centers will experience
a force towards the electric field and the negative centers will experience a force opposite to the
electric field.
4) Then all the dipoles will get align in the direction of the electric field.
5) Overall flux density of the region between the dielectric slab is less than the outside region.
6) Due to that, some of the lines of force from the external field are terminate on the negative side
dipole and will start again on the positive side of dipole.
7) Polarization is the phenomena which involves the alignment of dipoles when the dielectric is
subjected to an electric field which generates the polarization charges
8) producing an internal electric field in the direction opposite to the external electric field and hence
weakening the net electric field inside the dielectric.
9) E0
10) E'
11) E =
File AU.MS.6.1.3.swf
1) -1.5 V
2) 0 V
3) 1.5 V
4) Dielectric constant
5) 1
6) 5
7) Glass
8) ELECTRIC PERMITTIVITY
9) When the electric field is passed, the matter has the ability to resist electric field.
10) Matter
11) Resistance
12) And the resistance to an electric field is called as permittivity.
13) Permittivity
14) Free space
15) Material
16) Constant
17) Variable
18) Structure
19) Capacitance
20) The basic capacitor consists of two conducting plates which are connected with wires, and the
dielectric insulator is in the middle of the plates.
21) Dielectric
22) The free space between the conducting plates is known as free space permittivity.
23) Free space permittivity
24) Now a dielectric insulator is added in between the conducting plates.
25) Due to the electric field, the electrons inside the dielectric resist the electric field and the
electrons are aligned in the direction of the electric field.
26) By increasing the voltage, the charges are developed on both sides of the plate.
27) By adding the dielectrics like Teflon, paper and glass in the middle of the plates, the charges in the
plates are varied and the capacitance is also varied.
28) Teflon
29) Paper
File AU.MS.6.1.4.swf
1) PIEZO ELECTRICITY INJECTORS
2) Piezo Electricity Injectors switch 5 times faster than a normal gasoline injector.
3) Same Pressure
4) Movement is transmitted non mechanically. RED indicates pressure. Pintle Spring and pressure has
to be overcame. Normal press, equals 4,000 to 30,000 PSI.
5) Hydraulic multiplication on the small chamber.
6) If pressure drops on top of the pintle then injector opens.
File AU.MS.6.1.6.swf
1) ELECTRONIC POLARIZATION
2) The polarization of an electromagnetic wave is defined as the orientation of the electric field
vector.
3) X
4) Y
5) B
6) E
7) Z
8) The displacement of the positively charged nucleus and the negatively charged electrons of an
atom in opposite directions, on application of an electric filed, result in electronic polarization.
9) The electric component of an electromagnetic plane wave can oscillate in any direction normal to
the direction of wave propagation.
10) Recall that the electric field vector is perpendicular to both the direction of travel and the
magnetic field vector.
11) The polarization is described by the geometric figure traced by the electric field vector upon a
stationary plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation, as the wave travels through that
plane.
12) An electromagnetic wave is frequently composed of (or can be broken down into) two orthogonal
components.
13) This may be due to the arrangement of power input leads to various points on a flat antenna, or
due to an interaction of active elements in an array or many other reasons.
File AU.MS.6.1.7.swf
1) IONIC POLARIZATION
2) HOW TO MAKE IONIC COMPOUNDS
3) YOU WILL NEED
4) C
5) a
6) t
7) i
8) o
9) n
10) s
11) A
12) E
13) e
14) r
15) g
16) y
17) f
18) d
19) c
20) z
21) STEP 1
22) Cations are usually derived from metal atoms like sodium.
23) STEP 2
24) Anions are derived either from nonmetals or polyatomic compounds like chlorine molecules.
25) STEP 3
26) 0
27) STEP 4
28) STEP 5
29) Atomic in ionic compounds combine so that they have 8 electron in their outer electron shells.
File AU.MS.6.1.8.swf
1) ORIENTATION POLARIZATION
2) -
3) +
4) The net dipole moment is negligibly small since all the molecular dipoles are oriented randomly
when there is no electric field.
5) In the presence of the electric field, these all dipoles orient themselves in the direction of field.
6) H
7) H2 hydrogen
8) The molecules such as H2 , N2 , O2 , Cl2 , CH4 , CCl4 , etc., does not carry any dipole because centre
of positive charge and centre of negative charge coincides.
9) N
10) N2 nitrogen
11) O
12) O2 oxygen
13) Cl
14) Cl2 chlorine
15) C
16) CH4- Methane
17) CCl4-Carbon tetrachloride
18) In Carbon tetrachloride (CCl4), where a carbon is bonded with four chlorides and its geometric is
tetrahedral.
19) CH3Cl- Chloromethane
20) On the other hand molecules like CH3Cl, H2O, HCl ethyl acetate (polar molecules) carries dipoles
even in the absence of electric field.
21) H2O- Water
22) Hcl- Hydrochloric acid
File AU.MS.6.1.9.swf
1) SPACE - CHARGE POLARIZATION
2) The negative charges (electrons) get accumulated in positive electrode and the positive charges get
accumulated in the negative electrode.
3) Electrodes
4) +
5) -
6) Before the appliction of the field
7) The separation of positive and negative charges produces an induced dipole moment and hence
induced polarization .
8) After the application of the field
9) The induced polarization produces by the separation of positive and negative charges in an
electrolyte due to the application of an electric field is known as space-charge polarization.
10) Space charge polarization is also known as interfacial polarization or migrational polarization.
11) Total Polarization
12) The total polarization is the sum of the electronic, ionic, orientation and space-charge
polarization.
13) Electronic polarization
14) E
15) d
16) Shift in electron orbits
17) Cation
18) Anion
19) E = 0
20) Ionic
21) Orientation
22) M+
23) Metal electrodes
24) Space charge
25) The space charge polarization is very small and it is not well-defined and hence it is negligible.
26) Therefore, the total polarization is the sum of the electronic, ionic and orientation polarizations.
27) Total polarization,
28) P = Pe + Pi + Po
29) ï
30) ï
31) kT
32) 3
33) 1
34) M
35) m
36) e
37) R
38) 4
39) NE
40) P
41) 2
42) 0
43) The above equation is the value of the total polarization in a dielectric material.
File AU.MS.6.1.10.swf
1) CLAUSSIUS-MOSOTTI EQUATION
2) Consider a dielectric material having cubic structure, and assume ionic Polarizability &
Orientational polarizability are zero.
3) 0
4) i
5) ï
6) N
7) P
8) Polarization
9) e
10) E
11) .,
12) where
13) ......
14) Where
15) 3
16) 1
17) ...(1)
18) We known that the polarization vector
19) ...(2)
20) )
21) (
22) r
23) From equations (1) & (2), we get
24) 2
25) The above relation is known as clausius - mosotti equation.
File AU.MS.6.2.1.swf
1) PROPERTIES OF MAGNET
2) Magnetic Substances
3) Attractive Property: A magnet attracts magnetic substances like iron, steel, nickle and cobalt.
4) N
5) S
6) Bar Magnet
7) Directive Property: A freely suspended magnet always aligns itself in the north-south direction.
8) E
9) W
10) NE
11) NW
12) SE
13) WS
14) Poles exist in pairs: If a magnet is broken into two parts from the middle, then each part is found
to be a magnet.
15) Magnetic property is maximum at the poles.
File AU.MS.6.2.2.swf
1) 0V
2) MAGNETIC DIPOLE
3) The magnetic dipole moment to be a vector pointing out of the plane of the current loop and with
a magnitude equal to the product of the current and loop area.
4) 1V
5) 2V
6) 3V
7) 4V
8) 5V
9) 6V
10) 7V
11) 8V
12) 9V
13) 10V
14) North
15) N
16) South
17) S
18) Magnetic dipole Moment
19) M = N i A
20) M
21) N = No. of turns in coil
22) i = current
23) A = Area of the loop.
24) To visualize the complex geometry of cosmic magnetic fields it is useful to represent the field by
means of magnetic field lines, that is, lines that are everywhere parallel to the magnetic field vector.
File AU.MS.6.2.3.swf
1) S
2) N
3) ORIGIN OF MAGNETIC MOVEMENT
4) The origin of atomic magnetic moments is the incomplete cancellation of electron magnetic
moments.
5) Electron
6) Orbit
7) Spin
8) Nucleus
9) The property of magnetism exhibited by certain materials is associated with the magnetic property
of its constituent atoms.
10) The spin is an intrinsic property of the electron and it is not due to its rotation
11) Magnetic moment
12) Atomic nucleus
13) We know that electrons in an atom revolve around the nucleus in different orbits.
14) Basically, there are three contributions for the magnetic dipole moment of an atom.
15) The orbital motion of electrons
16) Spin motion of the electrons
17) The contribution from the nuclear spin
18) Magnetic moment due to orbital angular momentum of electrons
19) The electron orbiting around the nucleus produces a magnetic field due to angular momentum.
20) e
21) v
22) An electron orbit is equivalent to a tiny bar magnet.
23) Magnetic dipole moment μ is opposite to angular momentum 'L' in direction
24) V
25) L
26) Â
27) The orbital motion of electron revolving about a nucleus is equivalent to a tiny current loop.
28) e-
29) This produces a magnetic field perpendicular to the plane of the orbit.
File AU.MS.6.2.4.swf
1) e
2) v
3) S
4) N
5) MAGNETIC MOMENT DUE TO ORBITAL ANGULAR MOMENTUM OF ELECTRONS
6) An electron orbiting around the nucleus produces a magnetic field.
7) An electron orbit is equivalent to any tiny bar magnet.
8) V
9) L
10) Â
11) Magnetic dipole moment μ is opposite to angular momentum 'L' in direction as shown
12) The orbital motion of electron revolving about a nucleus is equivalent to a tiny current loop.
13) I
14) -e
15) A
16) ï
17) This produces a magnetic field perpendicular to the plane of the orbit .
18) Let us consider an electron moving with a constant speed ‘v' in a circular orbit of radius r
19) r
20) Let T be the time taken for one revolution and 'e' be the magnitude of charge on the electron.
21) T = Time taken
22) The current I across any point in the orbit
23) time
24) electron
25) of
26) arg
27) ch
28) ...(1)
29) T
30) Magnetic moment associated with the orbit
31) orbital
32) by
33) ered
34) cov
35) area
36) current
37) IA
38) ...(2)
39) 2
40) Angular velocity
41) ...(3)
42) W
43) or
44) Substituting the value of T in equation (2), we have
45) ...(4)
46) ew
47) w
48) rw
49) ...(5)
50) evr
51) Dividing and multiplying the R.H.S of equation (5) by m (the mass of the electron), we have
52) m
53) evrm
54) ...(6)
55) eL
56) Where
57) L=mvr is the orbital angular momentum of the electron
58) The equation (6) is the expression for the magnetic moment associated with the orbital motion of
the electron.
59) The negative sign indicates that the magnetic moment vector and the angular momentum vector
are in opposite direction.
File AU.MS.6.2.5.swf
1) S
2) v
3) e
4) N
5) V
6) L
7) Â
8) BOHR MAGNETON
9) The magnetic moment contributed by an electron with angular momentum quantum number L = 1
is known as Bohr magneton.
10) We know that
11) ...(1)
12) m
13) 2
14) eL
15) ï
16) According to quantum theory, orbital angular momentum
17) Ñ
18) n
19) h
20) Where
21) Substituting the value of L in equation (1),we have
22) For n = 1, electron is ground state. (Bohr orbit) where n is orbital momentum quantum number,
23) ...(2)
24) 4
25) eh
26) This magnetic moment is defined as one Bohr magneton(ï
27) ...(3)
28) B
29) Substituting the values in equation (3),we have
30) 31
31) 34
32) 19
33) 10
34) 1
35) .
36) 9
37) 14
38) 3
39) 625
40) 6
41) 24
42) Am
43) or
44) metre
45) ampere
46) 274
47) Magnetic moment due to spin of electron
48) Similar to orbital motion, magnetic moment due to spin of the electron is given by
49) eS
50) S is spin angular momentum and it is given by h/2ï
51) An electron spins around its own axis
52) An electron spin producing magnetic lines of force is shown.
53) Here s is spin quantum number which can take the values +1/2 or -1/2
File AU.MS.6.2.6.swf
1) FERROMAGNETIC MATERIAL
2) orbo
3) N
4) S
5) Module Topic
6) Module Topic :
7) Welcome to the M-H Curve and magnetic Domains. This module covers the following topics:
8) The M-H Curve
9) Magnetic Domains
10) After completing this module, You should have a basic understanding of the M-H curve,
Hysteresisloops and magnetic domains.
11) Learning Objectives :
12) M
13) H
14) 0
15) Field Intensity
16) Magnetisation
17) An M-H Curve :
18) An M-H curve is a graph that shows the relationship between the intensity of an applied magnetic
field,denoted by H, and the
19) magnetic effect of that field, denoted by M, The ease with which a material is magnetized is
referred to as its magnetic permeability.
20) M-H Curve Plastic
21) Different materials have different M-H curves.This is the M-H curve for plastic, for example it is
completely flat.
22) The M-H Curve :
23) Consider the example of a plastic cup that is sitting within a magnetic field of intensity H1. It has a
magnetisation value of zero.
24) If the intensity of the magnetic is increased to H2, the plastic cup's magnetisation value
doesn’t change. It remains at zero.
25) H2
26) Intensity Increases
27) H1
28) Here is another example of an M-H curve. This shows the relationship between field intensity and
magnetisation for a hard ferromagnetic material.
29) M1
30) Applying a magnetic field of intensity H1 result in the material becoming magnetised to a level of
M1.
31) M2
32) Intensity Increases
33) Increasing the intensity of the magnetic field to a level of H2 results in magnetisation level of M2.
34) Note that the curve flattens out after a certain value of H. This is to an effect called magnetic
saturation.
35) Hs
36) Magnetic saturation occurs when a material has reached the maximum level to which it can be
magnetised.
37) In this example, an increase in the intensity of the applied field from H1 to H2 causes an increase
in magnetisation from M1 to M2.
38) But when the field intensity is increased from H2 to Hs, the value of M remains the same.
39) M2/HS
40) Ms
41) When the intensity of the magnetic field applied to a hard ferromagnetic material is reduced, the
material still retains a significant level of magnetization.
42) Mr
43) In this case, when field intensity drops from a level of Hs to Zero, magnetization drops from Ms to
Mr. This is known as the point of retentivity.
44) -H
45) -M
46) In order to return the magnetization level to zero, we have to go further than reducing the
intensity of the applied field to zero – we have to reverse i
47) -He
48) In this example, magnetization, M, returns to zero only when the field intensity is reversed to the
point denoted by –Hc. This point is known as the point of coercivel
49) If we increase the intensity of the reversed field, eventually the material will once again reach
magnetic saturation.
50) -Ms
51) -Hs
52) In this example, magnetic saturation is reached at the point –Ms Due to the application of a
reversed field of intensity â€
53) Now suppose we reverse the applied forced once again, returning it to its original direction. Just
as before, the material will retain some of its current
54) -Mr
55) magnetization even when the applied field reaches a value of zero. In this example, whenH
reaches zero, a magnetization level of –Mr is retaine
56) Magnetization does not return to zero, in fact, until the intensity of the applied field reaches the
level of Hc.
57) Hc
58) If we continue to increase the strength of the field, magnetic saturation will occur yet again. In
this case, saturation occurs at Ms Following the application of a field with intensity Hs.
59) A graph such as this one is known as a magnetization hysteresis loop. The key concept is worth
repeating, hard ferromagnetic materials retain a significant
60) level of magnetization even when the field responsible has been removed. In order to
demagnetize them completely, and opposing field must be applied.
61) Magnetic Domains :
62) Ferromagnetic materials have a high degree of magnetic permeability because they contain
regions known as magnetic domains.
63) Magnetic Domain
64) A magnetic domain is an area of the material in which the magnetic fields created by multiple
atoms are aligned in a particular direction. Each of these areas can be thought of as miniature
magnet.
65) Magnetic domains exist in a wide variety of shapes and sizes. They have been observed using a
number of microscopic techniques.
66) Domains are naturally orientated in random directions. This coupled with the fact that their
individual magnetic effects are very small, means that their combined magnetic effect is negligible.
67) When domains are subjected to an external magnetic field, however, they become orientated in
the same direction, thus producing a significant net magnetic effect.
68) Domain Wall
69) Magnetic Domains :
70) Magnetic domains are separated by domain walls. These walls are not physical barriers but can
be thought of as areas of transition, little more than one hundred atoms wide, between one domain
and the next.
71) In these transitional areas, the atoms’ magnetic dipole moments are displaced by 90 or 180
degree
72) ï
73) 180
74) 90
File AU.MS.6.2.7.swf
1) Magnet
2) N
3) S
4) DIAMAGNETIC MATERIAL
5) Diamagnetic material
6) Diamagnetism is the property of an object or material that causes it to create a magnetic field in
opposition to an externally applied magnetic field.
7) Diamagnetic substances are repelled by a magnet. Copper, silver, water, gold, mercury are some
examples of diamagnetic substances.
8) Repulsion
9) Copper
10) Silver
11) Water
12) Gold
13) Mercury
14) They are magnetized feebly in the opposite direction to the applied external field.
15) When suspended in a uniform magnetic field, it comes to rest in the perpendicular direction to
the magnetic field.
16) Diamagnetism does not depend upon the temperature and does not obey Curie’s la
17) The magnetic lines of force passing through these substances are less than those in vacuum. So
the relative permeability is less than 1.
18) A diamagnetic liquid is taken in a U tube and arranged so that one of its limbs is in the uniform
magnetic field. The liquid in the limb is depressed.
File AU.MS.6.2.8.swf
1) Nucleus
2) N
3) S
4) PARAMAGENETIC MATERIAL
5) Paramagnetic Material
6) Paramagnetism is a form of magnetism where certain materials are attracted by an externally
applied magnetic field, and form internal, induced magnetic fields in the direction of the applied
magnetic field.
7) In Absence of Magnetic Field
8) In Presence of Magnetic Field
9) Chromium
10) Chromium, platinum, crown glass, copper chloride, oxygen are some examples of paramagnetic
materials.
11) Platinum
12) Crown glass
13) Copper chloride
14) Oxygen
15) The magnetic movement created due to orbital motion of electrons disappears due to the effect
of the electric field of the neighboring charge.
16) The magnetic movement due to spin motion of electron remain unaffected by this field.
17) Paramagnetic materials have a small, positive susceptibility to magnetic fields.
18) These materials are slightly attracted by a magnetic field and the material does not retain the
magnetic properties when the external field is removed.
19) H
20) B>H
21) mr
22) â
23) 1
24) Paramagnetic material
25) Paramagnetic materials attracts the magnetic lines of force.
26) o
27) Paramagnetic properties are due to the presence of some unpaired electrons, and from the
realignment of the electron paths caused by the external magnetic field.
28) c
29) Un-paired electron
File AU.MS.6.2.9.swf
1) ANTIFERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS
2) Antiferromagnetism
3) In materials that exhibit antiferromagnetism, the magnetic moments of atoms or molecules,
usually related to the spins of electrons, align in a regular pattern with neighboring spins pointing in
opposite directions.
4) The magnetic interactions between any two dipoles align themselves antiparallel to each other and
all the dipoles are equal in magnitude.
5) And the resultant magnetization is zero
6) Ferro magnetic
7) When an external field is applied the ferromagnetic behavior may be displayed in the
antiferromagnetic phase.
8) AntiFerro magnetic
9) B Sublattice (Ni)
10) The absolute value of one of the sublattice magnetizations differing from that of the other
sublattice resulting in non-zero net magnetization.
11) A Sublattice (Al)
12) Antiferromagnetic materials occur less frequently in nature than ferromagnetic materials.
13) MnO, MnS, Cr2O3 are some of the ionic compounds which are in antiferromagnetism.
14) MnO
15) MnS
16) Cr2O3
17) Characteristics of Antiferromagnetic materials
18) The susceptibility is very small and positive
19) The adjacent dipoles are opposite aligned
20) Increase in temperature, the susceptibility increases
File AU.MS.6.2.10.swf
1) MR
2) MS
3) I
4) A
5) B
6) C
7) F
8) ïm
9) E
10) D
11) B0
12) External field B0
13) Magnetization, M
14) H
15) O
16) I Sat
17) OA
18) ORIGIN OF DOMAIN THEORY OF FERROMAGNETISM
19) Saturation
20) ï
21) =
22) OB = OE
23) OF = OC
File AU.MS.6.2.11.swf
1) ANISOTROPY
2) Anisotropy is a dependence of energy level on some direction. If the magnetic moments in a
material have a bias towards one particular direction (the easy axis) then the material is said to have
uniaxial anisotropy, like cobalt.
3) If the bias is towards many particular directions, then the material has multiple easy axis and it
possesses cubic anisotropy. Cubic crystals such as iron and nickel have this property. Uniaxial and
cubic anisotropy are forms of magneto crystalline anisotropy as their properties in this respect arise
from the crystalline structure of the material.
File AU.MS.6.2.12.swf
1) HYSTERESIS
2) When a ferromagnetic material is magnetized in one direction, it will not relax back to zero
magnetization when the imposed magnetizing field is removed. It must be driven back to zero by a
field in the opposite direction. If an alternating magnetic field is applied to the material, its
magnetization will trace out a loop called a hysteresis loop.
3) V1
4) +
5) -
6) Non-inverting input
7) output
8) Positive power supply
9) Negative power supply
10) V2
11) Inverting input
12) Vin
13) Vout
14) +VCC
15) -VCC
16) Op Amp Comparators
17) V
18) i
19) n
20) =
21) 1
22) 2
23) cc
24) out
25) if
26) ï
27) Comparator Examples
28) VO
29) vin
30) vout
31) +vsat
32) -vsat
33) vsat
34) R1
35) Vcc
36) R2
37) Vref
38) C
39) vref
40) ref
41) R
42) -Vcc
43) 10k
44) +12V
45) -12V
46) 2k
47) 4k
48) LDR
49) VR
50) 12V
51) 4
52) 12
53) VR = 8V
54) t
55) 8V
56) VLDR
57) Comparator with Hysteresis Schmitt Trigger
58) sat
59) ,
60) )
61) UTP
62) (
63) LTP
64) UTP = Upper Trigger Point
65) LTP = Lower Trigger Point
66) +12
67) -12
68) 1K
69) 11K
70) 11
71) v
72) TP=IV
73) Schmitt Trigger
74) +15
75) -15
76) 14
77) hysteresis.
78) V of
79) .
80) 0
81) give
82) will
83) that
84) &
85) Find
86) 05
87) 95
88) 13
89) 279
90) 1K and 270K would be the standard resistor values to use.
File AU.MS.6.2.13.swf
1) ~
2) Light
3) Electron gun
4) g-ray Microscope
5) Grid
6) Cathode
7) Anode 1
8) Anode 2
9) RAY MICROSCOPE
10) g
11) Photon
12) Electron
13) The incoming photon interact with the electron.
14) The scattered photon should entered into the microscope within the angle 2q.
15) a
16) b
17) Lens
18) q
19) Incident photon
20) Pe
21) Scattered electron
22) Scattered photon
23) The microscope is given by the relation
24) Δx
25) l
26) 2 sinq
27) The uncertainty in the momentum measurment in x-direction is
28) Δx Δpx
29) h/2p
File AU.MS.6.2.14.swf
1) SOFT MAGNETIC MATERIALS
2) S
3) N
4) The magnetic materials that are easy to magnetize and demagnetized are called soft magnetic
materials.
5) Real soft magnet
6) Ideal soft magnet
7) In soft magnetic material, the domain wall moves easily.
8) B0
9) B1
10) Soft magnetic material
11) Flux lines
12) The application of a small value of magnetic field produces a large value of magnetization.
13) Iron and silicon alloys
14) Iron and silicon alloys, nickel-iron alloys, iron cobalt alloys are some of the examples of soft
magnetic materials.
15) Nickel-iron alloys
16) Iron cobalt alloys
17) Induced Current In Part
18) Current In Coil
19) Magnetic Field
20) The required composition of the materials is taken and they are heated above their melting
points and the liquid solution is cooled slowly.
21) The slow cooling of the melt makes them too soft and free from impurities.
22) Properties of Soft magnetic materials
23) They have low hysteresis energy loss
24) Low coercivity
25) Resistivity is high and hence low eddy current loss
26) Very high permeability
27) The magnetostatic energy is very small
28) Applications of soft magnetic materials
29) Soft magnetic materials are used in a wide variety of electrical machines in daily use such as,
30) Power transformers
31) Power transformers, Output transformers, Motors, Generators
32) Output transformers
33) Motors
34) Generators
File AU.MS.6.2.15.swf
1) "Hard" Ferromagnetic Material
2) B
3) H
4) Large coercive Force
5) HARD MAGNETIC MATERIALS
6) Hard magnetic materials
7) The materials which cannot be easily magnetized and demagnetized are called hard magnetic
materials and they may retain their magnetism.
8) Hard magnets are difficult to rotate magnetic materials domains due to impurity and crystal
defects exists in materials.
9) Magnet
10) To make the materials as hard magnet, the molten mixture which is high temperature is rapidly
quenched in cold liquid, the impurities are added to base materials.
11) The hard magnetic materials are used where a permanent and high magnetic field is required.
12) s
13) N
14) AlNiCo, rare earth metal alloys with Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, carbon steels and tungsten steels are some
examples of hard magnetic materials.
15) Properties of hard magnetic materials
16) Hysteresis loss is heavy due to large areas
17) The value of coercivity and resistivity are larger
18) The susceptibility and permeability values are low
19) The mechanical strain is more due to impurities
20) Value of eddy current loss is high
21) Applications of hard magnetic materials
22) It is used for the production of permanent magnetism.
23) The magnetism in toys, compass needled, meters, etc., are made from carbon steel.
24) Toys
25) Compass needled
26) Meters
27) Neodymium magnets are used in microphones to reduce microphone size.
28) Microphone
29) Magnets
File AU.MS.6.2.16.swf
1) APPLICATION OF FERRITES
2) Ferrites use in radio receivers to increase the sensitivity and selectivity of the receiver.
3) The rectangular shape ferrite cores can be used as magnetic shift.
4) Ferrites are used as cores in audio and TV transformers.
5) These ferrites used in digital computers and data processing.
6) Ferrites are widely used in non-reciprocal microwave devices such as gyrator, isolator and
circulator.
7) Hard ferrites are used to make permanent magnets.
8) Ferrites can also be used in the design of ferromagnetic amplifiers.
9) Hi freq
10) Low freq
11) one second
12) These are also used to produce low frequency ultrasonic waves by magnetostriction.
13) Ferrites are also used in power limiting and harmonic generation devices.
File AU.MS.6.3.1.swf
1) SEMICONDUCTOR
2) Semiconductor
3) A semiconductor is a material which has electrical conductivity between that of a conductor
such as copper and that of an insulator such as glas
4) Silicon is a semiconductor having four valence electrons which are abundant in nature.
5) If a material having 8 electrons in its valence band it is stable, but in silicon it have only four
valence electrons so it is partially stable.
6) Tetrahedral structure
7) In a tetrahedral arrangement of silicon each electron forms covalent bonds with the four
surrounding atoms.
8) Holes
9) When the applied voltage is greater than cut of voltage the hole attracts a neighbouring electron,
so that the hole appears to have moved to the neighbouring atom.
10) Covalent bond
11) Electrons
File AU.MS.6.3.2.swf
1) APPLICATION OF SEMICONDUCTOR
2) voltaic cell
3) Photo
4) Light
5) Electricity
6) Photo voltaic cell converts light into eletricity and getting the source as sunlight.
7) Photovoltaic cells are made from semiconductors, such as silicon which is commonly used.
8) Photons from sun light
9) Solar Panel
10) Solar panels composed of a number of solar cells containing a photovoltaic material from
sunlight.
11) Glass
12) Front contact
13) n-doped layer (Semiconducting material)
14) The n-doped layer and p-doped layer is made of semiconducting material like silicon, germanium
etc.
15) P-doped layer (Semiconducting material)
16) Back contact
File AU.MS.6.3.4.swf
1) EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
2) Ge
3) Crystalline structure of Germanium (Intrinsic semiconductor)
4) A doped semiconductor is called an Extrinsic semiconductor.
5) Extrinsic semiconductros :A doped semiconductor is called Extrinsic semiconductor.
6) As
7) Crystalline structure of Germanium with Arsenic (As) (Extrinsic semiconductor)
8) Dopants
9) The process of deliberately adding impurities to a semiconductor material is called Doping.
10) I
11) m
12) p
13) u
14) r
15) i
16) t
17) e
18) s
19) Acceptor Impurities
20) Donor Impurities
21) Donor Impurities
22) Excess electron
23) Sb
24) Antimony (Sb)
25) Phosphorus (p)
26) Arsenic (As)
27) n-type impurities
28) Crystalline structure of Germanium with Gallium (Ga) (Extrinsic semiconductor)
29) Ga
30) Hole
31) Extrinsic semiconductors are used to fabricate any kind of electronic device.
32) B
33) Ga
34) Boron (B)
35) Gallium (Ga)
36) Indium (I)
37) p-type impurities
File AU.MS.6.3.5.swf
1) INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
2) Intrinsic semiconductor
3) Silicon and germanium is the best example of intrinsic semiconductor.
4) An intrinsic semiconductor is an undoped semiconductor.
5) This means that holes in the valence band thermally excited to the conduction band.
6) Silicon
7) Silicon structure
8) Germanium
9) Germanium structure
File AU.MS.6.3.6.swf
1) To find out the concentration of electrons in conduction band we have to integrate equation dne
from εc to â
2) ï
3) ...(1)
4) kT
5) /
6) )
7) E
8) exp(
9) 1
10) dE
11) m
12) 2
13) h
14) 4
15) n
16) F
17) C
18) 3
19) e
20) .
21) edge
22) band
23) conduction
24) of
25) Energy
26) Ec
27) =
28) CARRIER CONCENTRATION IN INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS
29) If EC-EF >> KT. One in the denominator can be neglected in comparision with exponential term
and equation (1) can be rearranged as
30) Let
31) me
32) (
33) ]
34) exp[(
35) 0
36) c
37) x
38) d
39) ](
40) Here
41) exp[
42) N
43) NC is the effective density of the states in the conduction band.
44) Similarly the hole concentration in the valence bands is given by
45) exp
46) p
47) V
48) Where
File AU.MS.6.3.7.swf
1) Temp(T)
2) Valence band
3) Conduction band
4) (p-type)
5) (Intrinsic)
6) Ev
7) Nd=1021 atoms/m3
8) Na=1024 atoms/m3
9) EF
10) Ec
11) 0
12) E
13) Ef =
14) Ev+Ea
15) 2
16) Ev+Ec
17) Ea
18) Ef
19) N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR
20) Density of electrons per unit volume in the conduction band is given by
21) ...(1)
22) kT
23) /
24) )
25) (
26) e
27) h
28) m
29) n
30) C
31) F
32) 3
33) ï
34) Where
35) EF is the energy of the fermi level,
36) EC is the energy corresponding to the bottom most level of conduction band
37) Density of ionised donors
38) 1
39) N
40) d
41) ...(2)
42) At equilibrium, the density of electrons in the conduction band is equal to the density of ionised
donors.
43) Equating equation (1) and equation (2) We have,
44) ...(3)
45) me
46) EF lies more then a few kT above donor levels EF - EC/kT is very large when compared to 1.
47) Hence 1 from the denominator of R.H.S. of equation (3) is neglected.
48) Hence, equation (3) becomes
49) or
50) ...(4)
51) *
52) Taking log on both sides, we get
53) log
54) ...(5)
55) KT
56) Rearranging, We have
57) ...(6)
58) Substituting the expression of EF from equation (6) in equation (1), We get
59) ..(7)
60) exp
61) ...(8)
62) Rearranging the equation (8), we get
63) ...(9)
64) 4
65) c
66) ...(10)
67) Where is the ionisation energy of the donor i.e.,
68) denotes the amount of energy required to transfer an electron from the donor energy level Ed
to the conduction band Ec.
File AU.MS.6.3.8.swf
1) EC
2) EV
3) Eg
4) Ed
5) EF
6) Electron
7) Conduction band
8) Valence band
9) Positively ionised donor
10) +
11) P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR
12) In p-type semiconductor, the acceptor energy level is just above the valence band.
13) Let Eα represent the energy of the acceptor level and Nα denote the number of acceptor atoms
per unit volum
14) Density of holes per unit volume in the valence band is given by,
15) ï
16) ...(1)
17) e
18) h
19) kT
20) m
21) 2
22) p
23) /
24) E
25) 3
26) F
27) v
28) ,
29) Where
30) .
31) level
32) energy
33) fermi
34) the
35) is
36) Ev is the energy corresponding to the top level of valence band.
37) Density of ionised acceptors
38) N
39) )
40) (
41) 1
42) ...(2)
43) Since Eï¡ +EF is very large when compared to KT, e Eï¡ ï€EF K T is a large quantity and thus
'1' from the denominator of R.H.S of equation (2) is n
44) At Equilibrium,
45) acceptors
46) ionsized
47) of
48) Density
49) band
50) valence
51) in
52) holes
53) ...(3)
54) have
55) we
56) equation
57) sides
58) both
59) on
60) arithms
61) log
62) Taking
63) ...(4)
64) ),
65) 4
66) arranging
67) Re
68) or
69) 5
70) k
71) T
72) l
73) o
74) g
75) ...(6)
76) get
77) We
78) 6
79) ression
80) exp
81) ng
82) Substituti
83) V
84) ...(7)
85) mh
86) *
87) ...(8)
88) P
89) becomes
90) (8)
91) put
92) If
93) ...(9)
94) KT
95) RESULTS
96) Density of holes in the valence band is proportional to the square root of donor concentration.
97) At very high temperatures, intrinsic carrier concentration over take holes due to acceptor
concentration.
98) That is, at very high temperatures, p–type semiconductor behaves like an intrinsic
semiconductor and acceptor concentration becomes insignifican
File AU.MS.6.3.9.swf
1) V
2) HALL EFFECT
3) The Hall effect is the production of a voltage difference (the Hall voltage) across an electrical
conductor, transverse to an electric current in the conductor and a magnetic field perpendicular to
the curre
4) Consider the electric current passed through the semiconductor.
5) In a magnetic field, a force is exerted on the moving electrons which tends to push them to one
side of the conductor.
6) A buildup of charge at the sides of the conductors will balance this magnetic influence, producing a
measurable voltage between the two sides of the conductor.Â
7) For a N-type semiconductor the Hall coefficient is negative whereas for a P-type semiconductor it is
positive.
File AU.MS.6.4.1.swf
1) 10ï‚
2) 20ï‚
3) 30ï‚
4) Temperature
5) 0ï‚
6) 0 K
7) 10 K
8) 20 K
9) 30 K
10) 40 K
11) Resistance
12) SUPERCONDUCTOR
13) Non super conductive metal at room temperature having particular resistance.
14) Non superconductive metal
15) Before cooling (room temperature)
16) After cooling (0th temperature)
17) The resistivity of the conductors gradually decreases when the temperature is lowered.
18) There is non zero resistance even at absolute zero temperature. It means resistance still exists in a
conducting material.
19) Superconductive metal
20) At room temperature a superconductive metal also have in particular resistance.
21) After cooling
22) (Critical temperature)
23) In superconductors the resistance drops to zero when the material is cooled below the critical
temperature.
24) Non-superconductive metal
25) Superconductor
File AU.MS.6.4.2.swf
1) Diamagnetic material
2) Magnetic lines
3) Transition to zero resistance
4) Perfect diamagnet
5) DIMAGNETISM IN SUPERCONDUCTORS
6) Magnet
7) Diamagnetic material
8) Transition to zero resistance
9) When a perfect diamagnet transit to zero resistance it should completely repel any new field from
entering.
10) Superconductor
11) Superconductors are better described as perfect diamagnets than perfect conductors.
12) Thus the relative permeability of a superconductor is zero.
File AU.MS.6.4.3.swf
1) MEISSNER EFFECT
2) Magnet
3) Magnetic lines
4) Super conductor
5) Before cooling T > Tc
6) The superconductor before cooling placed in the magnetic field.
7) When a superconductor placed in a magnetic field having a temperature greater than the critical
temperature (T > Tc), magnetic lines of induction are passed through it.
8) The superconductor after cooling placed in the magnetic field.
9) After cooling T < Tc
10) When a superconductor placed in a magnetic field is cooled below the critical temperature, the
magnetic lines of induction are pushed out.
File AU.MS.6.4.4.swf
1) N
2) S
3) Magnet
4) FIRST PROPERTY OF LINES OF FORCE
5) Permanent Magnet
6) North pole
7) South pole
8) Lines of force are always originating on a N-pole and terminating on a S-pole, external to the
magnet.
9) Magnetic lines force
10) The tangent to the line of force indicates the direction of the electric field and electric force.
11) Electric lines of force are always normal to the surface of charged body.
File AU.MS.6.4.5.swf
1) Magnet
2) N
3) S
4) SECOND PROPERTY OF LINES OF FORCE
5) Each line forms a closed loop.
6) External to magnet
7) Internal to magnet
8) Closed loop means that a line emerging from N-pole, continues upto S-pole external to the magnet
while it is assumed to continue from S-pole to N-pole internal to the magnet completing a closed
loop, such lines internal to the magnet are called as lines of induction.
9) The electric field in the region of a pair of unlike charges.
10) And the electric field in the region of a pair of like charges.
File AU.MS.6.4.6.swf
1) Magnet
2) THIRD PROPERTY OF LINES OF FORCE
3) Bar magnet
4) Magnetic pole
5) Tha bar magnet is a term that refers to a magnet which is shaped as a bar and with magnet pole at
both ends.
6) North pole
7) South pole
8) One of the ends is known as the north magnetic pole while the other is known south magnetic
pole.
9) Lines of force
10) It is clear that electric lines of force would always originate from a positive charge and end on a
negative charge.
11) Lines of force never intersect each other.
12) The field line points in the direction of the electric field.
13) Direction of the electric field
File AU.MS.6.4.7.swf
1) N
2) S
3) Magnet
4) FOURTH PROPERTY OF LINES OF FORCE
5) Magnetic lines of force
6) The lines of force are like stretched rubberbands and always try to contract in length.
7) Their density decreases with increasing distance from the poles.
8) Magnetic lines of force pass through all materials, both magnetic and non-magnetic material.
File AU.MS.6.4.8.swf
1) FIFTH PROPERTY OF LINES OF FORCE
2) Fixed iron (unmagnetized)
3) Permanent magnet
4) Magnet 1
5) Magnet 2
6) They never overlap each other because any two parallel magnetic lines of force are repelled by
each other if they are travelling in the same direction.
7) Repulsion
8) Magnetic lines of force
9) Electric lines of force are closer (crowded) where the electric field is stronger and the lines spread
out where the electric field is weaker.
10) Electric field is stronger
11) Electric field is weaker
File AU.MS.6.4.9.swf
1) SIXTH PROPERTY OF LINES OF FORCE
2) Fixed iron (unmagnetized)
3) Permanent magnet
4) The Permanent magnet will be attracted towards the fixed iron at all directions (poles)
5) Fixed magnet
6) Attraction
7) Magnetic lines of force
8) Magnetic lines of force always prefer a path offering least opposition.
9) +q
10) -q
11) The number of lines per unit cross sectional area are perpendicular to the field lines (i.e. density
of lines of force) is directly proportional to the magnitude of the intensity of electric field in that
region.
12) Electric field
13) Electric lines of force are perpendicular to the surface of a positively or negatively charged body.
14) +
File AU.MS.6.4.10.swf
1) e-
2) phonon interaction
3) ~
4) 100 nm
5) Cooper pair of electrons
6) 0.1-.4nm
7) lattice spacing
8) BCS THEORY
9) In 1957, more than 40 years after the discovery of superconductivity, three physicists Bardeen,
Cooper and Schrieffer finally found the correct explanation to superconductivity in metals.
10) BCS theory is the first microscopic theory of superconductivity.
11) electron
12) Positively charged lattice ions
13) Cooper pair moving through lattice
14) The theory describes superconductivity as a microscopic effect caused by a condensation of
Cooper pairs into a boson-like state.
15) The main idea of the BCS theory relies on the quantum nature of electrons. In a metal, electrons
are waves.
16) BCS Theory Demonstration
17) Quantum nature of electrons
18) Each of these electrons is relatively independent and follows its own path independent of other
electrons.
19) Electron
20) In a superconductor, the majority of these electrons merge in order to form a large collective
wave.
21) In quantum physics, we call it “macroscopic quantum wave function†or condensa
22) Macroscopic Quantum Wave Function
23) When the collective wave is formed, it requires each member to move at the same speed.
24) In a metal, an individual electron is easily diverted by a flaw or an atom that is too big.
25) In a superconductor however, this same electron can be diverted only if at the same time, all the
other electrons of the collective wave are diverted in the exact same manner.
26) The flaw in a single atom surely cannot do that, the wave will not be diverted and thus, not
slowed down. It superconducts!
File AU.MS.6.4.11.swf
1) SUPERCONDUCTING CABLE
2) Liquid nitrogen inlet
3) Phase L1
4) Phase L2
5) Phase L3
6) Dielectric
7) Neutral conductor
8) Liquid nitrogen return
9) Cable cryostat
10) Outer jacket
File AU.MS.6.4.12.swf
1) APPLICATION OF SUPERCONDUCTOR MAGLEV TRAIN
2) Superconductors provides magnetic levitation to object. This principle is used in Magnetic
levitation (Maglev) train.
3) Super conductor
4) Liquid Nitrogen
5) Magnetic track
6) Magnetic levitation
File AU.MS.6.4.13.swf
1) MEISSNER EFFECT
2) Magnet
3) Magnetic lines
4) Super conductor
5) Before cooling T > Tc
6) When a superconductor placed in a magnetic field having a temperature greater than the critical
temperature (T > Tc), magnetic lines of induction are passed through it.
7) After cooling T < Tc
8) When a superconductor placed in a magnetic field is cooled below the critical temperature, the
magnetic lines of induction are pushed out.
File AU.MS.6.5.1.swf
1) PHASE TRANSFORMATION OF CRYSTALLINE AND AMORPHOUS SOLIDS ON HEATING
2) Temperature
3) Specific volume
4) D
5) Crystal
6) A
7) B
8) C
9) Melting
10) }
11) Stable Liquid
12) F
13) Amphorous solid
14) Tm
15) Tg
16) Super-cooled liquid
17) Softening
File AU.MS.6.5.2.swf
1) STRESS VERSUS STRAIN DIAGRAM OF STEEL AND GLASS
2) Stress
3) Strain
4) Steel
5) Glass
File AU.MS.6.5.3.swf
1) GLASS MANUFACTURING PROCESS
2) sand
3) cullets
4) soda
5) dolomite
6) Batch house
7) Furnace
8) Molten tin float bath
9) Annealing chamber
10) Cutting
File AU.MS.6.6.1.swf
1) METALLIC GLASSES PREPARATION
2) There are different techniques to produce ribbons of metallic glasses and among them melt
spinning is the most commonly used technique for commercial production in a large scale.
3) A melt spinner consists of a copper disc which rotates at a high speed.
4) Copper disc
5) Refractory tube
6) Molton Alloy
7) Crucible
8) Helium gas pressure
9) Rotating Roller
10) The alloy in the refractory tube is melted by induction heating under an inert helium
atmosphere.
11) Now the molten alloy is ejected through a nozzle from the bottom of the refractory tube onto
the spinning disc by increasing the gas pressure.
12) The molten alloy falling on the moving substrate is solidified and comes out of the roller.
13) Thus a continuous ribbon is obtained and wound on a spool.
14) By increasing the ejection pressure and making the disc speed constant, the width and thickness
of the ribbon are increased.
15) By increasing the disc speed and making the ejection pressure constant, increases the width of
the ribbon and decreases the thickness of the ribbon.
16) The ribbon produced by this process has no irregularities on the upper surface but the lower one
which is in contact with the substrate has a large number of small irregularities due to the trapped
gas bubbles.
File AU.MS.6.6.2.swf
1) METALLIC GLASSES PROPERTIES
2) They possess non-crystalline structure.
3) Crystalline
4) Noncrystalline
5) Unmagnetized domains
6) B
7) Magnetized domains
8) They exhibit ferromagnetic behavior.
9) They possess high strength.
10) They possess high tensile strength.
11) They possess high hardness.
12) They possess high workability.
13) They have high electrical resistance.
14) They have high corrosion resistance.
File AU.MS.6.10.1.swf
1) O
2) H
3) d-
4) d+
5) EXAMPLES FOR NANO PARTICLES
6) Fullerenes
7) 132
8) ns
9) 133
10) 134
11) 135
12) 136
13) 137
14) 138
15) 139
16) 140
17) 141
18) 142
19) 143
20) 144
21) 145
22) 146
23) 147
24) 148
25) 149
26) 150
27) 151
28) 152
29) 153
30) 154
31) 155
32) 156
33) 157
34) 158
35) 159
36) 160
37) 161
38) 162
39) 163
40) 164
41) 165
42) 166
43) 167
44) 168
45) 169
46) 170
47) 171
48) 172
49) 173
50) 174
51) 175
52) 176
53) 177
54) 178
55) 179
56) 180
57) 181
58) 182
59) 183
60) 184
61) 185
62) 186
63) 187
64) 188
65) 189
66) 190
67) 191
68) 192
69) 193
70) 194
71) 195
72) 196
73) 197
74) 198
75) 199
76) 200
77) Metal clusters (agglomerates of metal atoms)
78) Large molecules, such as proteins
79) Hydrogen
80) Oxygen
81) Nagative side
82) Positive side
83) 105o
84) Even hydrogen-bonded assemblies of water molecules, which exist in water at ambient
temperatures.
85) Hydrogen bonding
86) Water molecule
File AU.MS.6.10.2.swf
1) NANOWIRES
2) Nanowires can be defined as structures that have a thickness or diameter constrained to tens
of nanometers or less and an unconstrained lengt
3) A nanowire is an extremely thin wire with a diameter on the order of a few nanometers (nm) or
less, where 1 nm = 10-9Â meter
4) 6nm
5) Si Nanowire
6) Many different types of nanowires exist, including metallic, semiconducting and insulating.
7) 500 nm
8) Nanowires may play an important role in the field of quantum computers.
9) Nanowires
10) The nanowires also became superconductors due to the proximity effect.
11) Round nanowire
12) Ampere's forces push the nanowires apart
13) The proximity effect
14) +
15) -
16) Superconductor
17) Gate
18) The researchers could control the superconductivity of the nanowires by running various voltages
through the substrate under the wires.
19) Nanowire
20) Nanowires may also play an important role in nano-size devices like nanorobots. Doctors could
use the nanorobots to treat diseases like cancer.
File AU.MS.6.10.3.swf
1) CARBON NANOTUBES (CNT)
2) Carbon NanoTubes (CNT)
3) A Carbon nanotube is a tube shaped material, made of carbon. A nanometer is one-billionth of a
meter, or about one ten- thousandth of the thickness of a human hair.
4) The graphite layer appears somewhat like a rolled-up chicken wire with a continuous unbroken
hexagonal mesh and carbon molecules at the apexes of the hexagons.
5) Carbon nanotubes have many structures, differing in length, thickness, and the type of helicity and
number of layers.
6) Although they are formed from essentially the same graphite sheet, their electrical characteristics
differ depending on these variations, acting either as metals or as semiconductors.
7) Carbon nanotubes can be categorized by their structures.
8) Single-wall Nano tubes (SWNT)
9) Multi-wall Nano tubes (MWNT)
10) Double-wall Nano tubes (DWNT)
11) Properties of a Carbon NanoTube
12) The intrinsic mechanical and transport properties of Carbon nanotubes make them the ultimate
carbon fibers.
13) Overall, Carbon nanotubes show a unique combination of stiffness, strength, and tenacity
compared to other fiber materials which usually lack one or more of these properties.
14) Thermal and electrical conductivity are also very high, and comparable to other conductive
materials.
File AU.MS.6.10.4.swf
1) APPLICATIONS OF NANO PARTICLES
2) Applications of nanoparticles
3) Ceramics for membranes.
4) Batteries and fuel cells.
5) Catalysis and electrolysis reactors.
6) Protective coating of plastic surfaces.
7) Thermal and scratch protection.
8) Reflection avoidance in windows.
9) Sun creams
10) Electronics
11) Laser displays
12) Photo chromic coatings
13) Automotive coatings
14) Bioceramics
15) Drug
16) Nanoparticle
17) Drug loaded nanoparticle
18) Drug carriers
19) Information storage
20) Bio - separation
21) Bio - sensor
22) Molecular imaging
23) Catalysis
24) MRI
25) Magnetic nanoparticle
26) H
27) Δ
28) Magnetic nanoparticles
29) Hydrothermal treatment of cancers.
File AU.MS.6.10.5.swf
1) APPLICATIONS OF NANOMATERIALS
2) Nanomaterials capable of minimizing electronic devices are ideal candidates for the future
nanoelectronics.
3) Nanomaterials have breakthrough applications in the field of nano-medicine such as, medical
imaging, drug delivery, detection, killing of cancer tumor cells and disease diagnosis.
4) Medical imaging
5) Drug delivery
6) Detection
7) Killing of cancer tumor cells
8) Disease diagnosis
9) Nanomaterials can purify water as well as kill bacteria present in it.
10) Nanomaterials can fabricate antibacterial, water-repellent, wear-and scratch- resistant coatings.
File AU.MS.6.10.6.swf
1) PULSED LASER DEPOSITION
2) Basically, the pulsed laser deposition technique is nothing but the high intense laser beam
evaporating the carbon atoms and the vapour atoms condensed on the substrate.
3) The experimental arrangement of PLD is shown here.
4) It consists of a quartz tube in which a graphite target is kept inside the high- temperature muffle
furnace.
5) Argon gas is filled inside the quartz tube and heated up to the temperature of 1473 K.
6) When a high-intense laser beam is incident on the target, the carbon atoms evaporate from the
target.
7) The argon gas sweeps the carbon atoms to the cold substrate and the evaporated atoms condense
onto the substrate as nanotubes.
8) Single-walled CNTs of 15 nm diameter and 100 mm length can be produced by this method.
File AU.MS.6.10.7.swf
1) 0
2) 5
3) 10
4) 15
5) 20
6) 35
7) 40
8) 30
9) 25
10) -
11) C
12) ï
13) 750
14) 1200
15) Quartz tube
16) To pump
17) Water cooled copper rod
18) Si substrate with iron film coating
19) Pressure control
20) N2
21) C2H2
22) Water cooled injector
23) CHEMICAL VAPOUR DEPOSITION
24) The hydrocarbon gas like methane (C2H2) is passed into the furnace which is kept at 1373 K.
25) At this high temperature, the methane gas decomposes into carbon atom.
26) These carbon atoms condense on a cold substrate which contains the catalyst and forms
nanotubes.
27) The catalyst plays a dominant role in forming the carbon nanotubes.
28) This process is continuous and hence, it produces the nanotubes continuously.
29) 40 CM
File AU.MS.6.10.8.swf
1) R
2) O
3) Initiator (I-I)
4) R1
5) Monomers
6) Flow controller
7) Valve
8) Vacuum Chamber
9) P
10) Exhaust
11) CHEMICAL VAPOUR DEPOSITION
12) Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) is a basic tool of manufacturing.
13) The CVD process begins with tanks containing an initiator (red) and one or more monomers
(purple and blue), which are the building blocks of the desired polymer coating.
14) These materials are vaporized, either by heating them or reducing the air pressure and are then
introduced into a vacuum chamber containing the material to be coated.
15) The initiators help to speed up the process in which the monomers link up in chains to form
polymers on the surface of the substrate material.
16) I
17) Cooled stage (typically 20 - 50 C)
18) ï
19) Substrate
20) Filaments (200 - 300 C)
21) Initiator
22) Monomer
23) 2
24) The hot gaseous material naturally forms a coating on the colder substrate, much as water vapor
coats the outside of the cold drinking glass on a hot day.
File AU.MS.6.10.9.swf
1) Wet gel
2) Evaporation
3) Heat
4) SOL-GEL
5) Metal alkoxide solution
6) The preparatory material (or precursor) used to produce the "sol" usually consists of inorganic
metal salts or metal organic components, such as metal alkoxides.
7) Precurser
8) Hydrolysis polymerisation
9) Sol
10) These precursors are submitted to a series of hydrolyse and polymerisation reactions to create a
colloidal suspension (or "sol").
11) By further processing this suspension, this sol is transformed into a ceramic material in different
forms for different applications.
12) Coating
13) Xerogel film
14) Thin layers (films) are applied by spin-coating or dip-coating
15) Dense film
16) Gelling
17) By moulding the "sol" we obtain a wet gel that,
18) Will form a dense ceramic structure after evaporation and heat treatment
19) Under super critical conditions, it will form a very porous material with an extremely low density
(aerogel)
20) Extraction of solvent
21) Aerogel
22) By adjusting the sol's viscosity it is possible to manufacture ceramic fibres
23) Spinning
24) Furnace
25) Ceramic fibres
26) By precipitation, spray pyrolysis or emulsion techniques we will obtain ultra-fine and uniform
ceramic powders
27) Precipitating
28) Uniform particles
File AU.MS.6.10.10.swf
1) BALL MILLING METHOD
2) One machine that is heavily used for crushing and grinding tasks is the ball mill.
3) Ball Mill
4) This machine is described as a grinding device, capable to crush and transform large hard materials
into fine powder.
5) A ball mill is a cylindrical machine, generally used for mashing and crushing paints, ceramic
materials, ores, and other hard materials.
6) Cylindrical machine
7) Feed material
8) Dust collection
9) Finished product
10) Grinding ball
11) By rotating on a horizontal axis, the ball mill effectively turns hard materials into fine powder.
12) The grinding materials are actually small balls which crush and grind the material that is inside the
ball mill.
13) Usually, stainless steel or ceramic balls are used as grinding materials.
14) When the ball mill rotates, the balls crush and grind the material inside, creating in this way loose
powder.
15) The end result is crushed material that can be used for other purposes.
16) Crushed materials
File AU.MS.6.10.11.swf
1) NANOTUBE
2) Graphite
3) In graphite carbon atoms are hybridized sp2, the atoms are linked together by covalence sigma
bonds to form two dimensional sheets of hexagonally arranged atoms.
4) Each carbon atom is three or its four valence electrons for covalent bonding.
5) When graphite sheets are rolled into a cylinder, their edges joined and form carbon nanotubes i.e.,
carbon nanotubes are extended tubes of rolled graphite sheets.
6) But each carbon atoms in the carbon nanotubes are linked by the covalent bond.
7) Buckled carbon nanotube
File AU.MS.6.10.12.swf
1) Armchair
2) Zigzag
3) Chiral
4) INTRODUCTION TO CARBON NANOTUBE
5) Carbon Nanotube
6) Carbon nanotubes are hollow cylindrical tubes.
7) The length of carbon nanotubes may vary from several micrometers to millimeters and the
diameter will vary from 1 to 20nm.
8) 1 to 20nm
9) The ends are closed with caps containing pentagonal rings.
10) A tube may contain one cylindrical wall of graphite or a number of concentric cylindrical walls.
11) Under the transmission electron microscope, these cylindrical walls appear as planes.
12) Single wall nanotubes appear with two planes whereas the multiwall nanotubes appear with
more than two planes and are seen as a series of parallel lines as shown.
13) Nanotube walls
14) The single-walled carbon nanotubes are of three different types.
File AU.MS.7.1.1.swf
1) TENSILE TEST
2) Universal testing Machine
3) Jaws
4) Specimen has a diameter of 12.5 mm and a gauge length of 50 mm.
5) Specimen
6) The specimen is fastened to the two ends jaws of the Machine.
7) The load is applied gradually by means of movable cross head till the specimen gets fracture.
File AU.MS.7.1.2.swf
1) STRESS-STRAIN CURVE
2) The specimen is fastened to the two ends jaws of the Machine.
3) Specimen
4) Stress - Strain Curve for Mild Steel
5) Engineering strain (mm.mm-1)
6) Engineering stress (MN.m-2)
7) 50
8) 100
9) 150
10) 200
11) 250
12) 300
13) 0.002
14) 0.004
15) 0.0.2
16) 0.06
17) 0.10
18) 0
19) Elastic straining
20) plastic straining
21) Fracture
22) (Break point)
23) Î
24) σ
25) e
26) Modulus of elasticity
27) =
28) Yield strength
29) Ultimate tensile strength
File AU.MS.7.10.1.swf
1) IZOD TEST
2) Impact Testing Machine
3) Pendulum
4) Scale Pointer
5) Specimen
6) Specimen support
7) The specimen is placed Vertical position in the vice of the anvil.
8) Standard Specimen dimension is Length 75 mm, Height 10 mm, Breadth 10 mm.
9) The V-notch of the Specimen is placed as facing to the pendulum.
10) Pendulum hammer is raised to a known standard height depending on the type of specimen to be
tested.
11) When the pendulum is released, its potential energy is converted into kinetic energy just
before striking the specimen.
12) Now the energy is absorbed is measured in foot-pounds or metre-kg, from the scale of the impact
testing machine.
File AU.MS.7.10.2.swf
1) CHARPY TEST
2) Impact Testing Machine
3) Pendulum
4) Scale Pointer
5) Specimen
6) Specimen support
7) The specimen is placed horizontal position in the vice of the anvil.
8) Standard Specimen dimension is Length 55 mm, Height 10 mm, Breadth 10 mm.
9) The V-notch of the Specimen is placed in the opposite direction to the pendulum.
10) Pendulum hammer is raised to a known standard height depending on the type of specimen to be
tested.
11) When the pendulum is released, its potential energy is converted into kinetic energy just
before it strikes the specimen.
12) Now the energy is absorbed is measured in foot-pounds or kg-metre, from the scale of the impact
testing machine.
File AU.MS.7.10.3.swf
1) Izod test
2) Charpy test
3) Difference between
4) and
5) DIFFERENCE BETWEEN IZOD TEST AND CHARPY TEST
6) 75 mm
7) 55 mm
8) Notch is made at a distance of 28 mm from the top.
9) Notch is made exactly in the middle of the specimen
10) Specimen position in the vice is cantilever beam
11) Specimen position in the vice is simply supported beam
12) Usually a V-notch is used
13) V or U or Key hole notches are used
14) The initial energy of hammer is less
15) The initial energy of hammer is high
File AU.MS.7.11.1.swf
1) FATIGUE TEST
2) Fatigue tests are made with the object of determining the relationship between the stress range
and the number of times it can be applied, before causing failure.
3) Fatigue strength: It is applicable to a component with no endurance limit.
4) Maximum stress for which fatigue will not occur at a particular number of cycles, generally 108
cycles for metals.
File AU.MS.7.11.2.swf
1) TENSION TEST
2) Tension test
3) In the tension test, a suitably designed specimen is subjected to a continuously increasing uni-axial
tensile load until it fractures.
4) Test piece
5) Load
6) After applying load the length of the workpiece is increased.
7) Before loaded workpiece
8) After loaded workpiece
9) Elongation
File AU.MS.7.11.3.swf
1) COMPRESSION TEST
2) Jaws
3) Gauges
4) The specimen is made of cylindrical shape to avoid eccentric loading.
5) The specimen is fitted in between compression plates of the universal testing machine.
6) The compression load is gradually applied and corresponding reduction in the lengths of the
specimen is recorded.
File AU.MS.7.11.4.swf
1) TORSION ON SHAFT
2) A machine member is subjected to the action of two equal and opposite couples acting in parallel
planes (torque or twisting moment), then the machine member is said to be subjected to torsion.
3) A shaft rigidly clamped at one end and twisted at the other end.
4) Torque T is applied along the axis of the shaft may be applied through the force (F) applied as part
of the torque arm.
5) Torque, T
6) Diameter, D
7) Force, F
8) Torque (T) = Force (F) x Diameter of the pulley DF.
File AU.MS.7.11.5.swf
1) BENDING OPERATION
2) Length of bend, L
3) Bending is the process by which a straight length is transformed into a curved length.
4) The material in the form of flat sheet or strip, is uniformly strained around the linear axis.
5) Bend angle, Î
6) Î
7) Bend radius, R
8) Bend allowance B
9) Bend radius is defined as the radius of curvature on the concave (or inside) surface of the bend.
File AU.MS.7.11.6.swf
1) Applications of fatigue failure
2) APPLICATION OF FATIGUE FAILURE
3) Automobile axles
4) Crank shaft
5) Space shuttle
6) Solid propellent rocket
7) Landing gear
8) Lower wing skin
9) Bolt
10) Stud
11) Power plant axle
12) Power plant shaft
File AU.MS.7.12.1.swf
1) CREEP TEST
2) Upper pull rod
3) Lower pull rod
4) Tube furnace
5) Extensometer
6) Specimen
7) The specimen to be tested is placed in the electric furnace.
8) Output monitoring
9) Controller
10) Here the specimen is heated to a given temperature and is constantly subjected a load.
11) And the controller shall be display of all parameters on computer screen i.e.
Temperature,Extension, Temp Vs time (hours/min./sec.) graphs, Part no, Part name, Date,Time etc.
File AU.MS.7.2.1.swf
1) COMPRESSION TEST
2) Jaws
3) Gauges
4) The specimen is made of cylindrical shape to avoid eccentric loading.
5) The specimen is fitted in between compression plates of the universal testing machine.
6) The compression load is gradually applied and corresponding reduction in the length of the
specimen is recorded.
File AU.MS.7.4.1.swf
1) BRINELL HARDNESS TEST
2) Hardness Testing Machine
3) Dial gauge
4) Loading lever
5) In the Brinell test, a hardened steel ball indenter is forced into the surface of the material to be
tested.
6) Ball Tip
7) Test piece
8) The test piece is raised by turning the hand wheel, till it just touches the indenter.
9) During a test, the load is maintained constant for 10 to 15 seconds.
10) Then note the reading.
File AU.MS.7.4.2.swf
1) VICKERS HARDNESS TEST
2) Hardness Testing Machine
3) Dial gauge
4) Loading lever
5) Diamond tip
6) In vickers hardness test, a square-based diamond pyramid being used as the indenter.
7) Test piece
8) The material to be tested is held on the anvil of the machine.
9) The test piece is raised by turning the hand wheel, till it just touches the indenter.
10) The standard indenter is a square pyramid shape with an angle of 136° between opposite faces
11) When the load removed, the pointer now indicates the hardness number on the appropriate scale
of the dial.
File AU.MS.7.4.3.swf
1) ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST
2) Hardness Testing Machine
3) Dial gauge
4) Test piece
5) Loading lever
6) The material to be tested is held on the anvil of the machine.
7) Anvil
8) Screw
9) Hand wheel
10) Plunger
11) Ball
12) The test piece is raised by turning the hand wheel, till it just touches the indenter.
13) A minor load of 10 kg is applied on the specimen, and then dial indicator is set at zero.
14) The major load (100 kg for B-scale or 150 kg for C-scale) is applied to produce a deeper
indentation.
15) After the indicating pointer has come to rest, the major load is removed by loading lever.
16) With the major load removed, the pointer now indicates the Rockwell hardness number on the
appropriate scale of the dial.
File AU.MS.7.4.4.swf
1) Hardness ball with 3000 kg load.
2) HARDNESS IMPRESSION
3) Hardness is the property of a material that enables it to resist plastic deformation, usually by
penetration.
4) 260 HB
5) 573 HB
6) Work piece
7) Hardened steel ball
8) Applied force
9) When the load is applied the indentation is takes place.
10) Surface area of indentation
11) D
12) Diameter
13) Hardness impression
File AU.MS.7.4.5.swf
1) INDENTATION HARDNESS TEST
2) Applied force
3) Depth of penetration of indenter is taken as the index of hardness of the material being tested.
4) If the material is softer, penetration of indenter is more and vice versa.
5) There is different equipment used to measure hardness by forming indentation, they are
6) Brinell hardness test
7) In the Brinell test, a hardened steel ball indenter is forced into the surface of the metal to be
tested.
8) Vickers hardness test
9) In vickers hardness test, a square-based diamond pyramid being used as the indenter.
10) Rockwell hardness test
11) Internal view of hardness machine
12) Loading arm
13) Fulcrum
14) Rigid specimen table
15) Diamond pyramid indenter
16) Specimen
17) Timing mechanism
18) Load
File AU.MS.7.5.1.swf
1) BRINELL HARDNESS TEST
2) Hardness Testing Machine
3) Dial gauge
4) Screw
5) Anvil
6) Hand wheel
7) Loading lever
8) In the brinell test ,the brinell hardened steel ball indenter is forced into the surface of the material
to be tested.
9) Ball Tip
10) The diameter of the hardened steel indenter is 10 mm.
11) 10 mm
12) Plunger
13) Test piece
14) During a test, the load is maintained constant for 10 to 15 seconds.
15) Specimen
16) Indenter
17) P
18) D
19) d
File AU.MS.7.5.2.swf
1) TEST PROCEDURE OF BRINELL HARDNESS TEST
2) The specimen to be tested is polished and placed on the anvil.
3) The surface on which the indentation is made should be relatively smooth and free from dirt and
scale to avoid errors while measuring the diameter of impression.
4) The anvil is raised till the indenter touches the specimen surface.
5) During a test, the load is maintained constant for 10 to 15 seconds.
6) The Load is removed and the diameter of the indentation is measured with a low power
microscope.
7) 0
8) 1
9) 2
10) 3
11) 4
12) 5
13) 6
14) 7
File AU.MS.7.6.1.swf
1) ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST
2) Hardness Testing Machine
3) Dial gauge
4) Test piece
5) Loading lever
6) The material to be tested is held on the anvil of the machine.
7) Anvil
8) Screw
9) Hand wheel
10) Plunger
11) Ball
12) The test piece is raised by turning the hand wheel, till it just touches the indenter.
13) A minor load of 10 kg is applied on the specimen and then dial indicator is set at zero.
14) The major load (100 kg for B-scale or 150 kg for C-scale) is applied to produce a deeper
indentation.
15) After the indicating pointer has come to rest, the major load is removed by loading lever.
16) With the major load removed, the pointer now indicates the Rockwell hardness number on the
appropriate scale of the dial.
File AU.MS.7.6.2.swf
1) ROCKWELL INDENTATION
2) Small pointer and dot
3) Colored segment on dial face
4) Large pointer
5) Penetrator
6) Anvil
7) Specimen
8) Crank
9) Wheel
10) Knurled collar
11) Trip lever
12) Rockwell indentation position
13) Step 1: Start of the test
14) Minor load applied
15) Load 10 kg
16) A minor load of 10 kg is first applied to seat the specimen.
17) This minimizes the amount of surface preparation needed and reduces the tendency for ridging
and sinking in by the indenter.
18) Step 2: Major load applied
19) + 90 kg
20) Load 100 kg
21) The major load is then applied and the depth of indentation is automatically recorded on a dial
gauge in terms of arbitrary hardness numbers.
22) Step 3:Major load removed
23) The load is removed and the diameter of the indentation is measured with a low power
microscope.
24) Step 4: End of the test
25) The Rockwell hardness numbers are purely arbitrary.
26) 120° Angl
27) Depth of impression
File AU.MS.7.6.3.swf
1) 10 kg
2) 90 kg
3) PRINCIPLE AND OPERATION OF THE ROCKWELL HARDNESS TESTER
4) Dial is now idle
5) 90 kg weight for later application
6) Minor load 10 kg
7) Steel ball of 1/6" diameter
8) Minor load not yet applied
9) Piece being tested
10) Elevating screw
11) Now dial is set as zero
12) Supplementary weight not yet applied
13) Minor load now applied
14) work piece now has a firm setting due to minor load piece being tested
15) Major load being applied
16) The major load is then applied and the depth of indentation.
17) Total applied load 100 kg
18) A
19) Level "A" as marked as a margin of the workpiece.
20) B
21) C
22) Dial now reads B-C plus a constant amount due to the added spring of the machine under major
load, but this value disappears from dial reading.
23) 90 kg now withdrawn
24) Minor load left applied
25) D
26) Gauge now reads B-D which is rockwell hardness number.
27) Minor load withdrawn
28) Finally ejecting tested piece, dial get idle.
File AU.MS.7.7.1.swf
1) VICKERS HARDNESS TEST
2) Hardness Testing Machine
3) Dial gauge
4) Loading lever
5) Diamond tip
6) In vickers hardness test, a square-based diamond pyramid being used as the indenter.
7) Test piece
8) The material to be tested is held on the anvil of the machine.
9) The test piece is raised by turning the hand wheel, till it just touches the indenter.
10) The standard indenter is a square pyramid shape with an angle of 136° between opposite faces
11) When the load removed, the pointer now indicates the hardness number on the appropriate scale
of the dial.
File AU.MS.7.8.1.swf
1) IZOD TEST
2) Impact Testing Machine
3) Pendulum
4) Scale Pointer
5) Specimen
6) Specimen support
7) The specimen is placed in vertical position in the vice of the anvil.
8) 75 mm
9) 28 mm
10) 10 mm
11) Striking hammer
12) 22 mm
13) Standard Specimen dimension is Length 75 mm, Height 10 mm, Breadth 10 mm.
14) The V-notch of the Specimen is placed facing the pendulum.
15) Pendulum hammer is raised to a known standard height depending on the type of specimen to be
tested.
16) When the pendulum is released, its potential energy is converted into kinetic energy just
before striking the specimen.
17) Now the energy absorbed is measured in foot-pounds or kg-metre, from the scale of the impact
testing machine.
File AU.MS.7.9.1.swf
1) CHARPY TEST
2) Impact Testing Machine
3) Pendulum
4) Scale Pointer
5) Specimen
6) Specimen support
7) The specimen is placed horizontal position in the vice of the anvil.
8) 55 mm
9) 10 mm
10) 10 mm
11) Anvil
12) 40 mm
13) Striking edge
14) Standard Specimen dimension is Length 55 mm, Height 10 mm, Breadth 10 mm.
15) The V-notch of the Specimen is placed in the opposite direction to the pendulum.
16) Pendulum hammer is raised to a known standard height depending on the type of specimen to be
tested.
17) When the pendulum is released, its potential energy is converted into kinetic energy just
before it strikes the specimen.
18) Now the energy absorbed is measured in foot-pounds or kg-metre, from the scale of the impact
testing machine.
File AU.MS.7.9.2.swf
1) Scale
2) CONSTRUCTION OF IMPACT TESTING MACHINE
3) Pointer
4) Hammer
5) Specimen
6) Specimen support
7) Pendulum
8) Starting position
9) End swing
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