I will need the content of the image to solve the papers.

Since the images are scanned PDFs, I

will perform OCR on them to extract the text. Then I will solve the questions.
Here's the OCR output for the first image:
UNIVERSITY OF DAR ES SALAAM COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND FOOD
TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF CROP SCIENCE AND BEEKEEPING TECHNOLOGY AG
210: CROP PROTECTION: TEST 2
INSTRUCTIONS: Read all questions carefully and write the answers in the space
provided. Answer ALL questions.
Time: 1:30 Hour Date: 01/07/2024
1.​ Define the following terms with examples: i. Predators ii. Parasitoids iii. Pathogens iv.
Parasites
2.​ Disease control requires the interaction of three components, explain.
3.​ Write the causal organism of the following plant diseases: i. Late blight of potatoes ii.
Bacterial blight of cotton iii. Clubroot of cabbage iv. Powdery mildew of mango v.
Sunflower rust vi. Bacterial blight of cassava vii. Wilt of banana (Fusarium wilt) viii.
Angular leaf spot of cucumber ix. Coffee berry disease x. Root knot of vegetables xi.
Damping off of seedlings xii. Onion dwarfism and yellow leaf strips xiii. Tobacco mosaic
xiv. Grey mold xv. Downy mildew in onions xvi. Crazy top of maize
4.​ Discuss the three (3) approaches of biological control in controlling crop pests.
Here's the OCR output for the second image:
UNIVERSITY OF DAR ES SALAAM COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND FOOD
TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF CROP SCIENCE AND BEEKEEPING TECHNOLOGY AG
210: CROP PROTECTION: TEST 1
INSTRUCTIONS: Read all questions carefully and write the answers in the space
provided. Answer ALL questions.
Time: 1:30 Hour Date: 17/05/2024
1.​ With the aid of a diagram, explain the life cycle of a parasitic weed (Striga hermonthica).
2.​ Define the following terms as used in weed management: i. Soil solarization ii. Herbicides
(Mode of Action) iii. Integrated Weed Management iv. Single seed dormancy v. Weed
seed bank vi. Surfactant
3.​ Explain how ethyl urea herbicides are affected by soil pH.
4.​ Mention two advantages of herbicide/adjuvant mixtures.
5.​ Explain 4 general requirements for natural enemies to be a suitable agent in biological
weed control.
6.​ Insects are classified based on their mode of development (metamorphosis). i. Explain
with examples the importance of understanding the two modes of development. ii. Explain
how the two modes of development help in managing insect pests.
7.​ Explain how the insect activity rhythms affect the management of insect pests, in
agriculture.
8.​ Define the term parthenogenesis, and how aphids can switch their mode of reproduction.
9.​ Explain with examples how effective enrichment plays a role in insect abundance.
10.​Explain the processes that cause fluctuation in the insect population.
Now, I will solve the questions for each paper.

AG 210: CROP PROTECTION: TEST 2 - Solutions

Date: 01/07/2024
1.​ Define the following terms with examples:
 ○​ i. Predators: Organisms that kill and consume other organisms (prey) for food.
■​ Examples: Lady beetles (eat aphids), spiders (eat various insects), birds (eat
caterpillars).
○​ ii. Parasitoids: Insects (usually wasps or flies) that lay their eggs in or on a host
insect. The larval parasitoid then develops by feeding on the host, eventually killing
it.
■​ Examples: Cotesia congregata (a wasp parasitoid of tobacco hornworm),
Aphidius colemani (a wasp parasitoid of aphids).
○​ iii. Pathogens: Microorganisms (like fungi, bacteria, viruses) that cause disease in
other organisms.
■​ Examples: Phytophthora infestans (causes late blight of potatoes),
Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae (causes bacterial blight of rice), Tomato
Mosaic Virus (causes tobacco mosaic disease).
○​ iv. Parasites: Organisms that live in or on another organism (the host) and obtain
nutrients from it, typically harming the host but not usually killing it directly.
■​ Examples: Nematodes (e.g., root-knot nematodes on plants), dodder (a
parasitic plant), lice (on animals).
2.​ Disease control requires the interaction of three components, explain. Disease
control often refers to the "Disease Triangle," which illustrates that disease occurs when
three components interact:
○​ Susceptible Host: The plant or crop must be susceptible to the pathogen. This
means it lacks sufficient resistance mechanisms to ward off infection.
○​ Virulent Pathogen: The disease-causing microorganism must be present and
capable of infecting the host. Its virulence (ability to cause disease) plays a key
role.
○​ Favorable Environment: Environmental conditions (e.g., temperature, humidity,
light) must be conducive for the pathogen to thrive, infect the host, and for disease
development. Effective disease control aims to break at least one side of this
triangle, for example, by planting resistant varieties (affecting the host), eradicating
the pathogen, or modifying the environment.
3.​ Write the causal organism of the following plant diseases:
○​ i. Late blight of potatoes: Phytophthora infestans (an oomycete)
○​ ii. Bacterial blight of cotton: Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. malvacearum
○​ iii. Clubroot of cabbage: Plasmodiophora brassicae (a protist)
○​ iv. Powdery mildew of mango: Oidium mangiferae (a fungus)
○​ v. Sunflower rust: Puccinia helianthi (a fungus)
○​ vi. Bacterial blight of cassava: Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. manihotis
○​ vii. Wilt of banana (Fusarium wilt): Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense (a fungus)
○​ viii. Angular leaf spot of cucumber: Pseudomonas syringae pv. lachrymans (a
bacterium)
○​ ix. Coffee berry disease: Colletotrichum kahawae (a fungus)
○​ x. Root knot of vegetables: Meloidogyne species (root-knot nematodes)
○​ xi. Damping off of seedlings: Pythium species, Rhizoctonia solani, Fusarium
species (various fungi and oomycetes)
○​ xii. Onion dwarfism and yellow leaf strips: Onion Yellow Dwarf Virus (OYDV)
○​ xiii. Tobacco mosaic: Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV)
○​ xiv. Grey mold: Botrytis cinerea (a fungus)
○​ xv. Downy mildew in onions: Peronospora destructor (an oomycete)
 ○​ xvi. Crazy top of maize: Sclerophthora macrospora (an oomycete)
4.​ Discuss the three (3) approaches of biological control in controlling crop pests. The
three main approaches of biological control are:
○​ i. Classical Biological Control (Importation): This involves the introduction of
natural enemies from the pest's native range into an area where the pest has
become established as an invasive species and lacks its natural enemies. The goal
is to establish a self-sustaining population of the natural enemy to provide long-term
control. This approach is often used against exotic pests.
■​ Example: Introduction of Rodolia cardinalis (vedalia beetle) to control cottony
cushion scale (Icerya purchasi) in California.
○​ ii. Augmentative Biological Control: This involves increasing the population of
existing natural enemies in a particular area to provide temporary, rapid control of a
pest. This can be done through:
■​ Inoculative release: Releasing a small number of natural enemies early in
the season to establish a population that will grow and control the pest over
time.
■​ Inundative release: Releasing a large number of natural enemies to achieve
immediate pest control, with little expectation of long-term establishment. This
is often used like a "biological pesticide."
■​ Example: Releasing Trichogramma wasps to parasitize pest eggs in a crop
field.
○​ iii. Conservation Biological Control: This approach focuses on modifying the
environment or management practices to protect and enhance the activity of
existing natural enemies. It involves making the habitat more favorable for
beneficial insects.
■​ Example: Planting cover crops or flowering plants to provide nectar, pollen,
and shelter for beneficial insects (e.g., lady beetles, hoverflies, parasitic
wasps), reducing pesticide use, providing overwintering sites.

AG 210: CROP PROTECTION: TEST 1 - Solutions

Date: 17/05/2024
1.​ With the aid of a diagram, explain the life cycle of a parasitic weed (Striga
hermonthica).(Self-correction: I cannot draw a diagram, but I can describe the life cycle
in detail, which can be easily translated into a diagram.)Life Cycle of Striga
hermonthica (Witchweed):
○​ Striga seed dormancy and conditioning: Striga seeds are very small and can
remain dormant in the soil for many years. They require a period of "conditioning"
(warm, moist conditions) before they can germinate.
○​ Germination stimulation: Striga seeds will only germinate in response to chemical
signals (strigolactones) exuded from the roots of a nearby host plant (e.g., maize,
sorghum, millet).
○​ Attachment (Haustorial connection): Once germinated, the Striga radicle grows
towards the host root. It then develops a haustorium, a specialized organ that
penetrates the host root's epidermis and cortex, eventually connecting to the host's
xylem and phloem.
○​ Subterranean growth: Striga grows as an obligate root parasite, deriving all its
water and nutrients from the host. For the initial weeks, the Striga plant remains
 entirely underground.
○​ Emergence: After several weeks of subterranean growth and nutrient accumulation
from the host, the Striga shoot emerges above ground.
○​ Flowering and Seed Production: The emerged Striga plant produces flowers,
which are typically purple or red. Each plant can produce tens of thousands of tiny
seeds (up to 50,000 to 500,000 seeds per plant).
○​ Seed Dispersal: These seeds are then dispersed by wind, water, animals, or
contaminated farm equipment, re-entering the soil seed bank to restart the cycle.
The host plant often suffers severe stunting, chlorosis, and yield loss due to the
parasitic drain.
2.​ Define the following terms as used in weed management:
○​ i. Soil solarization: A non-chemical weed control method that involves covering
moist soil with transparent polyethylene sheets during hot periods (e.g., summer).
The sun's energy heats the soil, killing weed seeds, seedlings, and soil-borne
pathogens by thermal inactivation.
○​ ii. Herbicides (Mode of Action): The specific biochemical or physiological process
within the plant that a herbicide disrupts to kill or inhibit its growth. Different
herbicides have different modes of action, targeting processes like photosynthesis,
amino acid synthesis, cell division, or lipid synthesis.
○​ iii. Integrated Weed Management (IWM): A holistic approach to weed control that
combines multiple tactics (e.g., cultural, mechanical, biological, chemical, genetic)
in a compatible and environmentally sound manner to manage weed populations
below economic injury levels, while minimizing environmental impact and economic
costs.
○​ iv. Single seed dormancy: The inability of an individual weed seed to germinate
even under favorable environmental conditions. This dormancy can be due to
various factors like impermeable seed coats, immature embryos, or the presence of
chemical inhibitors.
○​ v. Weed seed bank: The reservoir of viable weed seeds present in the soil. This
bank represents the potential for future weed infestations and is a critical factor in
long-term weed management strategies.
○​ vi. Surfactant: A substance added to a herbicide spray solution to improve its
effectiveness. Surfactants reduce the surface tension of water, allowing the spray
droplets to spread more evenly on leaf surfaces, enhancing penetration and
absorption of the herbicide into the weed.
3.​ Explain how ethyl urea herbicides are affected by soil pH. Ethyl urea herbicides (e.g.,
some sulfonylureas, although sulfonylureas are generally more impacted by pH than
simple ethyl ureas) can be significantly affected by soil pH, particularly concerning their
persistence and availability.
○​ High pH (alkaline soils): In alkaline soils, ethyl urea herbicides tend to be more
stable and degrade more slowly. This can lead to increased persistence in the soil,
potentially causing carryover issues and damage to sensitive rotational crops in
subsequent seasons.
○​ Low pH (acidic soils): In acidic soils, ethyl urea herbicides are generally more
prone to chemical degradation (e.g., hydrolysis). This can lead to faster breakdown,
reducing their persistence and potentially decreasing their effectiveness if they
degrade too quickly before being absorbed by the target weeds. Therefore, soil pH
influences the half-life and efficacy of these herbicides, necessitating careful
 consideration in application rates and crop rotation planning.
4.​ Mention two advantages of herbicide/adjuvant mixtures.
1.​ Enhanced Efficacy/Improved Performance: Adjuvants can improve the
herbicide's ability to stick, spread, penetrate, and be absorbed by the target weeds,
leading to more consistent and effective weed control. This can be particularly
useful for weeds with waxy cuticles or under suboptimal environmental conditions.
2.​ Broader Spectrum of Control/Reduced Herbicide Resistance: Mixing different
herbicides with complementary modes of action can control a wider range of weed
species than a single herbicide alone. This strategy also helps in managing or
preventing the development of herbicide-resistant weed populations by exposing
weeds to multiple stresses simultaneously.
5.​ Explain 4 general requirements for natural enemies to be a suitable agent in
biological weed control.
1.​ Host Specificity: The natural enemy must be highly specific to the target weed
species and pose minimal or no risk to non-target plants, especially economically
important crops or native beneficial plants. This is crucial to prevent unintended
ecological damage.
2.​ High Reproductive Rate: The natural enemy should have a sufficiently high
reproductive rate to build up its population quickly and effectively suppress the
weed population.
3.​ Good Searching Ability/Dispersal Capacity: The natural enemy should be able
to efficiently locate and attack the target weed, and have the capacity to disperse
and establish in new areas where the weed is present.
4.​ Synchrony with Host Life Cycle: The life cycle of the natural enemy should be
well-synchronized with the life cycle of the target weed to ensure that suitable host
stages are available when the natural enemy is active.
5.​ Adaptability to Environment: The natural enemy should be able to tolerate and
thrive under the environmental conditions (climate, soil type, etc.) of the release
area.
6.​ Insects are classified based on their mode of development (metamorphosis).
○​ i. Explain with examples the importance of understanding the two modes of
development. The two main modes of development are complete
metamorphosis (holometabolous) and incomplete metamorphosis
(hemimetabolous).
■​ Complete Metamorphosis (Egg -> Larva -> Pupa -> Adult):
■​ Importance: Understanding this allows targeting specific life stages for
control. For example, larvae (e.g., caterpillars, grubs) are often the
most destructive feeding stage and can be targeted with insecticides or
biological controls. The pupal stage is often inactive and non-feeding.
Adults are primarily for reproduction and dispersal. This distinct
separation of feeding and reproductive stages can reduce competition
between immature and adult forms for resources.
■​ Examples: Butterflies (caterpillar, chrysalis), beetles (grub, pupa), flies
(maggot, puparium), moths.
■​ Incomplete Metamorphosis (Egg -> Nymph -> Adult):
■​ Importance: In this mode, nymphs resemble smaller versions of adults
and often share similar feeding habits and habitats. This means that
both nymphs and adults can be pests and may need to be targeted for
 control. Understanding the gradual development helps in timing
treatments. Nymphs may molt several times, and each instar can
present different vulnerabilities.
■​ Examples: Grasshoppers, cockroaches, true bugs (aphids, stink bugs),
termites.
○​ ii. Explain how the two modes of development help in managing insect pests.
■​ Complete Metamorphosis:
■​ Targeted Control: Allows for highly targeted control measures. For
example, insecticides can be applied when the destructive larval stage
is most active, minimizing impact on other life stages or beneficial
insects. Biological control agents (e.g., parasitic wasps) can be chosen
to specifically target eggs or larvae.
■​ Breaking the Cycle: Interruption of any one stage (e.g., pupal
destruction, preventing adult emergence) can effectively break the
entire life cycle.
■​ Specific Monitoring: Monitoring can focus on the most damaging
stage (e.g., pheromone traps for adult moths to predict larval
outbreaks).
■​ Incomplete Metamorphosis:
■​ Continuous Control: Since nymphs and adults often feed similarly,
control measures may need to be more continuous or broadly effective
against all post-egg stages.
■​ Habitat Management: Strategies like habitat modification (e.g.,
removing host plants) can impact both nymphs and adults.
■​ Systemic Pesticides: Systemic pesticides can be effective as they are
taken up by the plant and can affect feeding nymphs and adults.
■​ Earlier Detection: Nymphs are often visible and feeding, allowing for
earlier detection and intervention before populations become too large.
7.​ Explain how the insect activity rhythms affect the management of insect pests, in
agriculture. Insect activity rhythms (circadian rhythms) refer to predictable patterns of
activity (e.g., feeding, mating, flight, oviposition) that occur over a 24-hour cycle.
Understanding these rhythms is crucial for effective pest management:
○​ Timing of Pesticide Applications: Many insecticides are most effective when
applied during periods of peak insect activity (e.g., when insects are feeding or
moving on the plant surface), ensuring maximum exposure and uptake. Applying at
times of low activity (e.g., during the day for nocturnal pests) would be less efficient
and potentially wasteful.
○​ Optimizing Biological Control Releases: Releasing natural enemies when target
pests are most active or vulnerable (e.g., when they are exposed on plant surfaces)
can improve the success rate of biological control programs.
○​ Use of Traps and Lures: Pheromone traps or light traps are most effective when
deployed and monitored during the specific times of day or night when the target
insect species is most active in terms of flight or mating.
○​ Cultural Practices: Knowledge of activity rhythms can influence cultural practices.
For example, if a pest is most active at night, irrigating during the day might not
disturb them as much as irrigating at night, or tillage might be timed when a pest is
in a vulnerable resting phase in the soil.
○​ Predicting Damage: Understanding feeding rhythms helps predict when damage is
 most likely to occur, allowing for proactive intervention. For example, if a caterpillar
feeds mostly at night, evening scouting might be more effective.
8.​ Define the term parthenogenesis, and how aphids can switch their mode of
reproduction.
○​ Parthenogenesis: A form of asexual reproduction in which an embryo develops
from an unfertilized egg cell. This means that the offspring are genetically identical
or nearly identical clones of the mother. It is common in many insect groups,
including aphids.
○​ How aphids can switch their mode of reproduction: Aphids exhibit a remarkable
reproductive plasticity, switching between sexual and asexual (parthenogenetic)
reproduction depending on environmental conditions:
■​ Asexual Reproduction (Parthenogenesis): During favorable conditions
(e.g., abundant food, warm temperatures, long days, spring/summer), aphids
reproduce rapidly and parthenogenetically. The females (fundatrices and later
generations) give birth to live young (viviparous) without mating. These
offspring are clones of the mother, allowing for rapid population growth and
exploitation of resources. All individuals produced are typically females.
■​ Sexual Reproduction: As environmental conditions deteriorate (e.g.,
declining food quality, shorter day length, colder temperatures, approaching
autumn/winter), aphids switch to sexual reproduction. This involves the
production of both male and female offspring. These sexual forms mate, and
the fertilized females lay overwintering eggs. This sexual phase allows for
genetic recombination, which can introduce genetic variation that helps the
aphid population adapt to changing environments or overcome host
resistance in the long term. The eggs are more resilient to harsh winter
conditions than live young.
9.​ Explain with examples how effective enrichment plays a role in insect abundance.
Effective enrichment, in the context of insect ecology and pest management, refers to
improving or adding specific resources to an environment to support or increase the
populations of beneficial insects (e.g., natural enemies) or, conversely, to enhance pest
populations if suitable resources are provided.
○​ Role in Increasing Beneficial Insect Abundance (Conservation Biological
Control):
■​ Habitat Enrichment: Providing diverse flowering plants (e.g., buckwheat,
phacelia, dill) that offer nectar and pollen serves as an "insectary" and
provides food sources for adult parasitic wasps, hoverflies, and lady beetles.
This enrichment supports their survival, longevity, and reproductive capacity,
leading to increased populations that can then control pests.
■​ Shelter and Overwintering Sites: Providing refugia such as hedgerows,
beetle banks, or ground cover offers shelter from adverse weather and
predators, and overwintering sites for beneficial insects. This increases their
survival rate, ensuring a larger population is present at the start of the next
growing season.
■​ Alternative Prey/Hosts: Sometimes, providing alternative, non-pest prey or
hosts can sustain natural enemy populations when the target pest is scarce,
ensuring their presence when the pest population begins to rise.
■​ Example: Planting strips of perennial flowers alongside crop fields attracts
and sustains populations of predatory lacewings and lady beetles, leading to
 better aphid control in the adjacent crop.
○​ Role in Increasing Pest Insect Abundance (Negative Enrichment):
■​ Monoculture: Large expanses of a single crop (monoculture) can be a form
of unintentional enrichment for specialist pests of that crop, providing an
abundant and continuous food source that allows their populations to
explode.
■​ Improper Fertilizer Use: Excessive nitrogen fertilization can lead to lush,
succulent plant growth, which can be more attractive and nutritious for certain
sucking pests like aphids and whiteflies, effectively enriching their food
source and increasing their reproduction.
■​ Example: A vast field of corn (monoculture) provides an ideal environment for
corn earworm populations to thrive and build up to high levels due to the
continuous presence of their preferred host plant.
10.​Explain the processes that cause fluctuation in the insect population. Insect
populations are rarely static; they continuously fluctuate due to a complex interplay of
various factors. These processes can be categorized into density-dependent and
density-independent factors:
○​ 1. Birth Rate (Natality):
■​ Process: The rate at which new individuals are produced (e.g., number of
eggs laid, live births).
■​ Fluctuation Impact: High birth rates lead to population increases. Factors
like availability of high-quality food, favorable temperatures for reproduction,
and low predation pressure can increase natality. Conversely, poor nutrition,
extreme temperatures, or old age can decrease it.
○​ 2. Death Rate (Mortality):
■​ Process: The rate at which individuals die.
■​ Fluctuation Impact: High death rates lead to population decreases. Mortality
is influenced by:
■​ Predation: The number of individuals consumed by predators.
■​ Parasitism: The impact of parasitoids or parasites on host survival.
■​ Disease: Outbreaks of pathogens (viruses, bacteria, fungi) can
decimate populations.
■​ Starvation: Lack of food resources, especially at high population
densities.
■​ Environmental Extremes: Unfavorable temperatures (too hot/cold),
drought, excessive rain, or floods.
■​ Pesticide Application: Direct killing by chemical interventions.
○​ 3. Immigration (In-migration):
■​ Process: The movement of individuals into a population from other areas.
■​ Fluctuation Impact: Increases local population size. This is particularly
important for migratory pests or when a new area is colonized. Factors
include wind currents for dispersal or availability of new, unexploited
resources.
○​ 4. Emigration (Out-migration):
■​ Process: The movement of individuals out of a population to other areas.
■​ Fluctuation Impact: Decreases local population size. Often driven by
overcrowding, depletion of food resources, or deteriorating environmental
conditions, forcing individuals to seek new habitats.
 ○​ 5. Density-Dependent Factors: These factors have a greater impact as population
density increases. They act as natural regulators, preventing populations from
growing indefinitely.
■​ Examples: Competition for food and space, increased predation pressure,
higher rates of disease transmission, increased parasitism. As a population
grows, resources become scarce, and natural enemies become more
effective, leading to a decline.
○​ 6. Density-Independent Factors: These factors affect insect populations
regardless of their density.
■​ Examples: Weather events (e.g., unexpected frost, prolonged drought,
heavy rains), natural disasters (e.g., floods, wildfires), or blanket pesticide
applications. These events can cause significant population fluctuations
irrespective of how many insects are present.
○​ 7. Food Quality and Quantity:
■​ Process: The availability and nutritional value of host plants.
■​ Fluctuation Impact: Abundant, high-quality food supports higher birth rates
and survival, leading to population growth. Scarce or poor-quality food can
lead to starvation, reduced reproduction, and population decline.
○​ 8. Genetic Factors:
■​ Process: Genetic variations within a population can influence traits like
reproductive rate, resistance to pesticides, or susceptibility to disease.
■​ Fluctuation Impact: Evolution of pesticide resistance can lead to population
surges. Increased susceptibility to a new disease can cause crashes.
The continuous interplay of these factors, often in a feedback loop, results in the characteristic
dynamic fluctuations observed in insect populations over time.