Chapter one

Rocks and minerals

Structure of the Earth

Earth can be described as a “ball of rock”.

The hot core is more than 4000⁰C. It is surrounded by a thick layer of molten
rocks called the mantle. The outer part of the mantle is the source of magma that
reaches the surface during volcanic eruptions. Floating on the mantle is the crust
which forms the surface layer of rocks and minerals. This is where we live.
The Crust:
It is 5 Km thick under oceans and 100 Km thick below mountains.
Importance:
It is made of a great variety of rocks which provide people with building materials,
minerals, metals and energy supplies (rocks, ores and fossil fuels)
It provides people with soil which is formed from the breakdown of rocks; without
soil, farming would be impossible.

Formation of rocks
The great variety of rocks and minerals that provide useful resources were formed
millions of years ago. Minerals are the main constituents of rocks but some
contain organic matter. Rocks are classified into three groups according to their
formation.
Igneous rocks (fire rocks as they are associated with volcanic activity)
Made when liquid magma cools to form solid rock. Molten rock below the surface
is called magma, and lava when it reaches the surface.
▪Extrusive igneous rock: Formed when magma cools quickly on the surface.
▪Intrusive igneous rock: Formed when magma cools slowly beneath the surface.
The size of the crystals in igneous rocks depend on how quickly the lava cools
down. If the rock cools quickly small crystals form. If it cools slowly without
reaching the earth surface larger crystals form.
Example: Basalt and granite

Sedimentary rocks
The formation of sedimentary rocks involves three stages: deposition, compaction
and cementation.
These rocks are formed from sediments, small particles broken off rocks, which
outcrop on earth's surface by weathering and erosion. These sediments are
transported and deposited at sea bed where they accumulate in layers. Over
time, the weight of new sediments compresses the layer below into sedimentary
rocks. They contain fossils.
Example: sandstone, limestone and shale
Metamorphic rocks
These are pre-existing rocks (sedimentary or igneous) that were changed by heat
and pressure during earth movements.
Example: Slate and marble

Rock cycle: a representation of the changes between the three rock types and the
processes causing them.
Minerals are too expensive and difficult to extract when they are located too
deep under the ground. The first step in searching for minerals is to undertake
geological survey to discover the arrangements of rocks, depth, position and the
amount of mineral resources.
Exploring of minerals.
Prospecting:
A process of searching for minerals by examining the surface of the rocks.
Geochemical analysis:
Analyzing the chemical properties of rocks (by taking samples). The samples can
be taken from stream sediments, soil or rocks (using shallow drilling).
Remote sensing:
An area of land can be photographed from the air and the images carefully
analyzed for signs of minerals. Aerial photography can cover more much ground.
Satellite images
Images and data from satellites can be used to survey large areas.
Mineral deposits are weathered at the earth surface producing mineral oxides.
These can be detected by their unique radiation pattern, which is recorded by
satellite and downloaded to a computer for analysis.
Other satellites operate by sending signals to the surface of the earth and then
collecting reflected signals. The system works in all weather, through complete
cloud cover and at night.
Using satellites means large areas can be geologically mapped quickly and low
cost.
Computers are used to process the data from a region of interest to check for
mineral presence. Geologists confirm the presence of the mineral by visiting the
location (recorded by the satellite’s positioning system).

Geophysics:
A method to identify mineral ores present in rocks using their physical properties.
A series of vibrations (seismic waves) are sent through the Earth’s surface.
Several sensors are placed at different distances from the source of vibrations on
the surface.
The vibrations create shock waves that travel down into the rock layers.
They are reflected back to the sensors on the surface.
The shock waves record different patterns depending on the mineral present in
the rock layers.
This technique is very useful in detecting petroleum bearing structures.

Factors that affect the decision to extract minerals

To make sure that the deposits of mineral ores are large enough to be
extracted, a resource evaluation is carried out. The aim of the evaluation is to
estimate the grade and tonnage of the mineral of interest present in a deposit.
Drilling to collect rock samples must be done to carry out a resource evaluation.
The aim is to identify the size of the deposit as well as mixture of mineral ores
present.
A feasibility study is carried out to evaluate all the financial and technical risks of
any proposed mining project.
Mining companies need to consider a range of issues when planning to open a
mine, including:
1. Cost of exploration and extraction
2. Geology
3. Accessibility
4. Environmental impact
5. Supply and demand
A mineral resource must be economically viable to be extracted. It means that the
mineral resource must be large enough and of sufficient value. The mining
company must make money from selling the minerals extracted after covering all
its mining costs. (It includes exploration, processing, and transport). Whether or
not a mineral is viable has much to do with supply and demand.
Supply refers to the amount of resource that is known to exist (known reserves
that can be exploited when needed)
Demand refers to the amount that people need; demand can go up and down and
can change quickly.
Supply and demand: the relation between how much of a commodity is available
and how much is needed or wanted by the consumers.
Increase in world demand for any mineral ore will elevate the prices. The profit
from a working mine depends on changes in supply and demand. If the demand
is too high, mines that were not profitable before become worth mining. If the
demand falls, working mines may get into a loss due to the transport and
extraction expenses.
Methods of extraction
Useful rocks or mineral resources can be extracted by surface mining (open-cast,
quarrying, open-cut or strip mining) or sub-surface mining (deep mining or shaft
mining).
Open-cast mining: Rocks and minerals are cheap and easy to extract when they
outcrop on or near the Earth's surface.
All that needs to be done is to clear the vegetation, remove over burden and
store for restoration, cut away sections to expose mineral bearing layer, breakup
and loosen the rock using explosives and use diggers to remove the loose
rock/mineral. Extracted ore is then sent for processing.
Deep mining
1. It involves sinking a vertical shaft down to the mineral bearing rock layer.
2. Making a horizontal tunnel following the mineral layer.
3. Extracting the mineral by digging done by miners or machines.
4. Bringing loose rock out to the surface and piling it in waste heaps.
5. Transporting minerals by railway or road.
Impacts of rock and mineral extraction
Positive impacts: (Economic)
1. Create jobs and improve standard of living. Mining tends to be a better
paying job than farming and other types of unskilled work. Also mining
takes place in areas where there are few other ways of making a living.
Jobs are created directly to extract the mineral or to supply transport and
mining equipment. More jobs are created when the mineral is refined to
make products.
2. Mining creates small towns with strong communities, because everyone in
the town is connected in some way with mining.
3. Mining benefit the economy of the country and its people. Exporting
minerals is a very important source of foreign exchange income for many
countries both developing and developed countries.
This income can be used to import goods from other countries. For developing
countries money earned from exporting minerals can be used for development
projects. It can be used to modernize infrastructure and improve quality of life by
making new roads, supplying clean water, building schools, clinics and hospitals
providing that governments spend the money wisely.
Unfortunately, high levels of political corruption (African countries) limit the
benefits. Developments are concentrated in urban areas instead of in rural areas
where the exported minerals are mined.

Negative Impacts
Impacts on miners: They work in narrow spaces, deep underground, in wet, dirty
and dusty conditions. Majority of miners suffer injuries from collapsing tunnels.
The air quality underground is poor. This causes breathing and chest problems.
Life expectancy among miners is lower than for workers living in the same area.
Many die young from diseases such as silicosis which is caused by workers
inhaling quartz.
Noise pollution: The use of machinery and explosive disturbs the behavior of
animal species and causes hearing problems for people. Also, the continuous
movement of trucks carrying minerals away disturb wildlife.
Air pollution: dust particles settle on the vegetation, not allowing sunlight to
reach the leaves and thus, reducing the rate of photosynthesis. Breathing in dust
that remains in the lungs can cause serious lung diseases. Fumes and dust from
chimneys during crushing, refining and smelting of ores affects air quality.
 Visual pollution: landscape is damaged. Open-cast mining leaves huge pits on the
ground and waste heaps destroys the scenery.
Water pollution: The water that drains through mine waste or come directly from
mine shafts can contaminate streams and rivers. This affects drinking water
supplies and make it unsafe. This pollution is caused by chemical reactions
between water and the exposed rocks and mine waste. The water may become
acidic with high concentration of toxins which may kill aquatic organisms.
Organisms may absorb metal ions and retain them in their body, reaching higher
concentration. This is called bioaccumulation. These concentrations increase
further in organisms that are higher in the food chain. This process is called
biomagnification and can cause death of top consumers.
Land pollution: Both open-cast and deep mining lead to surface waste heaps.
They look unsightly and spoil the natural beauty of the area. The toxic nature of
the waste means that only few plants can grow, even many years after mining
stopped. After heavy rain waste heaps become unstable and flow downslope
destroying everything in their path. Mine waste is highly toxic and affects soil.
New mines in remote areas need roads and railways for access and transport.
Building these can lead to forest clearance resulting in the loss of wildlife habitats
and loss of biodiversity.
Managing the impacts of rock and mineral extraction
Mine waste must be stored to prevent collapse. Site of the mine must prevent the
chances of water pollution. The waste must be monitored to detect any
movement or further pollution.
Land restoration and bioremediation:
After closure the mine should be returned to a condition that most resembles the
environment before it was mined.
The surface is landscaped by bulldozers to make it look natural using the stored
overburden rock, the soil cover is put back. Fertilizers (lime to improve acidity) are
added and tree are planted. Tree planting is important in land restoration to
replace previously existing trees and stabilize slopes. Several trees and herbs
species are introduced. As their populations grow, they create habitats for many
species. Such places can be used as nature reserves or national parks. They
become valuable green spaces for human recreation and help in maintaining
biodiversity.
If the rock lining the hole (created by the extraction) is non-toxic or impervious to
water, it can be filled with water to form a reservoir or lake. It is used for
irrigating farmland or processed to provide clean, safe drinking water for humans.
It can be used for sailing, fishing or water sports.
Abandoned quarries that have been cut into hillsides can be used for recreation
such as rock climbing.
Bioremediation is a process in which living things are used to remove toxic
chemicals from mining sites. Some organisms such as bacteria found in soils are
able to absorb pollutants and process them into less harmful substances. Some
plants are naturally able to bioaccumulate toxic metals and store it in their tissues
and later the part of the plant above the ground is removed so the waste left in
the ground becomes less toxic. After this treatment the land is often turned into
nature reserve or valuable green spaces for human recreation.
Use as landfill sites
Sometimes huge pits left after mining is used as landfill sites to get rid of waste.
The waste is tipped into a hole, levelled off and compacted.
Disadvantages of landfill sites:
Land contamination: Waste include toxic metals like lead or mercury.
Water pollution: Contaminated substances leak into the ground and are carried
by infiltration into ground water supply and rivers.
Health hazards: from rodents, flies or foul odors, and the presence of asbestos
and arsenic.
Sustainable use of rocks and minerals
Sustainable development: development that meets the needs of the present,
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
The sustainable development of the reserves of any rock or mineral must take
into account environmental, economic and social factors. The aim is a planned
use of any reserve to provide the most benefit to people, maintain economic
growth and stability and prevent environmental damage.
Strategies for the sustainable use of rocks and minerals:
1. Increasing the efficiency of the extraction of rocks and minerals.
Coalmines only remove 70% of the coal present in the reserve. This is
because of the technical difficulties of extracting the remaining coal in a
safe and cost-effective manner. Improving the efficiency of extraction can
be done through:
 a) Improvements in the performance of the machines used in mining and
processing. Improvements in refining minerals minimize waste during
processing.
b) Mine wastes must be processed for the second time. This allows the
valuable minerals to be recovered and reduces the risk of pollution due to
mine waste.

2. Increasing the efficiency of the use of rocks and minerals.

a) Engineering solutions e.g. design steel beams with same strength but using
less steel.
b) Reusing waste in new products. What used to be waste is now a by-
product.
c) Reduce waste while manufacturing.
d) Reducing mineral use by using substitutes, such as plastic for waterpipes
instead of copper or using fiber optic cables for transmission instead of
copper wires.
e) Manufacturers use more common and less expensive minerals to make
high quality and long-lasting products.

3. Recycle rocks and minerals:

a) Recycling uses less energy than processing the ores. It also produces less
waste and thus, reduces the risk of pollution.
Recycling is encouraged by giving cash deposits for returned articles. It conserves
minerals, reduces land pollution and saves energy.
4. Legislation:
a) The governments pass laws that require manufacturers to become
responsible for recycling and reuse of minerals.

Recycling is enforced by law in many countries and penalties are given for
breaking this law. In developed countries planning permission for extraction of
rocks and minerals will only be given if restrict guidelines to safeguard the
environment and the sustainability of the rock or mineral are followed.