FEEDBACK ON ASSESSMENT 01

2025 – SEMESTER 1
Department of Psychology

Online Module: Community Psychology: Building

Foundations
PYC2614
Lecturers:
Prof. M. A. Gumani (module leader – PYC2614@unisa.ac.za / gumanma@unisa.ac.za)
Prof. E. Fourie (module secundus – PYC2614@unisa.ac.za / fourime@unisa.ac.za)
 CONTENTS

Feedback on Assessment 01

Assessment 01 provided an opportunity for you to familiarise yourself with this module. Below is
feedback on this assessment, which is supplemented with references from relevant literature in
Learning Units 1 and 2 and the prescribed texts (where appropriate) to support the answer that is
deemed correct for each question. We have provided the question first in green for ease of
reference. The correct answer is highlighted in grey at the end of each question followed by the
discussion.

QUESTION 01

The question
What role does context play in community psychology?

(a) It contributes to our understanding that in the African world sense, a community is understood
to be one-dimensional.

(b) It assists in understanding psychology as a dependent Western scientific discipline.

(c) It is essential for understanding and addressing community issues.

(d) It limits the scope of community interventions.

The correct answer is (c) – It is essential for understanding and addressing community
issues.

In Learning Unit 1, we show that context plays an important role in community psychology in
terms of the following:
• For the sub-discipline of community psychology to be relevant to the community it is
intended for, the social contexts in which people live and the lived experiences of those
people should be considered.

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• Stevens (2013) also highlights the importance of considering the various contexts in
which people live, which calls for seeing community psychology as a heterogeneous
concept, i.e., “community psychologies” that has to account for various contexts in which
people live and their experiences.
• These are the reasons community psychology as a sub-discipline emanated from
various contexts as a response to practices that were inadequate, irrelevant or
oblivious to the various contexts in which communities live.
• Non-consideration of the socio-economic and political contexts leads to a negative
impact on the living conditions and wellbeing of people in various communities, particularly
the marginalised.
• These are the reasons mainstream psychology is criticised for not considering
contextual particularities, such as sex, race, culture, and the values and meanings of
people in various contexts, in understanding them.
• On the contrary, the critical approach to psychology is commended for being interested
in values and meanings, and how they influence knowledge thus locating people’s
values, motivations, and behaviours in their cultural and class contexts.

Therefore, option (c) – It is essential for understanding and addressing community issues, is
relevant here.
This makes the following options irrelevant to the role that context plays in community psychology:

Option (a) – It contributes to our understanding that in the African world sense, a community is
understood to be one-dimensional.
Option (b) – It assists in understanding psychology as a dependent Western scientific discipline.
Option (d) – It limits the scope of community interventions.

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QUESTION 02

The question
Stevens (2013) speaks of “community psychologies” (heterogeneous) as opposed to a singular
“community psychology". This is because ...

(a) European countries have often been the destination for refugees and exiles.

(b) community psychology in Latin America grew in the form of liberation theology and resistance
to USA imperialism.

(c) it is more appropriate to think of community psychology as having multiple histories.

(d) community psychology was formalised as a separate subdiscipline at the 1965 Swampscott
Conference in Boston, United States of America.

The correct answer is (c) – It is more appropriate to think of community psychology as

having multiple histories.

This question is linked to Question 01 above. The objective here was to help you to grasp what
the concept “community psychologies” refers to.

• In Learning Unit 1, Section 1.9, we indicate that community psychology is a

heterogeneous concept, and a single definition would not be sufficient and accurate in
capturing the complexities inherent in its theory and practical application. What is
generally agreed upon is that there can be different approaches in community
psychology, and that these approaches should aim at improving communities’
conditions and psychological wellbeing (Pretorius-Heuchert & Ahmed, 2001).

In Section 1.5.2 we also show that Stevens (2013) speaks of “community psychologies”
(heterogeneous) as opposed to a singular “community psychology” that is capable of
accounting for and theorising all contexts and experiences. Therefore, it is more appropriate
to think of community psychology as having multiple histories.

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QUESTION 03

The question
What is the primary focus of community psychology as a sub-discipline?

(a) Understanding individual behaviour using individual therapy.

(b) Using existential therapy to understand human behaviour.
(c) Promoting individual achievement.
(d) Enhancing the well-being of communities.

The correct answer is (d) – Enhancing the well-being of communities.

In Learning Unit 1, Section 1.5.2 we show the following regarding community psychology as a
sub-discipline:
• Community psychology was formalised as a separate sub-discipline at the 1965
Swampscott Conference in Boston, United States of America (Pretorius-Heuchert &
Ahmed, 2001; Seedat, 2011; Stevens, 2013) with the fundamental objective of reflecting
on the place of psychology in the community mental health environment.
• Community psychology was linked to mental health reform movements, which focused
on moving away from treating mental illness as an individual problem to treating it
as a social problem thus criticising overreliance of psychology on the medical model that
saw psychological problems as illnesses within the individual, with minimal appreciation of
the complex environmental forces that contributed to the establishment of psychological
problems (Pretorius-Heuchert & Ahmed, 2001).
• For instance, some of the focus areas in psychology in the United States, Europe, Africa,
Asia, Oceania, and Latin America began to consider the following (Pretorius-Heuchert &
Ahmed, 2001; Stevens, 2013):
- Increasing understanding of the detrimental effects of excessive individualism
(“only the individual matters”). Therefore, option (a) Understanding individual
behaviour using individual therapy and option (c) Promoting individual achievement,
are not relevant due to their individual focus. Option (b) Using existential therapy to
understand human behaviour is also not relevant to community psychology as its focus

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 is on understanding individual experiences and meaning of life, which can be universally
applicable.
- Emphasising prevention of mental illness in communities rather than its cure and
providing mass intervention. In Learning Unit 2, Section 2.6.5, we showed that one
of the key components of intervention from a community psychology perspective is
prevention. In contrast to a “curative” approach, which seeks to treat problems only
once they have occurred, a preventive approach seeks to prevent problems from
occurring in the first place. The aim is therefore to modify processes and conditions that
create risks in communities.
- Attending to structural and social inequalities in communities, such as racism,
sexism, discrimination, and poverty.
- Making community psychology relevant to the social contexts under which it
operates and considering the lived experiences of the people in the Global South
(mostly underdeveloped countries with low-income economies).
- Responding to policies that had a negative impact on the living conditions and
wellbeing of people in various communities, particularly the marginalised.
- Coining the concept of heterogeneous “community psychologies” as opposed to a
singular “community psychology” that is capable of accounting for and theorising on all
contexts with multiple histories and experiences of communities.
• In South Africa, the following were of significance:
- Developing community psychology, which recognises the struggle for democracy.

- Examining the relevance and appropriateness of Euro-American-based

psychology to South African communities. The main concerns were the racist,
sexist, individualistic, and ethnocentric nature of the theories, practices, and research
of mainstream psychology.

- Community psychology came to be regarded as a solution for relieving the sense of

powerlessness that progressive psychologists felt in the face of large-scale political
upheaval.

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QUESTION 04

The question
Nelson and Prilleltensky (2010) refer to community psychology as the “critical” study of people in
context. It is also defined as the “critical” study of people in contexts directed towards the common
aim of improving community conditions and promoting psychological wellbeing. “Critical” in this
case refers to …

(a) a naïve alignment to Eurocentric theories and epistemologies.

(b) the wholesale importation of conceptual categories and theories from the West, without regard
to the many and varied local contexts in Southern Africa.

(c) a continuous process that includes self-reflection.

(d) the centering of European cultures as the centre of civilisation; and erasing the contributions
of other cultures to world history through the process of cultural colonisation.

The correct answer is (c) – A continuous process that includes self-reflection.

In Learning Unit 1, Section 1.9, we indicate that there is no singular or universal definition of
community psychology. However, one of the useful attempts aimed at describing the sub-
discipline is that of Nelson and Prillelteneky (2010). The important aspect to keep in mind is that
most of the attempts to define the concept do not remain static but change over time.

While Nelson and Prillelteneky (2010) refer to community psychology as the study of people in
context, we found it necessary to include the term “critical” to their definition. “Critical” in this
case is understood as a continuous process that includes self-reflection. Thus, for us to
properly understand community psychology, it can be described as “the critical study of people in
contexts directed towards the common aim of improving community conditions and promoting
psychological wellbeing”. This makes option (c) relevant as the term “critical” includes the task of
self-reflection on a continuous basis.

Therefore, the following options are irrelevant as the word “critical” in this context does not refer
to what is stated in these options:
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 • Option (a) – A naïve alignment to Eurocentric theories and epistemologies.
• Option (b) – The wholesale importation of conceptual categories and theories from the
West, without regard to the many and varied local contexts in Southern Africa.
• Option (d) – The centering of European cultures as the centre of civilisation; and erasing
the contributions of other cultures to world history through the process of cultural
colonisation.

In Section 1.9, we further indicate the following:

• In some instances, Western meta-theories that make universal claims have not been
able to adequately account for how the majority of non-Westerners experience
reality. The main problem with universal claims is that they tend to impose themselves
onto others’ worldviews, experiences, conditions, and contexts. A critical review of the
politics of knowledge production reveals that knowledge is not neutral. Mkhize (2004)
observes that in line with Western universalistic orientation to social and psychological
problems, many psychologists continue to understand communities and people in the
global South (particularly indigenous people) with reference to imported conceptual
categories and theories from the West. This constitutes cultural colonisation as this
endeavour ensures that the Western nations continue to produce and market psychological
knowledge to the global South. The end-product of such practices is that contemporary
theories and research become largely irrelevant to the local populations.
• The pursuit of solutions that are relevant to local context does not have to mean
completely ignoring or excluding developments produced in other parts of the
world. Rather, such an approach should encourage people to critically think and
theorise from where they are situated as a starting point and then enter into a dialogue
with different approaches or theories from elsewhere.

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QUESTION 05

The question
From the perspective of the modern Western scientific method …

(a) it is clear that science tends to cater for the values of particularly middle- and upper-class white
males and the ideology of capitalism.

(b) it is possible to discover objective truth once the methods of research are refined and properly
applied.

(c) life is viewed as communal and personhood (who a person is) is defined in relation to the
community, not the self.

(d) people are the (best) experts on their own lives and on their local communities.

The correct answer is (b) – It is possible to discover objective truth once the methods of
research are refined and properly applied.

This question required you to identify which statement fits with the modern Western scientific
perspective.
In Learning Unit 1, Section 1.5.1 we show that psychology was established as an independent
Western scientific discipline 150 years ago. The following are important to understand regarding
the discipline of psychology within this context:
• The discipline was founded by theorists who were male physicians such as Humboldt,
Wundt, Pavlov, Freud, James, and Jung.
• The clients who were serviced within the discipline were from the wealthy upper class or
patients in psychiatric institutions. Psychiatry relied heavily on medication as a
treatment modality, but also used intrapsychic and individualistic psychological
methods of intervention to help the patients.
• The bio-medical model was the foundation for most psychiatric-psychological
interventions and
theories. Although this model is very powerful and effective, the “science of psychology”
was mainly informed by modern Western values, ideals, principles, and practices. This
science was historically located in a Western or European context and was
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 predominantly practiced by male medical (psychiatric) practitioners. Only later did it
evolve to be an independent profession.
• That Western culture believes that knowledge should be produced through methods of
science, in that objective truth can be discovered if methods of research are refined.
• Western scientific methods claim that objective knowledge can be created without
considering the role of the observer or researcher in the process of research.
• Due to this approach, mainstream psychology claims to function as a value-free science
without any political undertones. These values gave rise to the idea that the psychologist
is the expert. Moreover, the expert can claim to be an individual of a high order due to the
knowledge that has been gained through scientific research. This claim is used to empower
individuals (Prilleltensky & Fox, 1997). In a particular situation, the so-called “expert” can
claim to have more knowledge regarding a group of individuals in a community. This
power dynamic can have immense consequences when the expert approaches the
community in need, as they would govern or have an influence on how the community lives.
• In the module’s Glossary of terms, we have defined the concept “power dynamics” as
follows:
The combination of two or more factors such as class, race, status, and gender, among
others to exercise power over another individual or a group of people, which results in
compliance or submission by the latter.

Therefore, considering the notes above, the emphasis of the modern Western scientific method
to understanding mental conditions and communities is based on discovering the “objective truth”
that is universal, i.e., the truth that is accepted worldwide, and cannot be refuted. It highlights that
this is possible if scientific methods of research are refined and properly applied to discover and
understand this “truth”. Based on this, the following options do not relate to the modern Western
scientific method:

• Option (a) – It is clear that science tends to cater for the values of particularly middle- and
upper-class white males and the ideology of capitalism.
This option does not fit with the modern Western scientific method, but rather with a critical
psychology perspective.
In Section 1.7.4, we have added that the critical approach to psychology views the Western
approach to psychology, specifically mainstream psychology, as individualistic and not
value-free because it tends to cater for the values of a particular group – the bourgeois,

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middle- and upper-class white males, and such values are essential to the ideology of
capitalism (Prilleltensky & Fox, 1997). According to the critical approach to psychology,
this makes the Western approach to psychology, including mainstream psychology,
oppressive and less available to the community and its people (Prilleltensky & Fox,
1997).
• Option (c) – Life is viewed as communal and personhood (who a person is) is defined in
relation to the community, not the self.
See Section 1.7.3 – This is a premise of African psychology. It views life as communal
and personhood (who a person is) is defined in relation to the community, not the self.
• Option (d) – People are the (best) experts on their own lives and on their local
communities.
This is the view of the critical approach to psychology. It believes that communities have
an influence or effect on their “realities” (Viljoen, Pistorius, & Eskell-Blokland, 2007).

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QUESTION 06

The question
Which one of the following statements best characterises the concept of "community" in various
contexts?

(a) It refers to geographical locations and limits the scope of community interventions.
(b) It excludes social connections and shared identity.
(c) It encompasses social connections, shared identity, and geographical locations.
(d) It is limited to online and inter-connected communities.

The correct answer is (c) – It encompasses social connections, shared identity, and
geographical locations.

This question is also linked to Questions 01 and 02 above. The objective here was to help you to
grasp what the concept “community” refers to.

We have shown the following in Learning Unit 1, Sections 1.5.2 and 1.6:
• Communities must be understood within the various contexts in which they exist.
• Various communities have varying living conditions, lived experiences, and wellbeing,
including the marginalised.
• The concept of heterogeneous “community psychologies” was created to account for and
theorise on all contexts with multiple histories and experiences of communities.
• The various histories in which community psychology developed, as shown in Question
02 above, show the social connections and shared identities that community members and
psychologists shared leading to the heterogeneous “community psychologies”.
• The various contexts, which have been noted in the heterogeneous “community
psychologies” also show geographical locations of communities. In Learning Unit 2,
Section 2.7.2 we also emphasised that the concept “community” is defined in terms of
people’s geographical location.
• In Learning Unit 1, Section 1.9, we also shared an example of the recent calls for
decolonised education by the “fallist” movements (“#Rhodesmustfall”, followed by
“#Feesmustfall”) in South Africa. These movements shared the values of the global
indigenous processes of transformation (psychological, social, political, economic, and
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collective change), decolonisation (political, social, spiritual and psychological
decolonisation), healing (physical, spiritual, psychological, social and collective
restoration), and mobilisation (local, national, regional and global mobilisation) (Smith,
2021). These are examples of communities with social connections and shared identities
in a particular geographical location, South Africa.
• We would also like to highlight the following: Currently, the world is largely dependent on
the online space to connect and carry out various activities. Therefore, we can speak of
online communities that share online spaces and values when we speak of geographical
locations. In Learning Unit 2, Section 2.6.4 under the community principle of Caring,
compassion and a psychological sense of community, we gave an example of one of
the community engagement projects in our Department of Psychology, namely, the Inside-
out Outside-in South African Corrections Interest Group, or Inside-out for short. The
group that works on this project operates from two platforms, online location – See the
group’s website at https://sites.google.com/view/insideoutwikipage/ and Facebook page
at https://www.facebook.com/insideoutoutsideinproject/) and physical/geographical
location by visiting and working closely with various communities in and around corrections.
Two examples of the collaborative work that this group has done are:
(1) a collaboration with teachers at the St Albans Correctional Centre in the Eastern Cape
and
(2) a collaboration with social workers, psychologists, and incarcerated fathers in
establishing a fatherhood support group at the Zonderwater Correctional Centre in
Gauteng. While the Inside-out is a community on its own comprised of members who share
the principle of caring and compassion (shared identity), it connects socially with other
communities (social connections) such as a community of teachers and a community of
inmates and professionals in correctional centres. All these communities are found in
specific locations (geographical locations).
• In Learning Unit 2, Section 2.7.2, we shared an example of the mental health model in
practice, UNISA clinical psychology Master’s students’ psychological services in
Soshanguve. We indicated that this is a community engagement project that the
Department of Psychology runs in collaboration with the North Gauteng Mental Health
Society (social connection). The aim of the project is to provide psychological services in
Soshanguve (geographical location), focusing on the mental health and wellbeing of certain
groups of individuals within the community (shared identity).

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These are the reasons we say that option (c) (which refers to social connections, shared identity,
and geographical locations) best characterises the concept of "community" in various contexts.

QUESTION 07

The question
The following statement is NOT correct with regard to worldviews, epistemologies, and the
understanding of psychological phenomena.

(a) There are Western and non-Western epistemologies (worldviews/ways of viewing reality) on
understanding psychological phenomena and community.

(b) The mainstream modern psychology epistemology emanates from the Western way of viewing
reality.

(c) Mainstream modern psychology claims to function as a value-free science without any political
undertones.

(d) The bio-medical model relies on the assumptions of cause and effect and is embedded in the
African psychology.

The correct answer is (d) – The bio-medical model relies on the assumptions of cause and
effect and is embedded in African psychology.

In Learning Unit 1, Section 1.7.2 we show the following regarding the bio-medical model:
• The model is closely aligned with Western medicine.
• It places focus on the individual as the unit of analysis.
• It emphasises the role of biological factors (particularly the brain) in influencing and
affecting human behaviour – psychological challenges are thus viewed as brain diseases
(Deacon, 2013).
• It relies on the assumptions of cause and effect – mental or psychological illness is
interpreted as having an underlying biological cause.

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• It focuses on the cure of individuals who are already ill – the belief is that treating the
biological cause of the illness through pharmacological remedies will produce the desired
effects (Deacon, 2013).

In Section 1.7.3 we also show that the following are the premises of African psychology:
• It organises the world in a hierarchy of beings.
• The ancestors play an important role in this hierarchy. The universe is seen as organic
and ecological, and no or little distinction is made between nature and culture.
• Therefore, causality is understood to be linked to the interaction of life forces. This leads
to a holistic view of life as a cosmic unity.
• Knowledge is gained through participation and connecting, not so much through
separation and abstraction. Therefore, the observer (researcher or psychology practitioner)
is part of the system that is observed and influences it profoundly.
• Life is viewed as communal and personhood (who a person is) is defined in relation to the
community, not the self. Parental responsibilities also reside not just with the father and
mother, but also the extended family and the community. Therefore, it can be said that
personhood is relationally defined (in terms of Ubuntu, that is humanity). Individuals and
communities are seen as interdependent.

Therefore, option (d), the bio-medical model relies on the assumptions of cause and effect, and
is embedded in African psychology, is not correct as the two worldviews, the bio-medical model
and African psychology, focus on different aspects regarding community living as follows:
• The bio-medical model is rooted in Western beliefs, including individualism (putting the
wellbeing and progress of individual people above that of groups or communities) and
cause-and-effect.
• African psychology emphasises communal living and understands causality in
relation to the interaction of life forces.

The other options are correct:

• Option (a) – There are Western and non-Western epistemologies (worldviews/ways of
viewing reality) on understanding psychological phenomena and community.
See Section 1.7 – we show that it is clear from psychology texts today that there are
Western and non-Western epistemologies (worldviews/ways of viewing reality) on

15
 understanding psychological phenomena, including the concept “community”. These
epistemologies signify the European knowledge and values, as well as the knowledge and
values derived from other continents, including Africa, respectively.
• Option (b) – The mainstream modern psychology epistemology emanates from the
Western way of viewing reality.
See Section 1.7.1 – we show that the mainstream modern psychology epistemology
emanates from the Western way of viewing reality and assumes that psychology is an
objective and universal science. In other words, it is seen as the only scientific and fact-
based way of understanding an individual. It does not consider contextual particularities
such as sex, race, culture, and the values and meanings of others in understanding an
individual (Mkhize, 2013).
• Option (c) – Mainstream modern psychology claims to function as a value-free science
without any political undertones.
See Section 1.7.1 again – we have shown that Western culture also believes that
knowledge should be produced through methods of science, in that objective truth can be
discovered if methods of research are refined. Western scientific methods claim that
objective knowledge can be created without considering the role of the observer or
researcher in the process of research. Due to this approach, mainstream psychology
claims to function as a value-free science without any political undertones. These values
gave rise to the idea that the psychologist is the expert. Moreover, the expert can claim to
be an individual of a high order due to the knowledge that has been gained through
scientific research. This claim is used to empower individuals (Prilleltensky & Fox, 1997).
In a particular situation, the so-called “expert” can claim to have more knowledge regarding
a group of individuals in a community. This power dynamic can have immense
consequences when the expert approaches the community in need, as they would govern
or have an influence on how the community lives.

Before proceeding to Question 08, we saw it fit to present here a summary of the basic premises
of the Western and non-Western epistemologies in community psychology to enhance your
understanding of the epistemological differences (worldviews/ways of viewing reality) among
these:

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Mainstream modern The bio-medical African A critical The critical
psychology model psychology approach to African
psychology perspective on
psychology
This is a Western This is a Western This is a non- Although it This is a non-
epistemology. epistemology. Western originated in Western
epistemology. Western epistemology.
countries like
Germany, it
focuses on
criticising the
limitations of
mainstream
modern
psychology.
There is no focus on It places The universe is It is interested in It focuses on the
the concept of emphasis on the seen as organic values and indigenisation of
“community”. Rather individual as the and meanings, and psychology,
focus is on focus of study ecological, and how these considering
individualism. This (There is no no or little influence differences in
means that the concern about distinction is knowledge. people’s
wellbeing and the community made between It locates human languages,
progress of individual or community nature and values, philosophies and
people are put above functioning). culture. motivations, and worldviews
those of groups or behaviours in through which
communities. It also Causality is their cultural and Africans
emphasises the understood to be class contexts experience the
It disregards other role of biological linked to the thus exposing world.
cultural factors interaction of life power It investigates how
perspectives, (particularly the forces. This differences in cultural
knowledge, ideas, brain) in leads to a holistic communities and traditions and
values, and influencing and view of life as a discrimination social practices
practices, as well as affecting human cosmic unity – against minority regulate, express,
the role of behaviour. knowledge is groups. and transform the
discourses and gained through human psyche.
languages. participation and Its focus is on the It also sees the
connecting. “lived self as a
experiences” of collectivistic or
Life is viewed as people to gain interdependent
communal and knowledge of self. Therefore,
personhood (who what is important relationships are
a person is) is to them, how they also vital in this
defined in relation live, and how to worldview.
to the community, address their
not the self - challenges.
Ubuntu, that is
humanity) is vital.
Therefore, it
emphasises the
importance of
relationships.

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QUESTION 08

The question
In the worldview of an African psychology …

(a) it is assumed that treating the biological cause, usually by pharmacological treatment, will
produce the desired effects.

(b) knowledge is gained primarily through separation and abstraction.

(c) parental responsibilities also reside with the extended family and the community.

(d) the self is seen as a self-contained or independent individual, without regard for other cultural
perspectives, knowledge, ideas, values, and practices.

The correct answer is (c) – Parental responsibilities also reside with the extended family
and the community.

Again, we share the premises of African psychology as presented in Learning Unit 1, Section
1.7.3. These are as follows:
• It organises the world in a hierarchy of beings.
• The ancestors play an important role in this hierarchy. The universe is seen as organic
and ecological, and no or little distinction is made between nature and culture.
• Therefore, causality is understood to be linked to the interaction of life forces. This leads
to a holistic view of life as a cosmic unity.
• Knowledge is gained through participation and connecting, not so much through
separation and abstraction. Therefore, the observer (researcher or psychology practitioner)
is part of the system that is observed and influences it profoundly.
• Life is viewed as communal and personhood (who a person is) is defined in relation to the
community, not the self. Parental responsibilities also reside not just with the father and
mother, but also the extended family and the community. Therefore, it can be said that
personhood is relationally defined (in terms of Ubuntu, that is humanity). Individuals and
communities are seen as interdependent. This supports option (c), as it emphasises that
raising a child is not only the responsibility of the child’s biological parents. All the people in
the environment in which the child grows up play the role of contributing towards the child’s

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development. This is the reason we have these sayings, as a few examples, in African
communities: It takes a village to raise a child and Motho ke motho ka batho in Sesotho and
Umntu ngumntu ngabantu in isiZulu (meaning that a person is a person because of other
people).

Therefore, this makes the following options irrelevant:

• Option (a) – It is assumed that treating the biological cause, usually by pharmacological
treatment, will produce the desired effects.
See Section 1.7.2. This is the view of the bio-medical model.
• Option (b) – Knowledge is gained primarily through separation and abstraction.
See Section 1.7.3. This is a view that is held by mainstream modern psychology that is
based on Western values. It believes that things should be separated and broken down
into parts to understand them. This includes separating the observer (researcher or
psychology practitioner) from the system (e.g., the community) that is observed. African
psychology criticises mainstream modern psychology for this. It holds the view that
knowledge is gained through participation and connecting, not so much through separation
and abstraction. Therefore, the observer (researcher or psychology practitioner) is part of
the system, in this case, the community that is observed and influences it profoundly.
• Option (d) – The self is seen as a self-contained or independent individual, without regard
for other cultural perspectives, knowledge, ideas, values, and practices.
• See Section 1.7.1 – mainstream modern psychology emphasises the value of
individualism, i.e., the wellbeing and progress of individual people are put above that of
groups or communities. Therefore, the self is seen as a self-contained or independent
individual. In addition, this perspective does not consider contextual particularities such as
sex, race, culture, and the values and meanings of others in understanding an individual.
We can thus say that mainstream modern psychology disregards other cultural
perspectives, knowledge, ideas, values, and practices.

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QUESTION 09

The question
Community psychology practitioners can choose from a range of intervention models based on
their values, beliefs, professional orientation, context, and the needs of the community (Visser,
2012). These roles and functions do NOT include …

(a) formal registration with the Health Professions Council of South Africa (HPCSA) as a
community psychologist.

(b) being an advocate, an advisor, and negotiator on behalf of the oppressed or disempowered
community.

(c) being a consultant to the community, to help with difficulties such as teenage pregnancy,
domestic violence, or dealing with crime in the community.

(d) being a participant and conceptualiser who is involved in the community processes by trying
to help through research, as well as understand, and change such processes.

The correct answer is (a) – Formal registration with the Health Professions Council of
South Africa (HPCSA) as a community psychologist.

In Learning Unit 2, Section 2.5, we indicate the following regarding the role of a community
psychologist or community-psychologically-informed practitioner:
• The relationship between the psychologist and the community is of importance to the
success of interventions. Though community psychologists often come as outsiders into
the community, it is important that they work in collaboration with the community in the
interventions that they plan to implement.
• Operate within the social action model, to perform the roles of being an advocate, an
advisor, and negotiator on behalf of the oppressed or disempowered community. This
makes option (b) applicable.
• Being a consultant to the community, to help with difficulties such as teenage pregnancy,
domestic violence, or dealing with crime in the community (Radebe, 2010). This also makes
option (c) relevant.

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• Being a participant and conceptualiser who is involved in the community processes by
trying to help through research, as well as understand, and change such processes (Visser,
2012). This means that option (c) is also relevant.
• Serving as a researcher to conceptualise, understand, and assess incidences and
the prevalence of phenomena, as well as drawing from theory used in community
psychology to intervene in community problems to improve social systems. Research can
also be conducted to test interventions and to evaluate the efficacy, beneficiality, and cost-
benefit of various interventions or intervention options. Option (d) is thus applicable as well.

Therefore, formal registration with the Health Professions Council of South Africa (HPCSA) does
not fall under the roles of a community psychologist. Rather, this is a requirement for all
psychology practitioners in South Africa to ensure that they are qualified to practice within specific
fields of psychology.

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QUESTION 10

The question
The most dominant theoretical framework in the mental health model/approach is the:

(a) bio-medical framework, which conceptualises mental health problems as diseases.

(b) bio-psychosocial framework, which considers biological, social, and psychological factors.

(c) ecosystems framework that understands mental health as a function of various interacting
systems.

(d) public health model that follows a scientific approach to disease prevention and the promotion
of individual and social wellbeing, which operates at a level beyond clinical medical ideas of health.

The correct answer is (a) – Bio-medical framework, which conceptualises mental health
problems as diseases.

In Learning Unit 2, Section 2.7.2 we show the most dominant theoretical framework within the
mental health model is the bio-medical framework, which conceptualises mental health
problems as diseases (Ahmed & Suffla, 2007). Mental health problems are said to be caused
by various abnormalities in brain functioning. Note the following:
• While the bio-psychosocial framework, which is option (b) and the ecosystems
framework, which is option (c) both fall under the mental health model, they are not the
most dominant theoretical frameworks in this model. The bio-medical framework is the
most dominant framework, which is option (a).

• Regarding option (d), the public health model does not fall under the mental health
model. Rather, it is an approach that is aligned with the mental health model because of its
conceptualisation of diseases and focus on the three levels of prevention, which are
primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention.

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QUESTION 11

The question
According to Kagee (2018), in liberal democracies …

(a) mental health professionals, including psychologists and social workers, are unsuited to
providing psychosocial interventions.

(b) the assumptions of individual liberty and social equality are axiomatic.

(c) various freedoms, including freedom of expression, religious practice and movement, are
considered alienable rights.

(d) the assumption is that psychological interventions should always involve talking therapies,
where service users are required to discuss their problems verbally.

The correct answer is (b) – The assumptions of individual liberty and social equality are
axiomatic.

Kagee’s (2018) article emphasises how the fields of community psychology and social work can
potentially contribute towards psychosocial humanitarian interventions during conflict and war in
the Global South, i.e., underdeveloped and developing countries in continents like Africa, Latin
America, the Caribbean, and Asia. On page 280, the article shows that one of the areas of
common concern for psychosocial humanitarian aid is the potential mismatch between the
political and social zeitgeists (or beliefs) of donour and recipient societies. It specifically
highlights the following:
• The assumptions of individual liberty and social equality are evident in liberal
democracies. This aligns with option (b). Thus, various freedoms, including freedom of
expression, religious practice and movement, are considered inalienable rights. This
means that these are human rights that cannot be changed. This is opposite to what option
(c) states.

• In addition, in many countries, victories on the fronts of gender equality, sexual diversity
and disability rights have been won over the past several decades, to the extent that
discrimination on these dimensions of identity is considered unacceptable and often
illegal.
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 • Yet, in many countries that have experienced war and conflict, basic human rights are
routinely violated and in fact form the basis of conflict.

• Oppression and human rights violations based on gender, race, ethnicity and religious
practice inform the social fabric in fundamental ways. Examples include the Taliban in
Afghanistan discouraging or prohibiting women’s education, imprisoning or issuing death
threats against so-called creators of “blasphemous” art works, such as in Iran or Pakistan,
or outlawing homosexuality as in Uganda and other countries.

• Individual freedoms, including freedom of expression, form part of the cultures of helping
professions such as psychology, counselling and social work. However, it is possible that
there is a mismatch between these professions, on one hand, and elements in
societies where humanitarian aid is dispensed, on the other, which may create tensions
for the provision of psychosocial services. This is an area for some reflection in the fields
of social work and psychology.

Therefore, contrary to what option (a) alludes, mental health professionals such as psychologists
and social workers are suited to providing psychosocial interventions in the Global South. Such
interventions do not involve talking therapies, where service users are required to discuss their
problems verbally, as indicated in option (d). Rather, focus is on being aware of power relations,
aligning the cultural beliefs of the professions of psychology and social work with the beliefs of the
communities they serve, and showing cultural sensitivity.

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QUESTION 12

The question
The term “community psychology” is a combination of two seemingly contradictory and diversely
defined concepts, namely, community and psychology. In this regard, Yen’s (2013) discussion of
community psychology in South Africa points to the issue of languaging where ...

(a) social and historical contexts have no influence on psychological services and terminology.

(b) the targets of community psychology interventions are objective.

(c) community psychology must only be applied to disadvantaged or impoverished groups.

(d) the term “community” can be potentially problematic as it sometimes assumes that community
exists where it in fact does not.

The correct answer is (d) – The term “community” can be potentially problematic as it
sometimes assumes that community exists where it in fact does not.

In Learning Unit 1, Section 1.6, we refer you to studying Yen, J. (2013). A history of
‘community’ and community psychology in South Africa. In N. Duncan, B. Bowman, A.
Naidoo, J. Pillay & V. Roos (Eds.), Community Psychology: Analysis, context and action
(pp. 51-66). Claremont: Juta. Chapter 4, pages 52-54, shows the following regarding the
language that we use to refer to and understand what the term “community” means:
• “Community” is a political term. In South Africa, we use the term to refer to the social
groups to which we feel we belong, or to those to which we assume others belong.
• Politicians, researchers, and community psychologists use the term “community” to refer
to targets of their interventions.
• The term “community” generally has positive connotations because it is thought of as
something that is good and that should be pursued and supported. For instance, both the
terms “community” and “a sense of community” have been used to refer to the following
(Thornton & Ramphele, 1988):
- An ideal, democratic state of existence.
- A sense of togetherness (the communal spirit, which South Africans have unfortunately
lost over time due to the introduction of social alienation from each other).
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 • The term “community” was also used with offensive connotations as follows (Boonzaier
& Sharp, 1988; Butchart & Seedat, 1990; Vogelman, Perkel & Strebel, 1992):
- During the apartheid era, the term was used to separate people of different races and
thus fostering different developments in the various racial groups that had to be
responsible for meeting their own needs.
- A publication titled South African keywords: The uses and abuses of political concepts
was produced in the 1980s. The aim was to critique the language or ‘discourse of
domination’ that was used in apartheid ideology and the infusion of these concepts into
everyday common sense thus indoctrinating people to believe what they meant. ln it,
Thornton and Ramphele (1988) demonstrated how ‘community’ was deliberately
confused with legislated racial categories in ways that implied that these 'racial
communities', e.g., the ‘coloured community’ or the ‘lndian community’ were obviously
different from each other, and that each had its own distinct culture.
- The apartheid government used the term interchangeably with ‘race’, ‘ethnic group’,
‘nation’ or ‘peoples’. The government thus created an impression that these
communities with categories of people that differed inherently from each other existed
like that naturally; that this was not a socially constructed definition by the government.
It is disturbing to note that South Africans today still view and speak of communities in
this way.
- This created inequalities in resource and power among the created racial groups.
- This made the psychologists who were committed to working with the community, and
who employed these definitions of community without questioning their origin to be
criticised for being unwittingly and tacitly supportive of apartheid-defined racialised
divisions.
• Butchart and Seedat (1990) warned of the implications of this kind of language for
community psychology. The following were the concerns:
- The central beliefs of the mental health model of community psychology complemented
the discourses of community employed in apartheid ideology. The mental health model
defines “community” in terms of geographical location and aims to prevent mental
illness within that ‘catchment area’.
- While social and environmental risk factors that exist within the targeted community are
addressed in prevention efforts, no consideration is given to the effects of broader
political and economic conditions. Because of this, it was sometimes implied within the

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mental health model that the community must be assisted to heal itself, thereby
providing some justification for the unequal distribution of mental health resources.
- The effects of this history of the term “community” would be reproduced even when it
was used with good intentions. For example, the language of “community” was also
deployed in the 1970s by the Black Consciousness Movement to bolster a sense of
solidarity among those classified as African, coloured and lndian, referring to all three
as the 'black community'. The term was used at other times to refer to apartheid-
imposed communities (such as townships created through forced removal).
• Butchart and Seedat (1990) showed that the solution to this problem is as follows:
- Emphasis should be put on community empowerment and pride in communities.
- Relooking our definitions of and discourses on the concept “community”. Emphasis
should be on realising that:
'[communities' (whether real or imagined), are socially constructed and exist within, not
above, history and ideology. Therefore, the targets of community psychology intervention,
however real, are never objective, but always both products of historical forces and
ideological mechanisms in the reproduction of a particular social formation. (Butchart &
Seedat, 1990, p. 1096)
- Targeting a community for psychological intervention ‘will in itself lead to the importation
... of the ideological and historical precedents to its alienation’ (lsemonger, 1990, p. 37).
- As such, the term “community” is a potentially problematic one, not only because a
community is sometimes assumed to exist where it in fact does not, but also because
it has the potential to recall apartheid terminology and essentialist ideas of racial
difference, while at other times implying a romanticised/idealised notion of
homogeneous or unified communities.

As shown in option (c), this is the reason the term “community” can be potentially problematic as
it sometimes assumes that community exists where it in fact does not.

Therefore, the following options are not applicable here:

• Option (a) – Social and historical contexts have no influence on psychological services
and terminology.

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 The literature discussed above shows that social and historical contexts do have an
influence on the terminology we use and thus the nature of psychological services that are
rendered.
• Option (b) – The targets of community psychology interventions are objective.
As indicated above, the targets of community psychology interventions can never be
objective because they are always influenced by historical forces and ideological
mechanisms in the reproduction of a particular social formation.
• Option (d) – Community psychology must only be applied to disadvantaged or
impoverished groups.
As shown above, community psychology must not segregate groups. It must guard against
the justification for the unequal distribution of mental health resources.

QUESTION 13

The question
The concept of prevention comes from the field of …

(a) family law.

(b) public health.
(c) political sciences.
(d) communication sciences.

The correct answer is (b) – Public health.

Here, we start by reiterating what we mentioned under Question 02 above that in Learning Unit
2, Section 2.6.5, we showed that one of the key components of intervention from a
community psychology perspective is prevention. In contrast to a “curative” approach, which
seeks to treat problems only once they have occurred, a preventive approach seeks to prevent
problems from occurring in the first place. The aim is therefore to modify processes and
conditions that create risks in communities.

In Section 2.7.2, we have also indicated the following regarding the public health model and
prevention:

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• The public health model follows a scientific approach to disease prevention and the
promotion of individual and social wellbeing, which operates at a level beyond clinical
medical ideas of health. Therefore, the model is based on the following three main areas
of focus:

- Firstly, health is addressed at the level of the entire population and not at the level of
the individual or a specific area, as is the case with the mental health model. Whereas
clinical approaches within the mental health model treat disease and mental illness
within a person, the public health model is aimed at preventing problems before they
occur (Butchart et al., 2001).
- Secondly, health interventions within the public health model focus on improving
people’s health and quality of life through the prevention and treatment of illness
and other physical and mental health conditions.
- Thirdly, interventions within the public health model are interdisciplinary since they draw
resources from multiple disciplines and different social sectors. The model, therefore,
requires methods that can define problems in ways that allow for interventions
involving multiple disciplines and sectors (Butchart et al., 2001).

This module does not address issues from the family law, political science, and communication
science perspectives. Therefore, this makes options (a), (c), and (d) incorrect.

QUESTION 14

The question
Which one of the following is a principle of community psychology?

(a) Research to conceptualise, understand, and assess the incidence and prevalence of
phenomena, as well as drawing from theory used in community psychology to intervene in
community problems.

(b) Micro, meso, exo, and macro systems.

(c) The analysis of public and medical discourses.

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(d) Empowerment, which allows people access to resources, role relationships and participation
in social and political aspects in life.

The correct answer is (d) – Empowerment, which allows people access to resources, role
relationships and participation in social and political aspects in life.

In Learning Unit 2, Section 2.6.1, we have explained the community psychology principle of
empowerment as follows:
• Empowerment is defined as the development of a personal sense of control over one’s
life. This is also known as individual empowerment. A collective empowerment
approach would also be considered, as it enables communities to act collectively for the
benefit of every member of the community. Empowerment is a central principle that is used
in psychology as a whole – it is both a psychological and social process that involves
both the individual and the community that the individual belongs to. This principle allows
people access to resources, role relationships and participation in social and political
aspects in life.
• This principle highlights community psychologists’ role of noting the political dimensions
of human problems within a particular region or community, including the oppression
and segregation of disadvantaged groups in terms of social structures and processes.
Therefore, it addresses the disempowerment of people in the community.
• Through interventions, community psychologists can apply an empowerment framework
with the aim of promoting the self-determination of community members, their
democratic participation, and ensuring that power is equally shared in the community.

This makes the options (a), (b) and (c) irrelevant here as they do not explain the community
psychology principle of empowerment.

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QUESTION 15

The question
The social action model in community psychology …

(a) follows an “intrapsychic” focus that attributes poverty to personal failings.

(b) targets the eradication of structural inequalities and injustices at the institutional level.
(c) manages the early symptoms of a psychological disorder.
(d) helps individuals to cope with their difficulties.

The correct answer is (b) – Targets the eradication of structural inequalities and injustices
at the institutional level.

In Learning Unit 2, Section 2.7.1, we indicate that the premises of the social action model are
as follows:
• It uses a strategy that aims at mobilising people against structures and procedures
that hinder wellbeing (Visser, 2012).
• It emphasises the importance of recognising structural social inequalities and injustice
as causes of social problems. This is relevant to option (b). It capitalises on the failure of
mainstream approaches to consider the link between behaviour and social systems.
For example, while mainstream approaches attribute poverty to personal failings (the
mainstream’s “intrapsychic” focus), the social action model links conditions of poverty
and powerlessness to structural inequality. Mainstream approaches neglect the physical
reality of communities deprived of housing, transportation, basic sanitation, and medical
care, which impact mental health (Arumugam, 2001). Therefore, option (d), which
highlights putting the blame on individuals, especially the oppressed or marginalised
people for the unfavourable conditions under which they live, does not represent the focus
of the social action model.
• It is not limited to equal distribution of resources to those who are oppressed or
marginalised. It goes further into the active and meaningful participation of
communities in institutions and social systems.
• It puts an emphasis on shifting from focusing on the individual factors to relating the
social arrangements of society to problems encountered by individuals and communities.

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 • Its interventions are targeted at the eradication of structural inequalities and injustices.
Change is targeted at an institutional and systems level rather than at an individual level.
• It focuses on empowerment and self-determination as its central values, rather than the
transformation of the broader processes and structures that perpetuate social inequalities
(Ahmed & Pretorius-Hechert, 2001). Therefore, its interventions promote putting
pressure on those in power to make changes that improve the quality of life of the
oppressed communities (marginalised groups who are not equipped to use their power to
demand change or to challenge social system).

Therefore, this makes the following options irrelevant here:

• Option (a) – Follows an “intrapsychic” focus that attributes poverty to personal failings.
See Learning Unit 1, Section 1.7.1 and Learning Unit 2, Section 2.7.1 – This is the view
of mainstream approaches.
• Option (c) – Manages the early symptoms of a psychological disorder.
See Learning Unit 2, Section 2.7.2 – This is the view of the mental health model,
specifically under secondary prevention of disorders.
• Option (d) – Helps individuals to cope with their difficulties.
See Learning Unit 2, Section 2.6.5 – This is the role of prevention.

We hope that the summary of the answers provided to the assessment questions helps you to
better understand the material that you studied and to identify points that you could have missed,
and which might have led to choosing incorrect options in the assessment. Feel free to ask us for
any further clarification that is necessary to enhance your understanding even more.

We wish you the best of luck with the next assessment!

Your PYC2614 Team

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