UNIT 4
Q1) Research Report Writing
A research report is a publication that reports on the findings of a research project or
alternatively scientific observations on or about a subject.
Normally the research assignments like projects, investigations, explorations, theses,
dissertations fall in this category.
A research report is a well-crafted document that outlines the processes, data, and findings
of a systematic investigation.
It is an important document that serves as a first-hand account of the research process, and
it is typically considered as an objective and accurate source of information.
FEATURES OF A GOOD RESEARCH REPORT
A good research report should be written lucidly, precisely in simple language and should
provide a detailed presentation of the whole of research processes.
It should present the data in tables and figures with suitable objective explanations.
The end part should include the concluding remarks, the prime findings and
recommendations, if any.
The language and style should be academic, formal, less flaunting and simple.
The report is normally based on the first hand information collected by the researcher.
However, the reports written on the basis of secondary data are also presented in a
systematic and lucid manners.
A research report should normally be written in the third person and avoid use of pronouns
like, ‘I’, ‘Me’, ‘My’ etc.
The report should facilitate the reader with systematic presentation like proper headings,
title, subtitles, tables, graphs, parts and even bullet points where required.
The reports normally forward recommendations too as the solutions to the problems and
policy making by the concerned authorities, corporate organizations, institutions and
governments.
The research report is classified based on 2 things; nature of research and target audience.
Based on the nature, research reports are classified into quantitative and qualitative
a) Qualitative Research Report
This is the type of report is written for qualitative research.
It outlines the methods, processes, and findings of a qualitative method of systematic
investigation.
In educational research, a qualitative research report provides an opportunity for one to
apply his or her knowledge and develop skills in planning and executing qualitative research
projects.
A qualitative research report is usually descriptive in nature. Hence, in addition to presenting
details of the research process, you must also create a descriptive narrative of the
information.
b) Quantitative Research Report
A quantitative research report is a type of research report that is written for quantitative
research.
Quantitative research is a type of systematic investigation that pays attention to numerical or
statistical values in a bid to find answers to research questions.
In this type of research report, the researcher presents quantitative data to support the
research process and findings. Unlike a qualitative research report that is mainly descriptive,
a quantitative research report works with numbers; that is, it is numerical in nature.
Based on the target audience, research reports can be classified as technical research report and
popular research report.
a) Technical research report
A technical research report is a detailed document that you present after carrying out industry-based
research. This report is highly specialized because it provides information for a technical audience;
that is, individuals with above-average knowledge in the field of study.
In a technical research report, the researcher is expected to provide specific information about the
research process, including statistical analyses and sampling methods. Also, the use of language is
highly specialized and filled with jargon.
Examples of technical research reports include legal and medical research reports.
b) Popular research report
A popular research report is one for a general audience; that is, for individuals who do not
necessarily have any knowledge in the field of study. A popular research report aims to make
information accessible to everyone.
It is written in very simple language, which makes it easy to understand the findings and
recommendations. Examples of popular research reports are the information contained in
newspapers and magazines.
With a research report, you'd be able to identify knowledge gaps for further inquiry.
A research report shows what has been done while hinting at other areas needing
systematic investigation.
A research report allows you to present information in a precise and concise manner.
It is time efficient and practical because, in a research report, you do not have to spend time
detailing the findings of your research work in person.
Q2) PARTS OF THE RESEARCH REPORT
A research report consists of the following parts
• Preliminary part
• Main body- introduction
• Literature review
• Method
• Data analysis
• Results
• Discussion
• Conclusion
• Recommendation
• End part
• References
• Appendix
Preliminary part
Preliminary part of a research report includes the title page of the report, certificate of
authentication by the research supervisor or letter of accreditation/authorisation by research
sponsoring agency, the contents of the report based on the chapter scheme, foreword,
preface and acknowledgements, and the list of tables or figures, if any.
Usually, foreword is written by an expert of the area.
Preface is the face of report i.e. a brief discussion about the research problem, objectives
and researcher’s approach about dealing with it.
Tables or figures are normally numbered on the basis of Chapter No. and tables in continuity
e.g Table No.1.1; 1.2;1.3;1.4; 1.5 Table 2.1; 2.2; 2.3; 2.4 etc.
Main body
Introduction - The purpose of your report. The thesis statement will be useful here.
Background information may include a brief review of the literature already available on the
topic so that you are able to ‘place’ your research in the field. Some brief details of your
methods and an outline of the structure of the report.
Literature Review
‘Literature Survey’ is the first major task to be performed by a researcher before and after
the selection of problem.
It could be done even before selection of problem to determine the research problem to be
selected.
The reason of carrying out a Literature Survey is to exhibit and develop ones familiarity with
other people's works related with the research problem chosen.
It normally involves the survey or search of written works in the shape of books and papers
in academic journals, and also speeches, letters, documents, films or other outputs.
There are many types of Literature Survey, and, it depends on one’s needs like looking
through citations, quotations, bibliographies, indexes etc.
In literature review the major works related with research problems are reviewed in brief.
The review could be done on the basis of classification of works thematically or could be
done in chronological order.
The researcher should be able to underline the major argument, content or finding of the
work reviewed and present that analytically in reference to the research problem showing
the existing gap, difference or lag in the study.
Method
Research Method means the adoption of the special procedures, tools and techniques in
order to find, categorise, select, process, and analyze information about a particular research
problem.
In a research document, be it a paper, dissertation, thesis or project the methodology
section allows the reader to critically evaluate a study's overall validity and reliability.
Research method simply refers to the practical “how” of any given piece of research.
More specifically, it’s about how a researcher systematically designs a study to ensure valid
and reliable results that address the research aims and objectives.
It includes research approach, sample plan, data sources, questionnaire type etc.
In method section the researcher discusses in details the research methods he has followed
i.e. what he did and how he did it.
Method should be clearly written so that other researcher could also understand it and
follow it in similar kind of research endeavours.
Method is normally written in a passive voice e.g. ‘the population was selected on the basis
of stratified sampling’ or ‘the respondents were asked to answer the questions’ instead of
writing in active voice e.g. ‘I asked the respondents to fill the questionnaire’.
Data Analysis
Data Analysis’ is the step to be followed once the first hand information has been collected.
It refers to the process to examine, elicit, elucidate and explain the data, in the course of
which concepts or theories are likely to be considered, advanced and developed.
The application of tools or techniques depends upon the nature of the data and suitability of
the tools for analysing it.
It is also classified into preliminary analysis or hypotheses testing.
While the former involves the presentation of data in graphs or tables the latter refers to
testing of the inferences (hypotheses) made in the beginning.
The data can be small, medium or large in quantum and quantitative (numeric) or qualitative
(textual) in nature.
Results
The results represent the findings of the study based upon the methodology or
methodologies applied in collection of data and the tools and techniques applied in data
analysis.
The results should state the findings of the research in a systematic manner and in logical
sequence without bias or interpretation.
It is here where the researcher indicates what he has found.
In simple words it is the data collected and arranged systematically ready for interpretation.
Discussion
Discussion mostly forms part of the natural science or quantitative studies. However, they
can be used in social sciences too wherever the data is presented cartographically in
quantitative manner or patterns or figures drawn even in qualitative research.
‘The purpose of the discussion is to interpret and describe the significance of your findings in
light of what was already known about the research problem being investigated, and to
explain any new understanding or fresh insights about the problem after you've taken the
findings into consideration.
The discussion will always connect to the introduction by way of the research questions or
hypotheses you posed and the literature you reviewed, but it does not simply repeat or
rearrange the introduction; the discussion should always explain how your study has moved
the reader's understanding of the research problem forward from where you left them at the
end of the introduction’.
In this section one discusses the relevance of results and how the findings fit with other
research in the area.
It will relate back to your literature review and your introductory thesis statemen
Conclusion
Conclusion refers to the broad drawing of the study done and the major findings and
suggestions made.
It can also be called the summary of the major findings of the study. In conclusions the
researchers are advised not to include any new information or idea not discussed in the
previous chapters.
However, one can specify the limitations of the study and the zones of its utility and
applications.
Recommendations
Normally recommendations are included in the concluding part or in conclusions. However,
they can be presented separately too.
Recommendations include suggestions for what needs to be done as a result of your
findings.
Recommendations are usually listed in order of priority.
End part
‘The End Part’ of the report comprises of endnotes, references, appendices, bibliography and
indexes.
It also includes endnotes if foot notes are not used in the report. Endnotes are like footnotes
but are located at the back rather than the bottom of each page.
These would include all of the references for all works cited in the Review of Related
Literature or any other sections of the report as well as the references for quotations, either
direct or indirect, taken from other sources, or any footnote comments that might have been
included.
These are listed in numeric order as presented in the text.
References
It includes all the references used in the report or referred to for background information.
Reference preparation is based on specific patterns.
Appendices
Any information in the forms of tables/figures, acts, documents, letters, speeches or other
materials which is not totally central to the analysis but need to be mentioned are placed in
appendices.
These should add extra information to the report. If you include appendices they must be
referred to in the body of the report and must have a clear purpose for being included.
Each appendix must be named and numbered.
Q3) References and Citation Methods
There are difference methods for referencing and citations.
Some commonly used methods are APA, MLA and CMOS
MLA
MLA style is a referencing method developed by the Modern Language Association.
It consists of two parts: a brief in-text citation in the body of your essay and a detailed list of
the “Works Cited” at the end of the work.
In-text citations
Use the first element from the Works Cited entry - usually the author’s surname - and page
number/s in parenthesis, e.g. (Smith 173).
If the author’s name appears in the body of your essay itself, use just the relevant page
number/s in the parenthesis, e.g. Smith claims that....applies. (173).
There is no punctuation between the author's name and the page number/s.
Works Cited
Works Cited is a list of sources from which you have borrowed information or ideas.
You need to acknowledge – or cite – all your sources.
Arrange the works in alphabetical order by the first element, usually the author’s surname.
The elements of each entry, including the formatting and punctuation, are as follows.
Omit any element which is not relevant. Format the second and subsequent lines of each
entry with a hanging indent.
The alphabetical arrangement is letter-by-letter, i.e. Mac comes before Mc.
One advantaged of MLA citations is that full references follow one standard formula.
So, it doesn’t matter if you’re attempting to reference a book, newspaper article, or
Facebook post, as almost every source type is structured the same way, following an MLA
template.
CMOS
The Chicago Manual of Style (CMOS) covers a variety of topics from manuscript preparation
and publication to grammar, usage, and documentation, and as such, it has been lovingly
dubbed the “editor's bible.”
The material on this page focuses primarily on one of the two CMOS documentation styles:
the Notes-Bibliography System (NB), which is used by those working in literature, history, and
the arts.
The other documentation style, the Author-Date System, is nearly identical in content but
slightly different in form and is preferred by those working in the social sciences.
Though the two systems both convey all of the important information about each source,
they differ not only in terms of the way they direct readers to these sources, but also in
terms of their formatting (e.g., the position of dates in citation entries).
The Chicago Notes and Bibliography (NB) system is often used in the humanities to provide
writers with a system for referencing their sources through the use of footnotes, endnotes,
and through the use of a bibliography.
This offers writers a flexible option for citation and provides an outlet for commenting on
those sources, if needed.
Proper use of the Notes and Bibliography system builds a writer’s credibility by
demonstrating their accountability to source material.
In addition, it can protect writers from accusations of plagiarism, which is the intentional or
accidental uncredited use of source material created by others.
In the Notes and Bibliography system, you should include a note (endnote or footnote) each
time you use a source, whether through a direct quote, paraphrase, or summary.
Footnotes are added at the end of the page on which the source is referenced, while
endnotes are compiled at the end of each chapter or at the end of the entire document.
In either case, a superscript number corresponding to a note, along with the bibliographic
information for that source, should be placed in the text following the end of the sentence or
clause in which the source is referenced.
If a work includes a bibliography, which is typically preferred, then it is not necessary to
provide full publication details in notes.
However, if a bibliography is not included with a work, the first note for each source should
include all relevant information about the source: author’s full name, source title, and facts
of publication.
If you cite the same source again, or if a bibliography is included in the work, the note only
needs to include the surname of the author, a shortened form of the title (if more than four
words), and the page number(s). However, in a work that does not include a bibliography, it
is recommended that the full citation be repeated when it is first used in a new chapter.
All entries in the bibliography will include the author (or editor, compiler, translator), title,
and publication information.
Author Names
The author’s name is inverted in the bibliography, placing the last name first and separating
the last name and first name with a comma; for example, John Smith becomes Smith, John.
Titles
Titles of books and journals are italicized. Titles of articles, chapters, poems, etc. are placed
in quotation marks.
Publication Information
The year of publication is listed after the publisher or journal name.
Punctuation
In a bibliography, all major elements are separated by periods.
Unlike many citation styles, CMOS gives writers two different methods for documenting
sources: the Author-Date System and the Notes-Bibliography (NB) System.
As its name suggests, Author-Date uses parenthetical citations in the text to reference the
source's author's last name and the year of publication.
Each parenthetical citation corresponds to an entry on a References page that concludes the
document.
By contrast, NB uses numbered footnotes in the text to direct the reader to a shortened
citation at the bottom of the page.
This corresponds to a fuller citation on a Bibliography page that concludes the document.
Though the general principles of citation are the same here, the citations themselves are
formatted differently from the way they appear in Author-Date.
Citations can take the form of full notes or short notes. Full notes provide complete source
information, while short notes include only the author’s last name, the source title, and the
page number(s) of the cited passage. The usual rule is to use a full note for the first citation
of each source, and a short note for subsequent citations of the same source.
Guidelines can vary across fields, though; sometimes you might be required to use full notes
every time, or conversely to use short notes every time, as long as all your sources are listed
in the bibliography. It’s best to check with your instructor if you’re unsure which rule to
follow.
Multiple authors in Chicago notes
When a source has multiple authors, list up to three in your note citations. When there are
four or more, use “et al.” (Latin for “and others”).
A Chicago footnote or endnote citation always contains the author’s name and the title of
the source. The other elements vary by the type of source you’re citing.
Page number(s) should be included if you are referring to a specific part of the text. The
elements of the citation are separated by commas, and the note always ends with a period.
The page range is separated by an en dash.
When citing a book, if an edition is specified, include it in abbreviated form (e.g., 2nd ed.). If
the book was accessed online, add a URL.
APA
APA style uses the author/date method of citation in which the author's last name and the
year of the publication are inserted in the actual text of the paper.
It is the style recommended by the American Psychological Association and used in many of
the social sciences.
By inserting reference citations in the text, you eliminate the need to use footnotes at the
bottom of the page or at the end of your paper.
The citations in your end-of-paper references list should give readers enough information to
locate each source.
APA style suggests using a reference list for references cited in the text of a paper rather than
a bibliography. A reference list includes only those references which were actually cited in
the text of one's paper.
A bibliography includes all literature consulted which was "immediately relevant" to the
research process, even though the material was not cited in the text of one's paper.
When compiling a reference list one needs to pay particular attention to the following: 1)
sequence; 2) punctuation and spacing; 3) capitalization; and 4) underlining.
Q4) ETHICAL NORMS IN RESEARCH
Research ethics provides guidelines for the responsible conduct of research. In addition, it
educates and monitors scientists conducting research to ensure a high ethical standard. The
following is a general summary of some ethical principles:
Honesty:
Honestly report data, results, methods and procedures, and publication status. Do not
fabricate, falsify, or misrepresent data.
Objectivity:
Strive to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis, data interpretation, peer review,
personnel decisions, grant writing, expert testimony, and other aspects of research.
Integrity:
Keep your promises and agreements; act with sincerity; strive for consistency of thought and
action.
Carefulness:
Avoid careless errors and negligence; carefully and critically examine your own work and the
work of your peers. Keep good records of research activities.
Openness:
Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Be open to criticism and new ideas.
Respect for Intellectual Property:
Honor patents, copyrights, and other forms of intellectual property. Do not use unpublished
data, methods, or results without permission. Give credit where credit is due. Never
plagiarize.
Confidentiality:
Protect confidential communications, such as papers or grants submitted for publication,
personnel records, trade or military secrets, and patient records.
Responsible Publication:
Publish in order to advance research and scholarship, not to advance just your own career.
Avoid wasteful and duplicative publication.
Responsible Mentoring:
Help to educate, mentor, and advise students. Promote their welfare and allow them to
make their own decisions.
Respect for Colleagues:
Respect your colleagues and treat them fairly.
Social Responsibility:
Strive to promote social good and prevent or mitigate social harms through research, public
education, and advocacy.
Non-Discrimination:
Avoid discrimination against colleagues or students on the basis of sex, race, ethnicity, or
other factors that are not related to their scientific competence and integrity.
Competence:
Maintain and improve your own professional competence and expertise through lifelong
education and learning; take steps to promote competence in science as a whole.
Legality:
Know and obey relevant laws and institutional and governmental policies.
Animal Care:
Show proper respect and care for animals when using them in research. Do not conduct
unnecessary or poorly designed animal experiments.
Human Subjects Protection:
When conducting research on human subjects, minimize harms and risks and maximize
benefits; respect human dignity, privacy, and autonomy.
The Belmont Report was written by the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of
Biomedical and Behavioral Research. The Commission, created as a result of the National Research
Act of 1974, was charged with identifying the basic ethical principles that should underlie the
conduct of biomedical and behavioral research involving human subjects and developing guidelines
to assure that such research is conducted in accordance with those principles. Informed by monthly
discussions that spanned nearly four years and an intensive four days of deliberation in 1976, the
Commission published the Belmont Report, which identifies basic ethical principles and guidelines
that address ethical issues arising from the conduct of research with human subjects.
Belmont report emphasizes on
Respect for Persons- Each person has individual rights- Obtain informed consent, protect
privacy, maintain confidentiality
Beneficence-Provide benefit, protect from harm, limit risk-Risk-benefit assessment made-
Standard procedures used
Justice-Equitable selection of subjects-Includes all groups that may benefit but does not
single out one group
Q5) Plagiarism
Plagiarism means “the appropriation of another person’s ideas, processes, results, or words without
giving appropriate credit”
Plagiarism is stealing by using another person’s words or ideas
Plagiarism is academically dishonest because students, scholars, and faculty
members are expected to do their own work
Plagiarism means taking or using any of the following intellectual property without
permission or giving credit:
Plagiarism consists of the following
Words- copying more than 4-6 consecutive words, rearranging phrases, or paraphrasing
extensively
Ideas - using original information learned from conference presentations, confidential
reviews, etc.
Processes-adopting or using research methods described by another investigator, especially
when the research method is not common knowledge
Results -using or reporting data, figures, or tables that represent another investigator’s
research results
Plagiarism is specifically defined as a form of research misconduct
“Misconduct means fabrication, falsification, plagiarism, or any other practice that seriously
deviates from practices commonly accepted in the discipline or in the academic and research
communities generally in proposing, performing, reviewing, or reporting research and
creative activities.”
How to prevent plagiarism
Understand the difference between “common knowledge” and “original” ideas
Do the right thing, Follow your conscience, Give credit, mark direct
quotations, and use reference citations.
