SYLLABUS FOR CET

Computer Knowledge : Computer Basics: Organization of a computer, Central Processing Unit

(CPU), input/ output devices, computer memory, memory organization, back- up devices, PORTs,
Windows Explorer, Keyboard shortcuts, Windows Operating system including basics of Microsoft
Office like MS word, MS Excel and Power Point. Working with Internet and e mails: Web Browsing &
Searching, Downloading & Uploading, Managing an E-mail Account.
Part 1: Computer Fundamentals and
System Organization
This section covers the foundational concepts of computer systems, including their basic
organization, the central processing unit, various input and output devices, and the hierarchy of
computer memory. These questions align with the "Computer Basics" and "Organization of a
computer" components of the CET syllabus.

1 2

Organization of a Computer & CPU CPU Components

The fundamental architecture of a The CPU consists of the Control Unit (CU)
computer involves three stages: Input ³ which directs operations, and the
Process ³ Output. The System Unit houses Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) which performs
the computer's most critical components, mathematical and logical operations. The
including the CPU, motherboard, memory, Program Counter (PC) keeps track of the
and power supply. next instruction to be executed.

The CPU is often called the "brain" of the computer as it processes instructions, performs
calculations, and manages the flow of data. Modern CPUs operate at speeds measured in
Gigahertz (GHz), with higher numbers indicating faster processing capabilities.
Computer Types and Classifications
Types of Computers Based on Operation

Computers can be classified based on their Computers can also be classified based on
size, processing power, and purpose: how they process data:

Microcomputers: Personal devices like Digital Computers: Process discrete data

laptops, desktops, and tablets using binary (0s and 1s)
Minicomputers: Mid-range systems for Analog Computers: Process continuous
small businesses physical quantities (like a speedometer)
Mainframes: Large, powerful computers for Hybrid Computers: Combine features of
major organizations both digital and analog (like hospital
Supercomputers: Extremely powerful monitoring equipment)
systems for complex calculations

India's first supercomputer series, developed

in Pune, is known as Param.

The history of computers is often divided into generations based on the technology used. The first
fully electronic digital computer was ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer),
developed during World War II. Charles Babbage is credited as the "Father of the Computer" for his
concept of a programmable mechanical computer, the Analytical Engine.

The process of starting or restarting a computer is called booting. This can be a "Cold Boot"
(starting from a completely powered-off state) or a "Warm Boot" (restarting the OS without a power
cycle).
Input/Output (I/O) Devices
This section explores the vast array of peripheral devices used to interact with a computer, directly
addressing the syllabus requirements for "input/output devices" and "PORTS".

Input Devices Output Devices Specialized Devices

Devices that send data to a Devices that present Devices for specific
computer for processing: processed data to the user: applications:

Keyboard (with function, Monitor/Visual Display MICR (Magnetic Ink

modifier, and toggle Unit (VDU) Character Recognition)
keys) Printer (impact vs. non- for bank checks
Mouse, Trackball, impact) OMR (Optical Mark
Joystick Speakers Recognition) for multiple-
Scanner, Webcam choice forms
Projector
Microphone OCR (Optical Character
Recognition) for text
Touch screen (dual
scanning
function as input/output)
Barcode/QR code
readers

The quality of a printer's output is measured in DPI (Dots Per Inch), while its speed may be
measured in PPM (Pages Per Minute) or CPS (Characters Per Second) for dot matrix printers. The
distance between two adjacent pixels on a monitor screen is called the dot pitch, with smaller
values indicating sharper images.
Computer Memory and Storage
Primary Memory Secondary Storage Memory Hierarchy
RAM (Random Access Non-volatile storage for Organized by speed,
Memory) is volatile long-term data retention: capacity, and cost:
memory that loses data
Hard Disk Drives (HDD): Registers: Fastest,
when power is off. It serves
Magnetic storage smallest, inside CPU
as the computer's main
Solid State Drives Cache: Very fast, small,
working memory.
(SSD): Flash memory on or near CPU
ROM (Read-Only Memory) with no moving parts Main Memory (RAM):
is non-volatile and retains
Optical Media: CD- Fast, medium capacity
data when powered off.
ROM, CD-R (WORM), Secondary Storage:
Types include:
CD-RW, DVD, Blu-ray Slower, large capacity
PROM: Programmable USB Flash Drives:
once Portable storage using
EPROM: Erasable with flash memory
UV light
EEPROM: Electrically
erasable

The Universal Serial Bus (USB) is a standard interface for connecting a wide variety of peripherals
to a computer. IPv4 addresses are 32 bits in size, consisting of 4 numbers ranging from 0 to 255
separated by dots (e.g., [Link]).
Part 2: Operating Systems and
Windows Environment
Operating System Functions Types of User Interfaces

An operating system (OS) is the primary Operating systems provide different ways for
system software that manages computer users to interact:
hardware and software resources. Key
Command-Line Interface (CLI): Requires
functions include:
typed commands (e.g., MS-DOS)
Memory Management: Allocating and Graphical User Interface (GUI): Uses visual
deallocating memory space elements like icons and windows
Process Management: Controlling program Menu-Driven Interface: Presents options in
execution menus
File Management: Organizing and tracking Touch-Based Interface: Designed for
files touchscreens
Device Management: Controlling peripheral
devices
User Interface: Providing ways to interact
with the computer

In Windows, deleted files are temporarily stored in the Recycle Bin, from where they can be
restored or permanently deleted. Windows Explorer (now called File Explorer in recent versions) is
the file management application that provides a graphical interface for accessing and managing
files and folders.

The Shift + Delete keyboard shortcut is used to permanently delete a file in Windows, bypassing
the Recycle Bin.
Part 3: Microsoft Word

Basic Formatting Advanced Features Document Elements

MS Word provides various MS Word includes many Key structural elements in
text alignment options: advanced formatting and Word documents:
document features:
Left alignment Page breaks: Insert
(default): Ctrl + L Drop Cap: Creates a with Ctrl + Enter
Center alignment: Ctrl large capital letter at Sections: Divide
+E the beginning of a document into parts
paragraph with different
Right alignment: Ctrl +
R Mail Merge: Creates formatting
personalized letters Headers and footers:
Justify alignment: Ctrl
and labels from a Add recurring content
+J
template at top/bottom of pages
Word Wrap automatically
Styles: Predefined Citations &
moves text to the next line
formatting that can be Bibliography: Manage
when it reaches the right
applied consistently sources and references
margin.
Thesaurus: Finds
synonyms and
antonyms for selected
words

The Ctrl + Z shortcut is used to undo the last action in MS Word, while Ctrl + S is used to save the
document. A hanging indent is a paragraph format where all lines except the first are indented,
commonly used for bibliographies and reference lists.
Part 4: Microsoft Excel
Microsoft Excel is a powerful spreadsheet application used for data organization, calculation, and
analysis.

Basic Concepts Cell References

The fundamental structure of Excel includes: Different types of cell references in formulas:

Cell: The intersection of a row and column Relative: Changes when copied (e.g., A1)
(e.g., A1) Absolute: Doesn't change when copied
Formula: Begins with an equals sign (=) (e.g., $A$1)
Function: Predefined formulas like SUM(), Mixed: Partially fixed (e.g., $A1 or A$1)
MAX()
Example: =IF(A1>80, "Distinction", "Pass")
Workbook: The entire Excel file containing
checks if the value in A1 is greater than 80 and
worksheets
returns "Distinction" if true, "Pass" if false.
Worksheet: Individual spreadsheet within a
workbook

Excel includes many built-in functions for different purposes:

Mathematical: SUM(), AVERAGE(), MAX(), MIN()

Logical: IF(), AND(), OR(), NOT()
Date and Time: NOW(), TODAY(), DATE(), TIME()
Lookup: VLOOKUP(), HLOOKUP(), INDEX(), MATCH()
Text: CONCATENATE(), LEFT(), RIGHT(), MID()

Advanced features include PivotTables for data analysis, Goal Seek for finding specific input
values, and Data Validation for controlling what users can enter into cells.
Part 5: Microsoft PowerPoint
Slide Transitions Master Slides and Presentation Tools
and Animations Templates Features that help with
PowerPoint offers visual For consistent design delivering
effects to enhance throughout a presentations:
presentations: presentation:
Presenter View:
Transitions: Effects Slide Master: Shows notes and
that occur when Controls the overall upcoming slides on
moving from one design and layout of presenter's screen
slide to the next all slides Notes Pane: Adds
Animations: Effects Templates: Pre- speaker notes visible
applied to individual designed slide only to the presenter
objects within a slide layouts and themes Rehearse Timings:
Animation Painter: Themes: Consistent Practice and record
Copies animation color schemes and presentation timing
settings from one fonts Ctrl + M: Shortcut to
object to another create a new slide

PowerPoint is designed for creating visual presentations that combine text, graphics, audio, and
video elements. It allows for both linear presentations (slides in sequence) and interactive
presentations with hyperlinks and action buttons.
Part 6: Internet, Web, and Electronic
Mail
Web Fundamentals Email Protocols

Key concepts for understanding the World Different protocols serve different functions in
Wide Web: email systems:

URL (Uniform Resource Locator): The SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): For
address of a resource on the web sending email
HTTP/HTTPS: Protocols for transferring POP3 (Post Office Protocol): For retrieving
web pages email
HTML: The markup language used to IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol):
create web pages For syncing email across devices
Browser: Software used to access and
Email fields include:
display web pages
To: Primary recipients
CC (Carbon Copy): Additional visible
recipients
BCC (Blind Carbon Copy): Hidden
recipients

The internet operates on a client-server model. For email, your email client (like Outlook or Gmail)
uses SMTP to send your outgoing messages to the email server. The server then uses SMTP to
route the message to the recipient's server.

Web browsing involves navigating between websites, following hyperlinks, and searching for
information using search engines. Downloading is the process of transferring files from a remote
server to your local device, while uploading is transferring files from your device to a server.
Part 7: Number Systems and Digital
Logic
This section delves into the foundational mathematics of computing, including the binary, octal,
and hexadecimal number systems, and the basic logic gates that form the building blocks of digital
circuits.

Number Systems 1
Computers use different number
systems:

Binary (Base 2): Uses only 0 and 1 2 Logic Gates

Octal (Base 8): Uses digits 0-7 Basic building blocks of digital circuits:
Decimal (Base 10): Standard system
AND: Output is 1 only when all
using 0-9
inputs are 1
Hexadecimal (Base 16): Uses 0-9
OR: Output is 1 if any input is 1
and A-F
NOT: Inverts the input (1 becomes
Example: Binary 1101 = Decimal 13 0, 0 becomes 1)
NAND: Combination of NOT and
Binary Operations 3 AND

Common operations in binary: NOR: Combination of NOT and OR

XOR: Output is 1 if inputs are
1's Complement: Invert all bits (e.g.,
different
10110 ³ 01001)
2's Complement: 1's complement +
1
Binary Addition/Subtraction
Logical Operations (AND, OR, NOT)

ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) is a character encoding standard that
represents text in computers using numeric codes. A group of 4 bits is called a nibble, while a
group of 8 bits is a byte.
Part 8: Computer Networks and
Security
This part expands on connectivity and safety, covering network structures, protocols, and the
common threats that users and systems face online.

Network Types Network Topologies

Networks classified by geographical scope: Physical layouts of network connections:

LAN (Local Area Network): Limited area Bus: All devices connect to a single
like home or office cable
MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): City- Ring: Devices connect in a closed loop
sized area Star: All devices connect to a central
WAN (Wide Area Network): Large hub/switch
geographical area Mesh: Devices connect to multiple other
PAN (Personal Area Network): Very devices
small area around a person

Network Devices Security Threats

Hardware that enables network Common dangers to computer systems:
communication:
Virus: Self-replicating program that
Router: Connects different networks and attaches to other files
forwards packets Worm: Self-replicating program that
Switch: Connects devices on the same doesn't need a host
network Trojan Horse: Malware disguised as
Modem: Converts digital signals to legitimate software
analog and vice versa Phishing: Attempt to acquire sensitive
Firewall: Prevents unauthorized access information by masquerading as a
to/from a network trustworthy entity

TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is the foundational suite of

communication protocols used on the internet. TCP manages how data is broken into packets,
while IP handles addressing and routing those packets to their destination.
Part 9: Database Management Systems
(DBMS)
This section covers the essentials of how data is stored, organized, and retrieved in a structured
way using databases.

Database Concepts SQL Fundamentals

Key components and terminology: SQL (Structured Query Language) is the

standard language for managing relational
Table: Collection of related data in rows and
databases:
columns
Record (Row): Complete set of data for one SELECT: Retrieves data from tables
entity INSERT: Adds new records
Field (Column): Single piece of information UPDATE: Modifies existing records
Primary Key: Uniquely identifies each DELETE: Removes records
record CREATE: Makes new tables or databases
Foreign Key: Links tables together DROP: Deletes tables or databases
Schema: Overall description of the
database structure

Databases are organized collections of data that provide mechanisms for storing, retrieving, and
manipulating information. They are essential for applications that need to manage large amounts of
structured data, from simple address books to complex enterprise systems.

The relational database model, which organizes data into tables with relationships between them, is
the most common type of database. Other models include hierarchical, network, object-oriented,
and NoSQL databases.
Part 10: Advanced MS Office and
Shortcuts
Going beyond the basics, this section tests knowledge of more powerful features and efficiency-
boosting keyboard shortcuts in the Microsoft Office suite.

Excel Word PowerP&

Advanced Excel Word Productivity Presentation Power
Features The Thesaurus tool (Shift+F7) Presenter View shows your
PivotTables allow you to helps improve writing by slides on one monitor while
summarize, analyze, explore, providing alternative word your audience sees only the
and present large amounts of choices. Ctrl+Z undoes the last current slide on another.
data. All Excel formulas must action, while Ctrl+Enter inserts Ctrl+M creates a new slide in
begin with an equals sign (=). a page break. PowerPoint.
The CONCATENATE function
joins several text strings into
one.

Common keyboard shortcuts across Office applications include:

Ctrl + C Copy

Ctrl + V Paste

Ctrl + X Cut

Ctrl + Z Undo

Ctrl + Y Redo

Ctrl + S Save

Ctrl + P Print

Ctrl + F Find

These shortcuts significantly increase productivity by reducing the need to navigate through
menus and use the mouse for common tasks.
Part 11: History, Generations, and
Software Concepts
This part covers the evolution of computing technology and the fundamental difference between
the types of software that make a computer useful.

First Generation (1940s- 1

1950s)
Based on vacuum tube technology:

Large, expensive, and power- 2 Second Generation (1950s-

hungry 1960s)
Generated a lot of heat Transistors replaced vacuum tubes:
Limited storage capacity
Smaller, faster, and more reliable
Example: ENIAC (Electronic
Less heat generation
Numerical Integrator and
Assembly language programming
Computer)
Magnetic core memory

Third Generation (1960s- 3

1970s)
Integrated Circuits (ICs) era:

Multiple transistors on a single

silicon chip
Further reduction in size and cost 4 Fourth Generation (1970s-
Higher reliability and processing Present)
speed Microprocessor era:
High-level programming languages All CPU components on a single
chip
Fifth Generation (Present- 5 Personal computers became
Future) possible

Based on artificial intelligence: Graphical user interfaces

Parallel processing Networking and internet

Quantum computing
Machine learning and neural
networks
Natural language processing

Software is categorized into two main types:

System Software: Manages and controls the computer hardware (e.g., operating systems like
Part 12: Miscellaneous Computer
Knowledge

Computer Terminology System Utilities File Extensions

A 'bug' in a computer program The Windows Task Manager File extensions indicate the
refers to an error, flaw, or fault (accessed via Ctrl+Shift+Esc) format and purpose of files.
that causes it to produce provides information about For example, .html is for web
incorrect results or behave in running programs, processes, pages, .doc/.docx for Word
unintended ways. The term and system performance. It's documents, .exe for
originated when an actual commonly used to force-close executable programs, and .txt
moth was found trapped in a applications that are not for plain text files.
relay of the Harvard Mark II responding.
computer in 1947.

Computer memory and storage are measured in powers of 2:

1 Byte = 8 bits
1 Kilobyte (KB) = 1024 Bytes
1 Megabyte (MB) = 1024 KB
1 Gigabyte (GB) = 1024 MB
1 Terabyte (TB) = 1024 GB

Malware (malicious software) comes in various forms, including spyware, ransomware, and
adware. Firmware, on the other hand, is a specific class of computer software that provides low-
level control for a device's specific hardware.
Computer Components and
Characteristics
Core Components Computer Characteristics

The CPU (Central Processing Unit) is the brain Computers are characterized by:
of any computer system. It consists of:
Speed: Ability to process data quickly
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Performs Accuracy: Correctness of calculations
calculations
Diligence: Ability to work for long periods
Control Unit (CU): Directs operations without fatigue
Registers: High-speed storage locations Versatility: Ability to perform various tasks

The motherboard is the main circuit board that Storage Capacity: Ability to store large
connects all components. amounts of data

Unlike humans, computers do not possess I.Q.

or thinking capacity.

The trackball is an example of a pointing device used to control the cursor on a screen. It functions
like an upside-down mouse, allowing the user to move the ball with their fingers.

SMPS stands for Switch Mode Power Supply, an electronic power supply that incorporates a
switching regulator to convert electrical power efficiently. It is the standard power supply unit used
in modern personal computers.

The process of dividing a disk into tracks and sectors is called formatting. This prepares a data
storage device for initial use.
Part 13: Programming Fundamentals &
Languages
This section introduces basic programming concepts, the evolution of programming languages,
and the tools used to translate human-readable code into machine-executable instructions.

Programming Programming Language

Concepts Languages Translators
Fundamental elements of Languages classified by Tools that convert source
programming: level of abstraction: code to machine code:

Algorithm: A detailed, Low-level: Close to Compiler: Converts

step-by-step set of machine code (e.g., entire program before
instructions for Assembly Language) execution
solving a problem High-level: More Interpreter: Translates
Flowchart: A visual abstract, closer to and executes line by
representation of an human language (e.g., line
algorithm using Python, Java, C++) Assembler: Translates
standardized symbols Special-purpose: assembly language to
Pseudocode: An Designed for specific machine code
informal description of applications (e.g.,
an algorithm using a PROLOG for artificial
mix of natural intelligence)
language and
programming
constructs
Program: A set of
instructions that tells a
computer what to do

Debugging is the process of finding and fixing errors in a program's source code. It is a critical part
of the software development process where a programmer identifies and removes "bugs" that
prevent the program from functioning correctly.

In Object-Oriented Programming (OOP), encapsulation is the concept of bundling data and

methods that operate on the data into a single unit or "class." This protects the data from outside
interference and misuse.

In a standard flowchart, a diamond shape is used to indicate a decision point, where the flow of
logic can branch based on a "Yes/No" or "True/False" condition.
Part 14: Advanced Computer Networks
& Internet
This part explores the layered architecture of networks, specific protocols, and the infrastructure of
the internet.

Application Layer (7)

Provides network services to applications (HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS)

Presentation Layer (6)

Translates, encrypts, and compresses data

Session Layer (5)

Establishes, manages, and terminates connections

Transport Layer (4)

End-to-end data transfer (TCP, UDP)

Network Layer (3)

Routing and forwarding data packets (IP)

Data Link Layer (2)

Node-to-node data transfer, error detection

Physical Layer (1)

Transmission of raw bit stream over physical
medium

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model is a conceptual framework that standardizes the
functions of a telecommunication or computing system in seven distinct layers. The Network Layer
(Layer 3) is responsible for routing and forwarding data packets between different networks.

UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is a connectionless protocol that offers faster but less reliable data
transmission compared to TCP (Transmission Control Protocol). DNS (Domain Name System)
translates human-readable domain names into machine-readable IP addresses.

HTTPS differs from HTTP by encrypting the data exchanged between the browser and the website
using SSL (Secure Sockets Layer) or TLS (Transport Layer Security) protocols.
Part 15: Software Concepts and Types
This section differentiates between various categories of software, from operating systems to the
applications users interact with daily.

System Software
Manages hardware and Application Software
provides platform for
Performs specific tasks for
applications:
users:
Operating Systems
Productivity (Word,
(Windows, Linux, macOS)
Excel, PowerPoint)
Device Drivers
Web Browsers
Firmware (software
Graphics and Multimedia
stored in hardware
devices) Games and
2
Entertainment
Utility Programs (disk
defragmenters, antivirus)

Distribution Models
How software is licensed
Programming Software
and distributed: Tools for creating other
software:
Commercial Software
(paid) Compilers and
Freeware (free but closed Interpreters
source) Integrated Development
Shareware (try before Environments (IDEs)
you buy) Debuggers
Open Source (source Code Editors
code available)

Firmware is software that is permanently stored in a hardware device, such as on a ROM chip. It
provides low-level control for a device's hardware. The BIOS of a computer is a prime example of
firmware.

Utility software is a type of system software designed to help analyze, configure, optimize, or
maintain a computer. Antivirus programs, disk defragmenters, and backup software are all
examples of utilities.
Part 16: Specific Features in MS Office
This part tests knowledge on specific, powerful tools within Word, Excel, and PowerPoint that go
beyond basic functions.

Excel Advanced Functions Word and PowerPoint Features

Powerful tools for data analysis and lookup: Advanced document and presentation tools:

VLOOKUP: Searches for a value in the first Styles: Define formatting characteristics
column of a table and returns a and apply them with a single click
corresponding value Track Changes: Mark and display all edits
HLOOKUP: Similar to VLOOKUP but made to a document
searches horizontally Non-breaking space: Prevents line breaks
INDEX/MATCH: More flexible alternative to within specific phrases
VLOOKUP Custom Animation: Controls how objects
IFERROR: Handles errors in formulas by appear, behave, and exit slides
displaying custom messages

The ##### error in a cell indicates that the

column is not wide enough to display the
content.

In MS Excel, Data Validation is a feature that allows you to control what users can enter into a cell.
You can set rules to restrict input to a list of items, a range of numbers, a date range, or a specific
text length.

In MS PowerPoint, Presenter View is a powerful feature for delivering presentations. It lets the
speaker see the current slide, the next slide, speaker notes, and a timer on their screen, while the
audience only sees the main slide show.
Part 17: Data Communication and
Storage Devices
1 2

Data Communication Modes Storage Technologies

Different ways data can flow between Different methods for storing digital data:
devices:
Magnetic Storage: HDDs, magnetic tape
Simplex: One-way communication only Optical Storage: CDs, DVDs, Blu-ray
(e.g., radio broadcast) Discs
Half-Duplex: Two-way communication, Solid State Storage: SSDs, USB flash
but only one direction at a time (e.g., drives
walkie-talkie)
Cloud Storage: Remote servers
Full-Duplex: Simultaneous two-way accessed via internet
communication (e.g., telephone call)

3 4

Network Devices Connection Ports

Hardware that enables network Physical interfaces for connecting devices:
communication:
USB: Universal connection for
Switch: Connects devices and forwards peripherals
data based on MAC addresses HDMI: High-definition video and audio
Router: Connects networks and VGA: Analog video connection
forwards packets based on IP
Ethernet: Wired network connection
addresses
Modem: Converts digital signals to
analog and vice versa
Repeater: Regenerates signals to extend
network range

Solid State Drives (SSDs) offer several advantages over traditional Hard Disk Drives (HDDs),
including faster data access speeds, greater durability due to no moving parts, lower power
consumption, and silent operation. However, HDDs typically offer lower cost per gigabyte and
higher maximum storage capacities.
Part 18: Cybersecurity and Threats
Malware Types Attack Methods Security Measures
Different forms of Common techniques used Protections against cyber
malicious software: by attackers: threats:

Virus: Attaches to other Phishing: Deceptive Firewall: Blocks

programs to spread emails to steal unauthorized access
Worm: Self-replicates information Antivirus: Detects and
without a host file Pharming: Redirecting removes malware
Trojan Horse: Disguised to fake websites Encryption: Secures
as legitimate software Man-in-the-Middle: data from interception
Ransomware: Encrypts Intercepting Digital Signatures:
files and demands communications Ensures authenticity
payment Denial-of-Service: and integrity
Spyware: Secretly Overwhelming systems Two-Factor
monitors user activity with traffic Authentication: Adds
security layer

A digital signature is a cryptographic mechanism that serves two main purposes: Authenticity
(verifying that the sender is who they claim to be) and Integrity (ensuring the message has not
been altered in transit).

When using public Wi-Fi networks, there is a risk that your data could be intercepted by attackers
on the same network. Using a VPN (Virtual Private Network) creates a secure, encrypted "tunnel"
for your data, enhancing privacy and security.
Part 19: General and Emerging
Technologies
Cloud Computing
The on-demand availability of
Internet of Things (IoT) computer system resources,
A network of physical objects especially data storage and
embedded with sensors, computing power, without direct
software, and other active management by the user.
technologies to connect and Services like Google Drive,
exchange data over the OneDrive, and Dropbox provide
Internet. Examples include cloud storage.
smart home devices, wearable
fitness trackers, and industrial Artificial Intelligence
sensors. The simulation of human
intelligence in machines
programmed to think and
learn. The Blue Brain
Project is a Swiss research
initiative that aims to create
a digital reconstruction of
Blockchain the brain.
A distributed, immutable ledger
technology that securely Mobile Computing
records transactions across Technology that allows
many computers. Best known transmission of data via a
as the technology behind computer without having to be
cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin. connected to a fixed physical
link. This includes smartphones,
tablets, and laptops with
wireless capabilities.

Other important concepts and terminology:

CC in email stands for Carbon Copy, which means that those addresses will receive a copy of
the message
A bit is the smallest unit of data in a computer, short for binary digit (0 or 1)
The printed output from a computer is called a hard copy
A GUI (Graphical User Interface) allows users to interact with electronic devices through
graphical icons and visual indicators
Internet Browsers and Online Security
Web Browsers Online Security Concerns

Software applications used to access Threats to be aware of when using the

information on the World Wide Web: internet:

Google Chrome Keyloggers: Spyware that records

Mozilla Firefox keystrokes to steal passwords

Microsoft Edge Phishing: Fraudulent attempts to obtain

sensitive information
Safari
Identity theft: Unauthorized use of personal
Opera
information
Brave
Data breaches: Unauthorized access to
TOR (for anonymous browsing)
databases
Tinder is a social networking and dating
VPN (Virtual Private Network) creates a secure
application, not a web browser.
connection over a public network, enhancing
privacy and security.

In a URL (Uniform Resource Locator), different parts serve different functions:

Protocol (e.g., [Link] Specifies how data should be transferred

Domain name (e.g., [Link]): The website address
Top-level domain (e.g., .com, .org, .edu): Indicates the type of entity
Path (e.g., /page): Specific location on the website

The ".com" top-level domain typically represents a commercial organization, while ".org" was
originally intended for non-profit organizations, ".edu" for educational institutions, and ".gov" for
government agencies.
Computer Memory and Storage
Concepts

Registers
1 Fastest, smallest memory inside CPU

Cache Memory
2
Very fast SRAM between CPU and main memory

Main Memory (RAM)

3
Volatile memory for active programs and data

Secondary Storage
4 Non-volatile storage for long-term data (HDDs,
SSDs)

Tertiary Storage
5 Removable media and offline storage (optical
discs, tapes)

RAM (Random Access Memory) is a volatile memory, meaning its contents are lost when the
computer is powered off. The main memory of a computer is also known as primary storage
because it is the only storage that the CPU can access directly.

The capacity of a hard drive is measured in gigabytes (GB) or terabytes (TB), while memory units
follow a binary progression:

1 Byte = 8 bits
1 Kilobyte (KB) = 1024 Bytes
1 Megabyte (MB) = 1024 KB
1 Gigabyte (GB) = 1024 MB
1 Terabyte (TB) = 1024 GB

Cache memory is typically made of Static RAM (SRAM) because it is much faster than Dynamic
RAM (DRAM), which is used for the main memory. SRAM doesn't need to be refreshed, making it
quicker but more expensive per unit of storage.
Operating Systems and Software Types

Operating System Operating System Software Categories

Functions Examples Different types of
Core responsibilities of an Common OS platforms: software based on
OS: purpose:
Windows (Microsoft)
Memory Management macOS (Apple) System Software: OS,
Process Management drivers, utilities
Linux (Open Source)
File Management Application Software:
Android (Google,
Word processors,
Device Management Open Source)
browsers
User Interface iOS (Apple)
Programming
Database Management is Software: Compilers,
NOT a function of the OS IDEs
but is handled by
Based on distribution
specialized software
model:
(DBMS).
Commercial Software:
Paid with license
Freeware: Free but
closed source
Open Source: Source
code available
Shareware: Try before
buying

Safe Mode is a diagnostic mode in operating systems like Windows. It starts the OS in a basic state,
using a limited set of files and drivers, for troubleshooting purposes. This is useful when the
system is having problems starting or is unstable.

Software piracy is the unauthorized copying and distribution of software. It is a form of copyright
infringement and is illegal in most countries.
File Systems and Data Representation
This section covers how operating systems manage data on storage devices and the different ways
data can be encoded.

File Systems Data Representation

Methods for organizing and storing files on Methods for encoding different types of data:
storage media:
ASCII: 7-bit character encoding for English
NTFS: Default for modern Windows, offers text
security and large file support EBCDIC: 8-bit encoding developed by IBM
FAT32: Older Windows system, limited to for mainframes
4GB files Unicode: Comprehensive encoding for
exFAT: Extended FAT, for flash drives and characters from all languages
cross-platform use Image formats: JPEG (lossy), PNG
HFS+: Used by older macOS systems (lossless), GIF (limited colors with
APFS: Apple's newer file system optimized animation)
for SSDs Audio formats: MP3, WAV, FLAC
ext4: Common in Linux systems Video formats: MP4, AVI, MOV

The primary advantage of Unicode over ASCII is that it can represent characters from virtually all
languages in the world. While ASCII is limited to 128 (or 256 in extended versions) characters,
primarily for English, Unicode provides a unique code point for every character, regardless of the
platform, program, or language.

File formats serve different purposes. For example, PNG supports lossless compression and
transparency, making it ideal for logos and line drawings, while JPEG uses lossy compression that
works well for photographs.
Advanced Operating System Concepts
This part delves deeper into how operating systems handle multitasking, memory, and user
interaction.

Multitasking and Process Memory Management

Management Virtual memory is a technique where an
Multitasking is the OS feature that allows OS uses a portion of the hard drive (a
a computer to run multiple programs swap file or page file) as an extension of
concurrently by switching rapidly RAM. This allows a computer to run
between them. A process is a program in larger programs or more programs at
execution, with its own memory space once than its physical RAM would
and resources. The OS allocates small normally allow. When RAM fills up, less
slices of CPU time to each process in frequently used data is moved to the
turn, creating the illusion of simultaneous swap file.
execution.

Disk Management Advanced System Tools

Defragmentation is the process of PowerShell is a modern, powerful
arranging data on a hard drive into command-line shell and scripting
contiguous blocks to improve access language for Windows. It provides far
speed. Over time, parts of a file can more control and automation capabilities
become scattered across different than the traditional Command Prompt
physical locations on a disk ([Link]). It's built on the .NET
(fragmented). Defragmentation framework and can interact directly with
reorganizes these parts, reducing the Windows components.
time needed to read data.

The BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) is firmware stored on a chip on the motherboard. When you
turn on your PC, the BIOS is the first software to run. Its primary job is to perform a Power-On Self-
Test (POST) and then find and load the operating system from a storage device.
Deeper Dive into MS Office &
Productivity
This section explores more complex functions and features within the Microsoft Office suite.

Excel Advanced Analysis Word Document Structure

Excel includes powerful tools for data analysis: Advanced document organization features:

Goal Seek: Finds the specific input value Styles: Define formatting for consistent
required to achieve a desired result in a appearance
formula Outline View: Organize document by
Scenario Manager: Compares multiple sets headings
of input values Master Documents: Combine multiple
Solver: Finds optimal solutions for complex documents
problems Cross-references: Link to other parts of the
Data Tables: Shows how changing inputs document
affects results
The Gutter margin is extra space added to the
The COUNTA function counts the number of side or top of a document that is intended to
cells in a range that are not empty, including be bound, ensuring no text is obscured by the
text, numbers, and errors. binding.

In MS Access, a Form is primarily used for displaying and entering data into tables in a user-
friendly way. While tables store the data, forms provide a graphical interface for users to view,
enter, and edit data in the tables.

In MS PowerPoint, the Notes Pane is used to add speaker notes that are visible to the presenter
during the slide show but not to the audience. This allows the speaker to have reminders, talking
points, or a full script for each slide.

The Freeze Panes feature in Excel keeps specific rows and columns visible while you scroll through
the rest of the worksheet. This is essential for working with large datasets, allowing headers to
remain visible as you navigate through the data.
Network Security and Cryptography
This part focuses on the methods used to secure data and communications over networks.

1 2

Encryption Methods Security Techniques

Techniques for securing data: Methods to protect information:

Symmetric Encryption: Same key for Steganography: Hiding a message

encryption and decryption (e.g., AES) within another message or file
Asymmetric Encryption: Public and Digital Signatures: Verify sender identity
private key pairs (e.g., RSA) and message integrity
Hashing: Creates fixed-size string from SSL/TLS: Protocols for secure web
data to verify integrity (not reversible) communications
Two-Factor Authentication: Requires
two forms of identification

3 4

Network Security Attack Types

Protecting network communications: Common network security threats:

Firewalls: Filter network traffic based on Man-in-the-Middle: Intercepting

rules communications between parties
Stateful Inspection: Monitors active Denial-of-Service: Overwhelming
connections for context systems with traffic
Intrusion Detection Systems: Identify Phishing: Deceptive attempts to steal
suspicious activities information
VPN: Creates secure tunnel through Brute Force: Trying all possible
public networks combinations to crack passwords

Cookies are small text files that websites store on your computer to remember stateful information
(like items in a shopping cart) or to record your browsing activity. They are essential for many web
functions but can also raise privacy concerns.

When using public Wi-Fi networks, your data could be intercepted by attackers on the same
network. Using a VPN encrypts your connection, protecting your sensitive information from
eavesdropping.
Miscellaneous and Emerging Topics

HTML5 Features Device Drivers QR Codes

HTML5 introduced many new A device driver is software that QR (Quick Response) Code is a
capabilities to web manages communication type of matrix barcode that
development, including native between the operating system can be read easily by a digital
support for audio and video and a hardware device. It acts device. It stores information as
tags, new semantic elements as a translator, converting a series of pixels in a square
like header and footer, and the generic commands from the grid and is used for its fast
canvas element for drawing OS into specific instructions readability and large storage
graphics. Unlike earlier web that the particular hardware capacity compared to standard
standards, it does not include device understands. barcodes.
built-in support for Flash
animations.

A hotspot in the context of mobile computing is a physical location offering Wi-Fi access. Mobile
phones can also create personal hotspots to share their cellular data connection with other
devices.

Cloud storage services provide remote file storage accessible via the internet. Examples include:

Google Drive (from Google)

OneDrive (from Microsoft)
iCloud (from Apple)
Dropbox (from Dropbox, Inc.)

The term 'blog' is a portmanteau of "web log," referring to a journal or diary maintained on the
World Wide Web.
Computer Hardware Components

CPU Components Motherboard Storage Devices

The Central Processing The main circuit board Different technologies for
Unit consists of: that connects all data storage:
components:
Control Unit (CU): HDD: Uses spinning
Fetches and decodes CPU Socket: Holds the platters and magnetic
instructions, directs processor storage
operations RAM Slots: For SSD: Uses flash
Arithmetic Logic Unit memory modules memory with no
(ALU): Performs Expansion Slots: For moving parts
mathematical and additional cards Optical Drives: Read
logical operations discs with lasers (CD,
CMOS Battery:
Registers: High-speed Powers the real-time DVD, Blu-ray)
storage locations clock and stores BIOS USB Flash Drives:
within the CPU settings Portable storage using
Cache: Fast memory Chipset: Controls flash memory
for frequently communication
accessed data between components
The CPU's internal clock
speed is measured in GHz
(Gigahertz).

A Trojan Horse is malware disguised as legitimate software. Named after the Greek story, it appears
useful but actually causes damage when installed or run on your computer. Unlike viruses and
worms, Trojans do not replicate themselves.

Hot-swapping is the ability to replace a component while the computer system is running, without
shutting it down. This is a crucial feature for servers and systems that need to run continuously.
USB devices are a common example of hot-swappable hardware.
Networking and Internet Concepts
Internet Service Providers Network and Web Technologies

ISP (Internet Service Provider) is a company Key concepts in networking and web
that provides individuals and organizations development:
with access to the Internet and other related
IP Address: Unique identifier for devices on
services. They serve as the gateway between
a network (e.g., [Link])
users and the global internet infrastructure.
Domain Name System (DNS): Translates
Different connection types include: domain names to IP addresses

DSL: Uses telephone lines JavaScript: Client-side scripting language

for interactive web pages
Cable: Uses cable television infrastructure
VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol):
Fiber: Uses optical fiber for high speeds
Technology for making voice calls over the
Satellite: Wireless connection via satellites
internet
Mobile: Uses cellular networks
Network Topology: Physical layout of
computers and devices in a network

An IPv4 address is composed of four octets, and the value of each octet must be between 0 and
255. Therefore, [Link] is not a valid IP address because 256 exceeds the maximum value of 255.

In a relational database, a foreign key is a field (or collection of fields) in one table that refers to the
PRIMARY KEY in another table. This creates the relationship between the two tables, allowing data
to be linked across multiple tables.

The modulation process converts digital signals to analog signals, allowing digital data to be
transmitted over analog communication channels like traditional phone lines.
File Formats and Software
Development
Common File Graphics and Display Programming
Extensions Key concepts in digital
Concepts
Different file types are imaging: Fundamental elements in
identified by their software development:
Pixel: Smallest
extensions:
addressable element in Variable: Named storage
.docx: Microsoft Word a display or image location for data that
document Resolution: Number of can change
.xlsx: Microsoft Excel pixels in an image (e.g., Function: Set of
spreadsheet 1920x1080) instructions that perform
.pptx: Microsoft DPI: Dots Per Inch, a specific task
PowerPoint presentation measure of print Algorithm: Step-by-step
.pdf: Portable Document resolution procedure for solving a
Format Vector vs. Raster: Vector problem

.jpg/.jpeg: Compressed uses mathematical Syntax Error: Mistake in

image format equations, raster uses the language's structure
pixels Logic Error: Bug that
.png: Portable Network
Graphics image SVG: Scalable Vector causes incorrect results
Graphics format Runtime Error: Error that
.mp3: Compressed
audio format Refresh Rate: Number of occurs during execution
times per second a Debugging: Process of
.mp4: Video format
display redraws finding and fixing errors
.html: Web page
(measured in Hz)
document

In typography, serif fonts have small decorative lines (serifs) at the ends of strokes, while sans-
serif fonts do not. Fonts like Times New Roman are serif fonts, traditionally used for long passages
of text in print. Fonts like Arial and Helvetica are sans-serif, often seen as cleaner and more
modern.

Adobe developed PostScript in the early 1980s. It is a page description language that describes the
appearance of a printed page and was instrumental in the desktop publishing revolution.
Computer Security and Privacy

Security Threats Protection Measures Privacy

Common dangers to Tools and techniques to
Considerations
computer systems: enhance security: Aspects of digital privacy:

Malware: Malicious Antivirus Software: Digital Footprint:

software designed to Detects and removes Traces left online from
harm systems malware activities
Phishing: Fraudulent Firewall: Blocks Cookies: Small files
attempts to obtain unauthorized access stored by websites to
sensitive information VPN: Creates secure track activity

Denial-of-Service connection over public Data Encryption:

(DoS): Attacks that networks Protecting information
make resources Two-Factor from unauthorized
unavailable Authentication: access
Man-in-the-Middle: Requires two forms of Privacy Settings:
Intercepting identification Controls for sharing
communications Regular Updates: personal information
Brute Force: Trying all Patches security Incognito/Private
possible combinations vulnerabilities Browsing: Reduces
to crack passwords tracking of online
activity

A CAPTCHA (Completely Automated Public Turing test to tell Computers and Humans Apart) is a
challenge-response test used to determine whether the user is human or a bot. It helps prevent
automated software from performing actions like submitting forms or creating accounts.

Biometric input devices, such as fingerprint scanners, use unique physical characteristics for
identification and authentication. Other examples include facial recognition systems, iris scanners,
and voice recognition technology.

The Windows Key + L keyboard shortcut is used to lock the screen in Windows, requiring a
password to regain access. This is a quick security measure when stepping away from your
computer.
E-Commerce and Digital Economy
E-commerce refers to buying and selling of goods or services using the internet. It encompasses
online retail, electronic funds transfer, online auctions, and business-to-business transactions.

Digital Payments
Electronic methods for
Online Shopping transferring money,
Retail websites and including credit cards, digital
marketplaces where wallets, and
consumers purchase cryptocurrencies.
products directly.
Logistics
Systems for order
fulfillment, shipping, and
delivery of physical goods
Digital Marketing purchased online.
Promotion of products and
services through online Customer Service
channels, including social Support systems including
media and email. chatbots, email support, and
online help centers.

The first email was sent by computer engineer Ray Tomlinson in 1971. He is credited with inventing
the email system on the ARPANET and for using the "@" symbol to separate the user name from
the computer name.

A website is a collection of publicly accessible, interlinked web pages that share a single domain
name. The components of a web ecosystem include:

Web Browser: Software used to access websites (e.g., Chrome, Firefox)

Web Server: Computer that hosts websites and serves content to users
Search Engine: Tool to find websites and information (e.g., Google, Bing)
Content Management System: Software to create and manage website content
Practical Troubleshooting and System
Utilities
This section presents scenario-based questions that test practical problem-solving skills using
common system tools.

Performance Disk Management Network Diagnostics

Monitoring If a new external hard To test network
When a Windows PC drive is not showing up in connectivity, the ping
becomes extremely slow, File Explorer, it might not command sends test
the Task Manager is the have been assigned a packets to a specified
primary tool for drive letter. The Disk address. The -t switch
diagnosing the problem. Management utility allows modifies the command to
By sorting processes by you to view connected ping continuously until
CPU, Memory, or Disk disks and manage their manually stopped (e.g.,
usage, you can identify partitions and drive ping -t [Link] to test
which application is letters. connection to Google's
causing the slowdown DNS server).
Access Disk Management
and end the process if
by right-clicking the Start Other useful network
necessary.
button and selecting commands include:
Access Task Manager "Disk Management" or by
ipconfig: Displays IP
with Ctrl+Shift+Esc or by typing "[Link]" in
configuration
right-clicking the taskbar the Run dialog.
tracert: Shows the
and selecting "Task
route packets take
Manager."
netstat: Displays
network connections

The ipconfig /all command displays detailed network configuration information, including the
Physical Address (MAC address), which is the unique hardware identifier for the network card. This
address is often required when registering devices on secure networks.
Comparative Technology Analysis
This part requires a deeper understanding by comparing and contrasting related technologies.

Network Devices: Hub vs. Switch Image Formats: JPG vs. PNG

A hub is a simple, unintelligent device that JPG uses lossy compression, making it ideal
operates at Layer 1 of the OSI model. When it for photographs with millions of colors. It
receives data, it broadcasts it to all connected produces smaller file sizes but loses some
devices, creating unnecessary traffic and quality each time it's saved.
potential collisions.
PNG uses lossless compression and supports
A switch is more intelligent (Layer 2) and transparency. It's best for images with text,
learns the MAC addresses of connected line art, or areas of solid color, and when a
devices. It directs traffic only to the specific transparent background is needed.
port of the intended recipient, making it more
efficient and secure.

Storage comparison: SSD vs. HDD

Speed Much faster (especially for Slower due to mechanical

random access) parts

Durability More durable (no moving More susceptible to physical

parts) damage

Cost Higher cost per GB Lower cost per GB

Capacity Generally smaller maximum Larger maximum capacities

sizes available

Power Usage Lower power consumption Higher power consumption

The CPU cache is a small amount of extremely fast memory located on or very near the CPU, used
to store frequently accessed data from RAM. It acts as a high-speed buffer between the CPU and
the main RAM, significantly reducing the time the CPU has to wait for data and thus speeding up
the entire system.
Software Development and Database
Nuances
This section explores the software creation process and more specific database concepts.

Requirements Analysis 1
Gathering and documenting the
customer's needs and constraints for
the software.
2 Design
Creating the architecture, interfaces,
and components based on the
Implementation 3 requirements.
Writing the actual code according to
the design specifications.
4 Testing
Verifying that the software meets
requirements and finding defects
Deployment 5 through systematic examination.
Releasing the software to users and
installing it in the target environment.
6 Maintenance
Modifying and updating the software
after delivery to correct faults and
improve performance.

In database design, a Primary Key is a column (or set of columns) in a table that uniquely identifies
each row. It must contain a unique value for each record and cannot contain null (blank) values.
This makes it perfect for implementing a unique customer ID that cannot be left blank.

The difference between Data and Information:

Data refers to raw, unorganized facts and figures (e.g., the number 192)
Information is data that has been processed, organized, and given context to make it meaningful
(e.g., "The student's test score is 92")

In a database query, the GROUP BY clause is used with aggregate functions (like COUNT, SUM,
AVG) to collect data across multiple records and group the results by one or more columns. For
example, it could be used to find the number of customers in each city or the total sales per region.
Cybersecurity and Real-World
Scenarios
This part presents security concepts in the context of practical examples.

Phishing Attacks Two-Factor Public Wi-Fi Risks

An email with the subject
Authentication The primary risk of using
"Urgent: Your Bank Enabling a feature that unsecured public Wi-Fi
Account Has Been requires both your networks is that your data
Locked" asking you to password and a one-time could be intercepted by
click a link and enter login code sent to your phone is attackers on the same
details is a classic called Two-Factor network. On unencrypted
phishing attempt. These Authentication (2FA). This networks, sensitive
social engineering attacks significantly increases information like passwords
use deceptive emails and security by requiring two and credit card details can
websites to trick victims different types of proof of be captured by anyone
into revealing sensitive identity: using sniffing tools.
information.
Something you know Protection measures
Warning signs include: (password) include:

Sense of urgency Something you have Using a VPN

(phone)
Request for personal Avoiding sensitive
information Something you are transactions
(biometrics, in some
Suspicious sender Verifying HTTPS
systems)
address connections
Generic greeting Disabling auto-connect
Poor grammar or features
spelling

A cookie is a small text file that a website stores on your computer to remember your preferences,
login status, or shopping cart items. While cookies are essential for many web functions, they can
also raise privacy concerns as they can be used to track your browsing habits.
More Miscellaneous & Application
Knowledge

CMOS Battery Bitrate Typography

The CMOS battery on a Bitrate refers to the number of Serif fonts have small
computer's motherboard is a bits that are processed or decorative lines (serifs) at the
small, coin-cell battery that transmitted per unit of time, ends of strokes, while sans-
provides a constant power typically expressed in bits per serif fonts do not. Fonts like
source to the CMOS chip. This second (bps), kilobits per Times New Roman are serif
allows the system to keep second (kbps), or megabits per fonts, traditionally used for
track of the date and time and second (Mbps). In audio and long passages of text in print.
to retain critical hardware video files, a higher bitrate Fonts like Arial and Helvetica
settings (like boot order) even generally corresponds to are sans-serif, often seen as
when the main power is higher quality and a larger file cleaner and more modern.
disconnected. size.

Hot-swapping is the ability to replace a component while the computer system is running, without
shutting it down. This is a crucial feature for servers and systems that need to run continuously.
USB devices are a common example of hot-swappable hardware.

A pixel is the smallest addressable element in a raster image or on a display screen. A digital image
is a grid of thousands or millions of tiny dots of color, and each one of these dots is a pixel. The
resolution of a display or image is measured by its dimensions in pixels (e.g., 1920x1080).

The primary purpose of defragmenting a hard disk drive (HDD) is to organize the parts of files into
contiguous blocks, improving performance. As files are saved, edited, and deleted, parts of them
can end up in different physical locations on the drive's platters. This fragmentation slows down
access time because the read/write head has to move around to find all the pieces.
Domain Name System and Web
Technologies
The Domain Name System (DNS) is often compared to a phone book for the internet. Humans
remember names (like [Link]), but computers communicate using IP addresses (like
[Link]). DNS is the system that looks up the name you type and finds the corresponding
number.

User Types URL DNS Lookup

When you enter a web address like Your computer queries a DNS server to
[Link] in your browser, your translate the domain name into an IP address.
computer needs to find the corresponding IP This may involve multiple servers in a
address. hierarchy.

Server Connection Page Rendering

Once the IP address is known, your browser The server sends the requested files (HTML,
connects to the web server at that address CSS, JavaScript, images), and your browser
and requests the webpage. renders them into the webpage you see.

Client-side vs. Server-side scripting:

Client-side scripting (e.g., JavaScript) runs in the user's web browser, making pages interactive
without requiring server communication for every action
Server-side scripting (e.g., PHP, Python, Java) runs on the web server, processing data before
sending it to the browser

Open-source software is defined by the availability of its source code to the public to use, modify,
and distribute. While it is often free of charge, this is not a requirement. The freedom to view,
change, and distribute the code is the defining characteristic.
Computer Security Threats
A Denial-of-Service (DoS) attack is designed to make a machine or network resource unavailable to
its intended users. It accomplishes this by overwhelming the target with a flood of traffic or sending
it information that triggers a crash.

Malware Types Attack Methods Protection Measures

Different forms of Common techniques Defenses against security
malicious software: used by attackers: threats:

Virus: Attaches to Phishing: Deceptive Antivirus Software:

other programs to emails to steal Detects and removes
spread information malware
Worm: Self-replicates Pharming: Redirecting Firewall: Blocks
without a host file to fake websites unauthorized access
Trojan Horse: Man-in-the-Middle: Regular Updates:
Disguised as Intercepting Patches security
legitimate software communications vulnerabilities
Ransomware: Denial-of-Service: Strong Passwords:
Encrypts files and Overwhelming Harder to crack with
demands payment systems with traffic brute force
Spyware: Secretly Brute Force: Trying all Two-Factor
monitors user activity possible combinations Authentication: Adds
Adware: Displays Social Engineering: security layer
unwanted Manipulating people Encryption: Protects
advertisements to divulge information data from interception
Keylogger: Records User Education:
keystrokes to steal Awareness of security
passwords best practices

Software piracy is the illegal copying and distribution of software. It is a form of copyright
infringement and can result in legal penalties. Types of piracy include:

End-user piracy: Using multiple copies with a single license

Client-server overuse: Exceeding the licensed number of users
Internet piracy: Downloading unauthorized software
Hard-disk loading: Installing unauthorized software on new computers
Counterfeiting: Creating fake copies of software for sale
Computer Generations and Evolution
First Generation (1940s- 1
1950s)
Based on vacuum tube technology:

Large, expensive, and power- 2 Second Generation (1950s-

hungry 1960s)
Generated a lot of heat Transistors replaced vacuum tubes:
Limited storage capacity
Smaller, faster, and more reliable
Example: ENIAC (Electronic
Less heat generation
Numerical Integrator and
Assembly language programming
Computer)
Magnetic core memory

Third Generation (1960s- 3

1970s)
Integrated Circuits (ICs) era:

Multiple transistors on a single

silicon chip
Further reduction in size and cost 4 Fourth Generation (1970s-
Higher reliability and processing Present)
speed Microprocessor era:
High-level programming languages All CPU components on a single
chip
Fifth Generation (Present- 5 Personal computers became
Future) possible

Based on artificial intelligence: Graphical user interfaces

Parallel processing Networking and internet

Quantum computing
Machine learning and neural
networks
Natural language processing

The development of the microprocessor led to the fourth generation of computers. The
microprocessor integrated all the components of a CPU onto a single chip, paving the way for
microcomputers and the personal computer revolution.

The fifth generation of computers is characterized by technological advancements in artificial

intelligence, quantum computing, and parallel processing. These computers are faster, more
efficient, and capable of learning and decision-making.
Internet History and Web Concepts
This section covers the origins of the internet and fundamental web technologies that have not
been detailed previously.

ARPANET (1969) 1
The original network that formed the
foundation of the modern Internet was
called ARPANET. It was commissioned
2 TCP/IP (1970s)
by the U.S. Department of Defense and
is the direct predecessor of the global The development of the TCP/IP

Internet. protocol suite by Vint Cerf and Robert

Kahn provided a standardized way for
computers to communicate across
World Wide Web (1989) 3 different networks.
Tim Berners-Lee invented the World
Wide Web while working at CERN. He
created HTTP, HTML, the first web
browser, and the first web server.
4 Commercial Internet (1990s)
The internet became commercially
available to the general public, leading
Modern Web (2000s-Present) 5 to rapid growth in users and websites.

The evolution of Web 2.0, social

media, mobile internet, and cloud
computing has transformed how we
use the internet.

A web server is a computer or software that stores website files and makes them available to users
on the Internet. When you enter a URL in your browser, you are sending a request to a web server.
Apache and Nginx are popular web server software.

The browser cache is a temporary storage area on your local computer. By saving static assets
from a website locally (like images and CSS), the browser doesn't have to re-download them every
time you visit the same site, which significantly improves page load times and reduces bandwidth
usage.
Deeper Dive into Network Protocols
and Hardware
This part explores more specific network hardware and the nuanced differences between common
protocols.

Email Protocols Network Devices Network Protocols

IMAP (Internet Message A gateway is a network DHCP (Dynamic Host
Access Protocol) has device that connects Configuration Protocol)
several advantages over networks using different automatically assigns an
POP3 (Post Office protocols, acting as a IP address to a device
Protocol 3): translator between them. when it connects to a
While a router connects network. When a device
Synchronizes emails
networks with the same joins, it sends a DHCP
across multiple
protocol (like IP to IP), a request, and a DHCP
devices
gateway can connect server leases it an IP
Leaves the master
dissimilar networks by address, subnet mask,
copy on the server
performing protocol default gateway, and DNS
Allows partial conversion. server information.
downloading of
messages
Supports folder
structures and
message flags

POP3 is designed to
download emails to a
single device and then
(usually) delete them
from the server.

The ping command is used to check the connectivity between two devices and measure the round-
trip time for messages. It sends an ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) "echo request"
packet to a target host and waits for an "echo reply." This is the most common tool used to test if a
host is reachable on a network and to get a rough idea of the latency between the two hosts.

Network communication modes:

Simplex: One-way communication only (e.g., radio broadcast)

Half-Duplex: Two-way communication, but only one direction at a time (e.g., walkie-talkie)
Full-Duplex: Simultaneous two-way communication (e.g., telephone call)
Advanced and Practical MS Office
Scenarios
This section tests knowledge of practical, real-world tasks within the Office suite that go beyond
basic feature definitions.

1 2

Excel Error Handling Word Bibliography Management

When a VLOOKUP formula returns #N/A To create a bibliography based on sources
when a value is not found, you can wrap it cited throughout a document, use the
in the IFERROR function to display a friendly Citations & Bibliography feature under the
message instead: References tab. This tool allows you to:

=IFERROR(VLOOKUP(...), "Not Found") Add sources to a master list

This will execute the VLOOKUP, and if it Insert citations in your text
results in any error (like #N/A), it will display Generate a formatted bibliography in
your custom message instead. various styles (APA, MLA, Chicago)

3 4

PowerPoint Slide Master Excel Freeze Panes

To ensure a company logo appears in the The Freeze Panes command keeps specific
same position on every slide (except the rows and columns visible while scrolling
title slide), insert it onto the Slide Master. through a large worksheet. This is essential
This controls the layout and background when working with large datasets, allowing
elements for all slides of a certain type, headers to remain visible as you navigate
ensuring perfect consistency and saving through the data.
time.

In Excel, if you want to refer to cell A1 in a different worksheet named "Data", the correct syntax
would be Data!A1. If the worksheet name contains spaces, it must be enclosed in single quotes
(e.g., 'My Data'!A1).

In Word, the Gutter margin is an extra margin space added to the side or top of a document that is
intended to be bound. This ensures that no text is obscured by the binding process when a
document is printed and bound.
Computer Ethics and Cyber Law
This section introduces fundamental concepts related to the responsible use of computers and the
legal framework surrounding digital activities.

Digital Footprint Intellectual Property

The trail, traces, or "footprints" that people Legal rights granted to creators of original
leave online as a result of their internet activity works:
are collectively known as a digital footprint. It
Copyright: Protects original works of
can be:
authorship (software, books, music)
Passive: Data collected without the user's Patent: Protects inventions and discoveries
knowledge (IP address, browsing history)
Trademark: Protects brands, logos, and
Active: Data the user intentionally shares slogans
(social media posts, comments)
Open-Source License: Allows free use,
Managing your digital footprint is important for modification, and distribution with certain
privacy and reputation. conditions

Hacktivism is the act of hacking into a computer system for politically or socially motivated
purposes. It is a portmanteau of "hacking" and "activism" and refers to the use of computer
hacking to promote a political agenda or social change.

In India, the primary legislation that deals with cybercrime and electronic commerce is the
Information Technology (IT) Act, 2000. It provides legal recognition for electronic transactions and
digital signatures and defines various cybercrimes, such as hacking and data theft, along with their
penalties.

Ethical considerations in computing include:

Privacy: Respecting personal information

Intellectual Property: Honoring creators' rights
Access: Ensuring equitable use of technology
Accuracy: Providing correct information
Security: Protecting systems and data
Emerging and Foundational
Technologies
Machine Learning
A subset of artificial intelligence
Blockchain that enables systems to learn
from data, identify patterns, and
A distributed, immutable ledger
make decisions with minimal
that records transactions across
human intervention. Instead of
many computers. Each block
being explicitly programmed,
contains a timestamp and a link
ML systems are trained on large
to the previous block, forming a
datasets and improve their
chain. This technology
performance over time.
underpins cryptocurrencies like
Bitcoin but has many other
potential applications in supply
Big Data
chain, voting systems, and Extremely large and
more. complex datasets that
cannot be easily managed
with traditional data-
processing tools. Big Data
is characterized by the
5 "Three Vs": Volume
(enormous amount),
Velocity (high-speed
Internet of Things generation), and Variety
A network of physical objects (different forms).
embedded with sensors,
software, and other Cloud Computing
technologies to connect and
The on-demand delivery of
exchange data with other
computing services4including
devices and systems over the
servers, storage, databases,
Internet. This includes
networking, and software4over
everything from smart home
the Internet. This model offers
devices to industrial sensors.
flexibility, scalability, and often
lower costs compared to
maintaining on-premises
infrastructure.

Quantum computing is an emerging field that uses quantum-mechanical phenomena such as

superposition and entanglement to perform computations. Quantum computers have the potential
to solve certain problems much faster than classical computers, particularly in areas like
cryptography, optimization, and simulation of quantum systems.

Edge computing is a distributed computing paradigm that brings computation and data storage
Video and Display Technologies
In the context of video resolution, 4K refers to a display with a horizontal resolution of
approximately 4,000 pixels. More specifically, it typically refers to a display resolution of 3840 x
2160 pixels. The name "4K" comes from the fact that the horizontal pixel count is close to 4,000.

Display Resolutions Display Technologies Display

Common screen Different screen
Characteristics
resolutions include: technologies: Important display
specifications:
HD (1280 x 720 pixels) LCD (Liquid Crystal
Full HD (1920 x 1080 Display) Refresh Rate: Number

pixels) LED (Light Emitting of times per second

Diode) the display redraws

2K (2560 x 1440
(measured in Hz)
pixels) OLED (Organic Light
Emitting Diode) Response Time: Time it
4K/Ultra HD (3840 x
takes for a pixel to
2160 pixels) QLED (Quantum Dot
change color
8K (7680 x 4320 LED)
(measured in
pixels) MicroLED
milliseconds)
Contrast Ratio:
Difference between the
brightest white and
darkest black
Color Gamut: Range of
colors a display can
produce

The refresh rate of a monitor, measured in Hertz (Hz), refers to the number of times per second the
display redraws the image on the screen. A higher refresh rate (e.g., 120Hz vs. 60Hz) results in
smoother motion, which is especially noticeable in fast-paced gaming and video.

Vector graphics (like SVG format) use mathematical equations to draw shapes and can be scaled to
any size without losing quality. This is in contrast to raster graphics (like JPG, PNG, GIF) which are
made of pixels and can become pixelated when enlarged.
Mobile and Wireless Technologies

Wi-Fi Bluetooth NFC

Wi-Fi is a wireless networking Bluetooth is a wireless Near Field Communication
technology that allows devices technology standard for (NFC) is a technology that
to communicate without direct exchanging data over short allows a wireless device to
cable connections. Despite distances using radio waves. establish a connection with
common belief, "Wi-Fi" is not It's commonly used for another device by simply
an acronym for "Wireless wireless headphones, touching them together or
Fidelity" - it was created as a speakers, keyboards, mice, bringing them into close
simple, catchy name to and other personal area proximity (typically 4 cm or
promote the technology, which network applications. less). It's commonly used for
is technically known by its IEEE contactless payments, data
standard number, 802.11. sharing, and pairing devices
quickly.

A hotspot in the context of mobile computing is a physical location offering Wi-Fi access. Mobile
phones can also create personal hotspots to share their cellular data connection with other
devices.

Mobile network generations:

1G: Analog cellular technology (voice only)

2G: Digital cellular technology (voice and text)
3G: Added mobile data and internet access
4G/LTE: Higher speed data, mobile broadband
5G: Extremely high speeds, low latency, massive device connectivity

VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol) is the technology used to make telephone calls over the Internet
instead of a regular phone line. Services like Skype, WhatsApp calls, and Google Voice all use VoIP
technology.
Computer Ports and Connectivity
1 2

USB Ports Video Ports

Universal Serial Bus ports connect a wide Connections for displays and monitors:
variety of peripherals:
VGA: Older analog video (blue, 15-pin)
USB Type-A: Traditional rectangular DVI: Digital video interface
connector
HDMI: Digital video and audio
USB Type-B: Square connector often
DisplayPort: High-performance digital
used for printers
display
USB Type-C: Newer, reversible oval
Thunderbolt: Combined data and
connector
display
Micro-USB: Small connector for mobile
devices

USB standards include 1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 3.1, and

3.2, with increasing data transfer speeds.

3 4

Network Ports Audio Ports

Connections for networking: Connections for sound:

Ethernet (RJ-45): Wired network 3.5mm Audio Jack: For headphones and
connection microphones
Modem (RJ-11): Traditional telephone Color coding: Green (output), Pink
line (microphone), Blue (line-in)
Digital audio: HDMI, Optical, Coaxial

The Parallel Port (also known as an LPT port) was traditionally used to connect printers. It could
send multiple bits of data simultaneously (in parallel), making it faster than the serial port for this
purpose.

A Serial Port transmits data one bit at a time, sequentially. While slower than parallel ports, it was
used for devices like older modems and mice that did not require high speed.

The Kensington Security Slot is a small, reinforced hole found on most portable electronic
equipment. You can attach a special cable lock to it to secure the device to an immovable object,
preventing theft.
Backup Devices and Data Protection

Portable Storage Network Storage Optical Media

Compact devices for data Storage accessible over a Disc-based storage read
backup and transfer: network: by lasers:

USB Flash Drive: Network Attached CD-ROM: Read-only

Small, portable device Storage (NAS): compact disc
using flash memory Dedicated storage CD-R: Recordable
External Hard Drive: device connected to a once (Write Once,
Larger capacity network Read Many)
storage in a portable Storage Area Network CD-RW: Rewritable
case (SAN): High- compact disc
Memory Card (SD performance network
DVD: Higher capacity
card): Small flash of storage devices
than CD
storage used in Cloud Storage:
Blu-ray: Highest
cameras and phones Remote servers
capacity optical disc
accessed via internet
(Google Drive,
OneDrive)

The primary purpose of making regular backups of your important data is to protect against data
loss. This safeguards against hardware failure, software corruption, malware, accidental deletion,
and other potential causes of data loss.

A backup is a copy of data created to be used in case the original data is lost or damaged. Different
backup strategies include:

Full Backup: Complete copy of all selected data

Incremental Backup: Backs up only what has changed since the last backup
Differential Backup: Backs up what has changed since the last full backup
Mirror Backup: Exact copy that reflects the current state of the source

Solid State Drives (SSDs) offer several advantages over traditional Hard Disk Drives (HDDs) for
backup, including faster data access speeds, greater durability due to no moving parts, lower
power consumption, and silent operation.
Computer Memory Hierarchy

Registers
1 Fastest, smallest memory inside CPU

Cache Memory
2
Very fast SRAM between CPU and main memory

Main Memory (RAM)

3
Volatile memory for active programs and data

Secondary Storage
4 Non-volatile storage for long-term data (HDDs,
SSDs)

Tertiary Storage
5 Removable media and offline storage (optical
discs, tapes)

Cache memory is typically made of Static RAM (SRAM) because it is much faster than Dynamic
RAM (DRAM), which is used for the main memory. SRAM doesn't need to be refreshed, making it
quicker but more expensive per unit of storage.

The CPU cache acts as a high-speed buffer between the CPU and the main RAM. Accessing RAM is
slow for the ultra-fast CPU. The cache holds copies of the data and instructions that the CPU is
likely to need next, significantly reducing the time the CPU has to wait for data and thus speeding
up the entire system.

Memory units follow a binary progression:

1 Bit: A single binary digit (0 or 1)

1 Byte: 8 bits
1 Kilobyte (KB): 1024 Bytes
1 Megabyte (MB): 1024 KB
1 Gigabyte (GB): 1024 MB
1 Terabyte (TB): 1024 GB
1 Petabyte (PB): 1024 TB
Input and Output Devices

Input Devices Processing Output Devices

Hardware that sends data to The computer processes the Hardware that presents data
a computer: input data according to from the computer:
instructions:
Keyboard: For typing text Monitor: Displays visual
and commands CPU: Executes program information
Mouse: Pointing device instructions Printer: Creates hard
for GUI navigation GPU: Handles graphics copies of documents
Scanner: Converts processing Speaker: Produces audio
physical documents to RAM: Provides working output
digital memory Projector: Displays
Webcam: Captures video Software: Directs the images on a large screen
for the computer processing operations Plotter: Creates vector
Microphone: Records graphics on paper
audio input 3D Printer: Creates
Touchscreen: Allows three-dimensional
direct interaction with objects
display
Biometric devices:
Fingerprint scanners, iris
scanners

The Backspace key on a keyboard typically deletes the character to the left of the cursor. The
Delete key, by contrast, typically deletes the character to the right of the cursor.

A touchscreen is a dual-function device. It acts as an input device by allowing the user to interact
with the system by touching the screen, and it acts as an output device by displaying information,
just like a standard monitor.

The speed of a dot matrix printer is measured in CPS (Characters Per Second) because it creates
characters by striking pins against an ink ribbon. PPM (Pages Per Minute) is used for page printers
like laser and inkjet, while DPI (Dots Per Inch) measures print quality.
Software Categories and Licensing
System Software Application Software
Manages hardware and Performs specific tasks for
provides platform for users:
applications:
Productivity (Word,
Operating Systems Excel, PowerPoint)
(Windows, Linux, macOS) Web Browsers
Device Drivers Graphics and Multimedia
Firmware Games and
2
Utility Programs Entertainment

Distribution Models
How software is licensed
Programming Software
and distributed: Tools for creating other
software:
Commercial Software:
Paid with license Compilers and
Freeware: Free but Interpreters
closed source Integrated Development
Shareware: Try before Environments (IDEs)
buying Debuggers
Open Source: Source Code Editors
code available

Freeware is software that is distributed free of charge. However, it is under copyright, and the user
is not given the right to view or modify the source code, which distinguishes it from open-source
software. Examples include Adobe Acrobat Reader and Skype.

Shareware operates on a "try before you buy" principle. It allows users to test the software's
functionality during a trial period. After the trial expires, the user must purchase a license to
continue using it.

Open-source software is defined by the availability of its source code to the public to use, modify,
and distribute. While it is often free of charge, this is not a requirement. The freedom to view,
change, and distribute the code is the defining characteristic.
Network Topologies and Architectures
1 2

Bus Topology Star Topology

All devices connect to a single cable All devices connect to a central hub or
(backbone): switch:

Simple and inexpensive to implement Most common topology in modern

Easy to extend networks

Failure in the main cable affects the Failure of one device doesn't affect
entire network others

Performance degrades as more devices Central device is a single point of failure

are added Requires more cabling than bus
topology

3 4

Ring Topology Mesh Topology

Devices connect in a closed loop: Devices connect to multiple other devices:

Data travels in one direction Highly reliable with multiple paths

Each device acts as a repeater Difficult to set up and maintain
Failure of one device can affect the Expensive due to many connections
entire network Used in critical environments
Adding or removing devices disrupts the
network

A repeater is a network device that regenerates and amplifies a signal to extend the distance it can
travel. Signals weaken over distance (a phenomenon called attenuation). A repeater receives a
signal, cleans it, regenerates it, and retransmits it at a higher power level, thereby extending the
range of a network like Ethernet or Wi-Fi.

The physical layout of computers and devices in a network is known as the network topology. The
logical topology, on the other hand, refers to how data actually flows through the network, which
may differ from the physical arrangement.
Programming Languages and
Development
Low-Level Languages 1
Close to machine code, specific to
computer architecture:

Machine Language: Binary code 2 High-Level Languages

directly executed by CPU
More abstract, closer to human
Assembly Language: Human- language:
readable version of machine code
Procedural: C, FORTRAN, COBOL
Object-Oriented: Java, C++, Python
Special-Purpose Languages 3 Functional: Haskell, Lisp
Designed for specific applications:
Scripting: JavaScript, PHP, Python
SQL: Database queries
PROLOG: Artificial intelligence and
logic programming
4 Web Development
R: Statistical computing
Languages for creating websites and
MATLAB: Mathematical and
web applications:
technical computing
HTML: Structure of web pages
CSS: Styling and appearance
JavaScript: Client-side interactivity
PHP, Python, Ruby: Server-side
processing

A compiler is a program that converts an entire program written in a high-level language into
machine code before it is executed. An interpreter, in contrast, translates and executes the program
line by line. An assembler specifically translates assembly language into machine code.

In Object-Oriented Programming (OOP), encapsulation is the concept of bundling data and

methods that operate on the data into a single unit or "class." This protects the data from outside
interference and misuse.

A logic error in programming is a bug that causes a program to operate incorrectly, but not to
terminate abnormally (or crash). The program will run but will produce the wrong output. A syntax
error, by contrast, is a mistake in the language's structure that prevents the program from being
compiled or run at all.
Summary of Computer Knowledge for
CET
This document has covered the essential topics required for the Computer Knowledge section of
the CET exam, including computer basics, organization, input/output devices, memory, operating
systems, Microsoft Office applications, internet usage, and more.

Computer Fundamentals Hardware and Peripherals

Core concepts about computer systems: Physical components of computer
systems:
Computer organization and
architecture Input and output devices
CPU components and functions Storage technologies
Types and generations of computers Ports and connectivity
Number systems and digital logic Network hardware
Memory hierarchy and storage devices Display technologies

Software and Applications Networks and Internet

Programs that run on computer systems: Connectivity and online technologies:

Operating systems Network types and topologies

Microsoft Office applications Internet protocols and services
System and utility software Web technologies
Programming concepts Email and communication
Database management Security and privacy

Key skills for the exam include understanding the organization of a computer, knowledge of
input/output devices, familiarity with memory concepts, proficiency with Windows and Microsoft
Office applications, and competence in internet usage including web browsing, searching, and
email management.

Remember that the CET exam tests both theoretical knowledge and practical application of
computer concepts. Focus on understanding the fundamental principles as well as how to use
common software applications and navigate operating system features.

Good luck with your preparation!