Food as a Substrate for

Microorganisms
 Introduction
• Microorganisms, plants, and animals are naturally and
constantly interacting in the environment, including in food
systems.
• Since most human food comes from plants and animals, it
is natural that microorganisms are present in or on food.
• Microorganisms often use food as a source of nutrients for
their own growth.
• Their growth in food can lead to:
Spoilage (off-flavors, breakdown of food components)
Nutrient loss
Enzymatic changes
Synthesis of unwanted compounds
• The presence and activity of microorganisms in food is often a
continuation of their ecological function (e.g., decomposing
organic matter).
• If uncontrolled, microbial activity can render food unfit for
consumption.
• To prevent spoilage and contamination, we try to:
Minimize contact between microorganisms and food
Eliminate or inhibit microbial growth through storage
conditions or preservation methods
• Pathogenic microorganisms pose a public health risk, as they can:
Grow in food
Use food as a vector to transmit disease
• Food processing aims to prevent the entry and growth
of these harmful microorganisms.
• Interactions between food and microorganisms can be
beneficial (e.g., fermentation) or harmful (e.g.,
foodborne illness).
• The chapter introduces the factors that influence
microbial growth in food, including:
– Hydrogen-ion concentration (pH)
– Moisture content
– Oxidation-reduction potential
– Nutrient availability
– Presence of natural inhibitors or protective barriers
 Hydrogen-ion Concentration (pH)
• Role of pH in Microbial Growth
 Every microorganism has a minimum, maximum, and
optimal pH for growth.
 Microbial cells are highly affected by the pH of their
environment, and most cannot adjust their internal
pH.
Therefore, the pH of the food directly influences
microbial activity.
• Yeasts and molds are generally more acid-tolerant
than bacteria.
• Most bacteria prefer neutral to slightly acidic pH.
• Foods with low pH (below 4.5):
– Inhibit bacterial growth.
– Are more likely to be spoiled by yeasts and molds.
– Examples: Fruit juices, fermented foods.
Examples of Low pH Foods
• Fruits, fruit juices, fermented milks, soft drinks,
sauerkraut, and pickles.
• These foods often have either inherent acidity or
acidity developed through lactic acid fermentation.
• Their low pH contributes to microbial stability and
longer shelf-life.
Molds and Yeasts in Acidic Foods
• Molds can grow in a wider pH range than bacteria and
yeasts.
• Many molds grow at very acidic pH, unsuitable for most
bacteria.
• Fermentative yeasts typically grow best at pH 4.0–4.5.
• Film yeasts grow well on acidic surfaces (e.g., sauerkraut,
pickles).
Growth at High pH
• Some bacteria (e.g., proteolytic bacteria) can grow in
alkaline pH, such as in the white of stored eggs.
• Yeasts generally do not grow well in alkaline conditions.
Buffering Capacity
• Some foods contain buffers (compounds that
resist changes in pH).
• Buffers:
– Help maintain internal pH of food.
– Influence the stability of microbial populations.
– Affect both spoilage and fermentation outcomes.
 Moisture Requirement: The Concept
of Water Activity (aw)
• Importance of Water Activity
• Microorganisms require available water for
growth — not total moisture content.
• Water activity (aw) is the ratio of vapor pressure
of the food to that of pure water at the same
temperature.
– Pure water: aw = 1.00
– Lower aw means less available water for microbes.
• aw is in equilibrium with relative humidity (RH):
– aw × 100 = % ERH (Equilibrium Relative Humidity)
 aw Values for Different Foods

aw Value Range Examples of Foods

Fresh meat, fish, fruits, milk, vegetables,
0.98 and above
canned fruits
Bread, tomato paste, processed cheese,
0.93–0.98
evaporated milk
Raw ham, aged cheese, sweetened
0.85–0.93
condensed milk
0.60–0.85 Dried fruits, cereals, jams, nuts, flour
Chocolate, honey, crackers, dried milk, and
Below 0.60
dried vegetables
 How Water is Made Unavailable
• Solutes and ions (e.g., sugars, salts) tie up water molecules,
lowering aw.
• Hydrophilic colloids (e.g., gels) bind water and restrict microbial
access.
• Crystallized water (ice or hydrated molecules) is unavailable to
microbes.
Effect of Freezing on aw
• As temperature drops, ice forms, and the concentration of solutes
in unfrozen water increases, lowering aw.
• aw at:
0°C = 1.00
–5°C = 0.953
–10°C = 0.907
–20°C = 0.823
 Microbial Growth and aw

• Each microorganism has:

– Minimum, optimal, and maximum aw for growth.
• As aw decreases:
– Lag phase increases
– Growth rate declines
– Metabolism and synthesis are reduced
Factors Affecting aw Requirements
• Type of solute: Different microbes respond to different
solutes.
• Nutrient value of medium: Richer media → lower
minimum aw.
• Temperature: Some microbes tolerate low aw better at
optimal temperatures.
• Oxygen supply: Aerobes grow at lower aw with
oxygen; anaerobes need reducing conditions.
• pH: Microbes tolerate low aw best at neutral pH.
• Inhibitors: Presence narrows the aw range for
microbial growth.
 Measurement Methods for aw
• Freezing point depression
• Manometric vapor pressure
• Electrical sensors (based on relative humidity
& resistance)
• Sorption isotherms
Examples of Microorganisms and Their
Minimum aw

Microorganism Type Minimum aw for Growth

Many Bacteria 0.91
Many Yeasts 0.88
Many Molds 0.80
Xerophilic Fungi 0.65
Osmophilic Yeasts 0.60

Special note: Halophilic bacteria and osmophilic yeasts tolerate high salt or
sugar and have low aw requirements.
 Growth Ranges and Examples

• Pseudomonas → min aw: 0.97

• E. coli → 0.96
• Clostridium botulinum → 0.93
• Staphylococcus aureus → 0.86
• Aspergillus spp. → Optimal aw: 0.98
• Rhizopus spp. → Optimal aw: 0.99
• Penicillium → Optimal aw: 0.99
 summary
• Each microbe has its own optimal and limiting aw,
influenced by environment and substrate.
• Low aw reduces growth rate and final cell population.
• Lower aw causes delay in microbial growth and spore
germination.
• In general:
• Bacteria require more moisture than yeasts.
• Yeasts require more than molds.
• Some molds survive at even lower aw than many
yeasts.
Oxidation-Reduction Potential (Eh)
• What is Eh?
Eh refers to the electron activity (oxidizing/
reducing condition) around the food.
• Influenced by:
– Inherent Eh of the food
– Poising capacity (resistance to change)
– Atmospheric oxygen tension
– Packaging (e.g., vacuum packing reduces Eh)
Microbial Types Based on Oxygen Use

Microbe Type Grows Best In

Aerobes Presence of oxygen (high Eh)
Anaerobes Absence of oxygen (low Eh)
Facultative anaerobes Either condition

•Molds → Aerobic
•Most yeasts → Aerobic
•Many bacteria → Aerobic, anaerobic, or facultative
 Eh and Microbial Growth
• High Eh → Favors aerobes
• Low Eh → Favors anaerobes and facultative
microbes
• Some microbes can grow at unexpected Eh
levels (adaptation).
 • Eh is measured in millivolts (mV):
Measurement • Positive Eh = Oxidizing (oxygen-rich)
• Negative Eh = Reducing (oxygen-poor)

Microbial Group Eh Preference

Aerobes (Pseudomonas) Positive Eh

Anaerobes (Clostridium) Negative Eh

Facultative (E. coli) Either

 Nutrient Content
1. Food for Energy
• Microorganisms require energy for metabolic processes such as:
– Biosynthesis of cellular material
– Motility
– Active transport
– Cell division
• Primary energy sources in food:
– Carbohydrates (especially sugars like glucose, sucrose, lactose)
– Fats (lipids) – for microbes that can metabolize them
– Proteins – less commonly used as primary energy
• Microbial examples:
– Lactic acid bacteria ferment sugars → produce lactic acid
– Yeasts ferment glucose → alcohol and CO₂
– Clostridium species ferment a variety of organic compounds
• The ease of breakdown and absorption of these macronutrients affects how fast
and extensively microorganisms grow.
• 2. Food for Growth
• In addition to energy, microorganisms require structural building materials for:
– Cell wall synthesis
– Protein formation
– Enzyme production
– DNA/RNA synthesis
• Key growth substrates:
– Nitrogen-containing compounds:
• Proteins and amino acids (from meat, milk, legumes)
• Peptides and ammonia (from breakdown of proteins)
– Phosphorus – for ATP and nucleic acids
– Sulfur – for some amino acids (e.g., cysteine, methionine)
• Proteolytic bacteria (e.g., Pseudomonas, Clostridium) degrade proteins → amino
acids
• Nitrogen source influences type of spoilage (e.g., putrefaction in protein-rich
foods)
• 3. Accessory Food Substances or Vitamins
• Microbes need vitamins and growth factors as coenzymes
or enzyme activators.
• Some microorganisms can synthesize vitamins (e.g., E.
coli), while others are vitamin-dependent (e.g., lactic acid
bacteria).
• Important vitamins in microbial nutrition:
– B-group vitamins (thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, biotin, folic acid)
– Vitamin K (in some anaerobes)
• Foods like milk, liver, and cereals are naturally rich in
vitamins.
• In nutrient-poor foods, microbes with high vitamin
requirements may not grow well unless supplemented.
In summary
• Carbohydrates and fats serve as energy sources
• Proteins and minerals support growth and biosynthesis
• Vitamins act as coenzymes or cofactors, essential for
metabolic pathways
• The balance and availability of these components in food
determine:
• The types of microorganisms that grow
• The rate and nature of spoilage or fermentation
• How food should be processed and stored for safety and
stability.
 Inhibitory substances and Biological
structure
• Some foods contain natural antimicrobial
agents that inhibit microbial growth.
• These inhibitory substances may be:
Naturally present in raw foods
Developed during food storage
Produced by microorganisms within the
food
 Examples of Natural Inhibitors
Egg white:
•Contains lysozyme, which breaks down bacterial
cell walls (especially Gram-positive bacteria).
•Conalbumin (also in egg white) binds iron, making
it unavailable to microbes.

Milk:
•Contains lactenin, which has bacteriostatic effects.
•Lactoferrin binds iron, suppressing microbial
growth.
•These substances are partially destroyed by heat
treatment.
3. Spices and herbs:
•Contain essential oils and phenolic compounds with
antimicrobial activity.
4. Fruits (e.g., cranberries):
•Contain benzoic acid, which inhibits fungi and some
bacteria.
5. Microbial by-products:
•Some bacteria produce bacteriocins (e.g., nisin from
lactic acid bacteria) that inhibit other microbes.
📌 These inhibitory effects may not be sufficient alone, but
enhance preservation when combined with other factors
like low pH or low aw.
 Biological Structure of Food
• The natural physical structure of food can
protect against microbial invasion.
• When intact, many foods are resistant to
microbial contamination.
• Microbial spoilage usually occurs when these
structures are damaged, cut, or processed.
🔹 Examples:
1. Fruits and vegetables:
– The outer skin or peel prevents microbes from
entering.
– Once cut or bruised, the inner tissue is exposed and
more susceptible to microbial attack.
2. Whole grains and seeds:
• The hull or bran layer protects the nutrient-rich inner parts.
• Milling removes this barrier and makes the food more prone to
spoilage.
3. Meat and fish:
• The surface can be contaminated, but the interior is usually
sterile.
• Grinding or chopping distributes surface microbes throughout the
product.
4. Eggs:
• The shell and membranes protect the sterile interior.
• Once cracked, the contents are rapidly colonized by microorganisms

📌 The biological structure acts as a physical barrier, and its

disruption significantly increases the risk of contamination and
spoilage