PED 1: CHILD AND ADOLESCENT LEARNERS AND LEARNING

-Human development -refers to the biological and psychological development of the human being
throughout the lifespan. It consists of the development from infancy, childhood, and adolescence to
adulthood.

- Proximodistal Pattern of Development - deals with the development from inward to upward.
- Cephalocaudal Pattern of Development - which the development is from head to toe and from top to
bottom.

DEVELOPMENT PROCESSES
- Biological process - is a physical change. - Cognitive process - is about knowledge, thoughts, and
language.
- Socio-emotional - is a process that focuses on dealing with people.

FIVE DIFFERENT APPROACHES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

1. life-long
2. multi-dimensional
3. plastic
4. contextual
5. growth, maintenance and regulation.

PRINCIPLES OF HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT:

1. Development is continuous.
2. Development is gradual.
3. Development is sequential.
4. Rate of development varies person to person.
5. Development proceeds from general to specific.
6. Most traits are correlated in development.
7. Growth and development is a product of both heredity and environment.
8. Development is predictable.
9. Development brings about both structural and functional changes.
10. There is a constant interaction between all factors of development.

- Developmental task - is a task that arises at or about a certain period in life, unsuccessful achievement of
which leads to inability to perform tasks.

THE STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT AND DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS

1. Prenatal period (from conception to birth)
- it involves tremendous growth from a single cell to an organism complete with brain and behavioral
capabilities.
2. Infancy (from birth to 18 – 24 months) - a time extreme dependence on adults. Many psychological
activities are just to beginning – Language, symbolic thought, sensorimotor coordination capabilities.
3. Early childhood (end of infancy to 5-6 years (grade 1) - these are the preschool years. Young children learn
to become more self sufficient and to care for themselves.
4. Middle and Late Childhood
5. Adolescence
6. Early adulthood (from late teens or early 20’s lasting through the 30’s) – It is a time of establishing personal
and economic independence, career development, selecting a mate, learning to live with someone in an
intimate way, starting a family and rearing children.
7. Middle Adulthood (40 to 60 years of age ) – it is a time of expanding personal and social involvement and
responsibility; of assisting the next generation in becoming a competent and mature individuals.
8. Late adulthood (60’s and above)
- It is a time for adjustment to decreasing strength and health, life review, retirement, and adjustment to new
social rules.

THREE THEORETICAL ISSUES IN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

1. Nature versus Nurture
2. Continuity versus Stages
3. Stability versus Change

- Naturists believe that human behavior and development are governed by automatic, genetically
predetermined signals in maturation.
- Nurturists argue that development occurs by learning through observation and experience.

STAGE THEORIES
1. Piaget's theory of cognitive development
2. Erikson's psychosocial theory of development
3. Kohlberg's theory of moral development.

FREUD’S PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY

- Psychoanalysis - is a type of therapy that aims to release pent-up or repressed emotions and memories in or to
lead the client to catharsis.

SIGMUND FREUD (1856-1939)

• He is a popular psychologist whose theory of human development.
• According to Freud, a person goes through the sequence of these five stages and along way here are needs to
be met.
MODELS OF THE MIND
1. Conscious: This is where our current thoughts, feelings, and focus live.
2. Preconscious (sometimes called the subconscious): This is the home of everything we can recall or
retrieve from our memory.
3. Unconscious: At the deepest level of our minds resides a repository of the processes that drive our
behavior.

DEFENSE MECHANISMS
1. Repression: The ego pushes disturbing or threatening thoughts out of one’s consciousness
2. Denial: The ego blocks upsetting or overwhelming experiences from awareness.
3. Projection: The ego attempts to solve discomfort by attributing the individual’s unacceptable thoughts and
feelings, to another person.
4. Displacement: The individual satisfies an impulse by acting on a substitute object.
5. Regression: the individual moves backward in development in order to cope with stress.
6. Sublimation: Similar to displacement, involves satisfying an impulse by acting on a substitute but in a
socially acceptable way .

THE 5 PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

1. First Stage: Oral — the child seeks pleasure from the mouth (e.g., sucking);
2. Second Stage: Anal —the child seeks pleasure from the anus (e.g., withholding and expelling feces);
3. Third Stage: Phallic — the child seeks pleasure from the penis or clitoris (e.g., masturbation)
4. Fourth Stage: Latent — the child has little or no sexual motivation.
5. Fifth Stage: Genital—the child seeks pleasure from the penis or vagina (e.g., sexual intercourse).

JEAN PIAGET was a Swiss developmental psychologist who studied children in the early 20th century.
His theory of intellectual or cognitive development, published in 1936.

PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

1. Sensorimotor ( Birth to 18–24 months old) - Characteristics include motor activity without use of symbols.
All things learned are based on experiences, or trial and error.The main goal at this stage is establishing an
understanding of object permanence.
- Use real objects in play activities.
- Connect play to the five senses.
2. Preoperational ( 2 to 7 years old )
- Development of language, memory, and imagination. Intelligence is both egocentric and intuitive.
- Symbolic thought - is a type of thinking where a word or object is used to represent something other than
itself.
- Children learn best by doing.
3. Concrete operational ( 7 to 11 years old ) - More logical and methodical manipulation of symbols.
Less egocentric, and more aware of the outside world and events.
- Main goal at this stage is for a child to start working things out inside their head ( operational thought ).
4. Formal operational ( Adolescence to Adulthood )
- Use of symbols to relate to abstract concepts. Able to make hypotheses and grasp abstract concepts and
relationships.

- Schema - is a term used to represent the building blocks of knowledge.

- Assimilation - is using an existing schema and applying it to a new situation or object.
- Accommodation - is changing approaches when an existing schema doesn’t work.
- Equilibration - is the driving force that moves all development forward.
ERIKSON’S PSYCHO-SOCIAL THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT
- Erik Erikson - was an ego psychologist who developed one of the most popular and influential theories of
development.

PSYCHO-SOCIAL THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT

Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust
- The first stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development occurs between birth and one year of age.
- Child is utterly dependent upon adult caregivers for everything.
Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
- Takes place during early childhood and is focused on children developing a greater sense of personal control.
- Children are just starting to gain a little independence. - They are starting to perform basic actions on their
own.
Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt
- Takes place during the preschool years.
- Children begin to assert their power and control over the world through directing play and other social
interactions.
- Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead others.
Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority
- Takes place during the early school years from approximately age 5 to 11.
- Through social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their abilities.
Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion
- takes place during the often turbulent teenage years.
- This stage plays an essential role in developing a sense of personal identity .
- Children explore their independence and develop a sense of self.
Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation
- This stage covers the period of early adulthood when people are exploring personal relationships
Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation
- During adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our career and family.
- Being proud of your accomplishments, watching your children grow, and developing a sense of unity with
your life partner are important accomplishments of this stage.
Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair
- occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting back on life.
- people look back on the events of their lives.

KOHLBERG'S STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

- Lawrence Kohlberg - know for his theory of moral development.
- A closer follower of Jean Piaget of Cognitive Development

LEVEL 1 : PRECONVENTIONAL LEVEL

- Moral reasoning is based on consequences not on weather the act is good or bad.
Stage 1: Punishment and Disobedience Orientation - one is obedient by the fear of punishment. The
individual will act to avoid punishment.
Stage 2: Self-interest Orientation/ Mutual benefit - one is motivated to act by the benefit that one may obtain
later.

LEVEL 2: CONVENTIONAL LEVEL

- Moral reasoning is based on conventions or norms of society. This may include approval of others, law, and
order.
Stage 3: Interpersonal Accord and Conformity / Social Approval - one is motivated by what others expect in
behavior. The person acts because he values how he will appear to others. He gives importance of what others
will say.
Stage 4: Law and Order: Authority and Social-Order Maintaining Orientation - one is motivated to act in
order to uphold law and order. The person will follow the law because it is the law.

LEVEL 3: POST CONVENTIONAL LEVEL

- moral reasoning is based on enduring and consistent principles. It is not just recognizing the law, but the
principles behind it.
Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation - Laws that are wrong can be change. One will act based on social
justice and the common good.
Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles - Associated with the development of ones conscience. Having a set of
standards that drives one to posses moral responsibility.

VYGOTSKY’S SOCIO-CULTURAL THEORY

- Sociocultural theory - is an emerging theory in psychology that looks at the important contributions that
society makes to individual development.
- This theory stresses the interaction between developing people and the culture in which they live.
- Sociocultural theory grew from the work of seminal psychologist Lev Vygotsky, who believed that parents,
caregivers, peers, and the culture at large were responsible for developing higher-order functions.

Zone of Proximal Development - the distance between the actual development level as determined by
independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem-solving
under adult guidance.

BRONFENBRENNER’S ECOLOGICAL THEORY

- Urie Bronfenbrenner, formulated the Ecological Systems Theory to explain how the inherent qualities of
children and their environments interact to influence how they grow and develop.
-According to Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory, children typically find themselves enmeshed in
various ecosystems, from the most intimate home ecological system to the larger school system.

MICROSYSTEM
- is the smallest and most immediate environment in which children live.
- the microsystem comprises the daily home, school or daycare, peer group and community environment of the
children.
-Interactions involve personal relationships with family members, classmates, teachers and caregivers.
MESOSYSTEM
- encompasses the interaction of the different microsystems which children find themselves in.
- involves linkages between home and school, between peer group and family, and between family and
community.
EXOSYSTEM
- pertains to the linkages that may exist between two or more settings, one of which may not contain the
developing children but affect them indirectly nonetheless.
- people and places that children may not directly interact with may still have an impact on their lives.
- such places and people may include the parents’ workplaces, extended family members, and the neighborhood
the children live in.
MACROSYSTEM
- is the largest and most distant collection of people and places to the children that still have significant
influences on them.
- is composed of the children’s cultural patterns and values, specifically their dominant beliefs and ideas.
CHRONOSYSTEM
- chronosystem adds the useful dimension of time, which demonstrates the influence of both change and
constancy in the children’s environments.
- include a change in family structure, address, parents’ employment status, as well as immense society changes
such as economic cycles and wars.

STAGES PRE-NATAL DEVELOPMENT

1. Germinal period- (first 2 weeks after conception). This includes the creation of the zygote, continued
cell division, and the attachment of the zygote to the uterine wall.
2.Embryonic Period (2 -8 weeks after conception) – In this stage, the name of the mass cells, zygote
become embryo.
3. Fetal Period (2 months to 7 months after conception) – Growth and development continue
dramatically during this period.