aE emis spain and the 19th Century World of Jose Rizal Overview To fully comprehen: nationalism, there is a nee This is essential in understanding his ideology and out during the said century are as follows cecionalisms rise and gradual spread of liberalism and de the upsurge of western imperialism; triumph of science and confidence in progress (Capino et al, 1977), 4 the role Dr. Rizal played in the shaping, of the Filipino 4 for us to Jook into the developments in the 19th century. look as an individual. Important growth and development of mocracy; industrial revolutions and technology; and optimism developments Intended Learning Outcomes ‘At the end of the chapter, the students should be able to 1, Analyze the concept of nationalism 2. Describe the important developments during the 19” century 3. Discuss the political, social and economic conditions of the Philippines under Spain during the 19” century. 4, Reflect on the importance of the development of nationalism on the and growth of the nation. Growth and Development of Nationalism Nationalism is a sense of loyalty or psychological attachment members of @ nation share, based on a common language, history, culture, and desire for independence (Jackson & Jackson, 2000). Iti a feeling that drives a people together as @ nation. I is love of country expressed in devotion to and advocacy of national interest and independence. The growth of nationalism can be attributed to two major revolutions of the earlier century: the American Revolution of 1776; and the French Revolution of 1789. Both revolutions gave birth to the idea that an individual's loyalty has to be to his nation not to the king. The American Revolution gave birth to the United States of America. On the other hand, the French Revolution led to the overthrowing of the absolute rule of the Bourbon Dynasty and the abolition of the feudal system. : ; The ideology of the French Revolution —Liberty, Fraternity, and Equality —had influenced subject peoples to cast off the yoke of colonialism by means of armed uprising, Owing to the nationalistic spirit, Naly became a united kingdom under King Victor Emmanuel II after the Italians under Guiseppe Garibaldi drove out the Austrians occupying@ fluence of the Pope. i weakened the int f em part of the country an ‘ars later, Germany thr the norte ie Of Italy united as one nation. Ten years net Garnany he Spar at teepaigh by the Prussians under Ow ron Biamarch ued he vr ve epee ‘dukedoms of the German nation and beca i kingdoms William I. . 815, which influ Nationalism is one of the radical ideas in the years after 1 1 i lenced the fat is complex ide ld tremendously. There ae three points that stand out /n tnscor lee modern etal, 1995). First, nationalism has evolved from a real or ped coral unity, cy oa elf in a cormmon language, history, and territory Second ational ve arene i tg turn this cultural unity into political reality so that ne testory ofa aaa coieides with ite state boundaries. Third, Nationalists believed thet every natn Pec the right to exist in freedom and develop its character an = a, While nationalism can foster national unity, progress and independencs ta 7 has it negative side. The idea of national superiority and national misfon can ead aggressive crusades and counter-crusades. Nationalism can however, was very ‘lee peoples. The development of nationalism in the Philippines, however, wa srry son Loyalty to the nation began only after the unjust execution of Fat ke Zamora on February 17, 1872. Rise and Gradual Spread of Liberalism and Democracy “The rise and spread of liberalism and democracy was actually a consequence of the growth and development of nationalism (Black, 1999). The principal ideas of liberalism— liberty and equality—were first realized successfully in the American Revolution and then achieved in part in the French Revolution. This political and social philosophy challenged conservatism in the European iken from: thoughtcocom continent, Liberalism demanded representative government Paci fos hee as opposed to autocratic monarchy, equality before the law as opposed to legally separate classes. The idea of liberty also meant specific individual freedoms: freedom of the press; freedom of speech; freedom of assembly; and freedom from arbitrary arrest. Democracy became a way of life in many European countries, like Britain, Belgium, and Switzerland. Democracy was gradually established through the following means: promulgation of laws that advance democracy; undertaking of reforms thru legislation; abolition of slavery; adoption ofa liberal constitution; providing the citizens the opportunity to Propose laws; adoption of manhood suffrage; and granting of Photo taken from: historyrhymes.info political, economic and social rights to the people. Though natives who were eligible to vote elected only officials in the town and barrio levels but never on a national level, Except for a few periods they they were never able to vote their officials‘ who would have represented the Philippines in the Cortes or the Spanish parliament. 14‘The Industrial and Commercial Revolution ‘Two related revolutions happened in the late 18th and the 19th centuries- the-commercial revolution and the industrial revolution. The commercial revolution was caused by the immense potential profits that could be earned by countries in Europe through commerce. This commerce was caused by the demand for goods from Asia such as spices from Southeast Asia, tea, silk and porcelain from China, sugar and coffee from tropical countries. On the other hand, the Europeans can sell their products to Asia and Africa. Commerce was revolutionized by the industrial revolution where commerce was facilitated with the use of inventions such as the steam engine. Money can be made at a pace unheard of before. Meanwhile, the countries that supplied goods to the west developed their agriculture to satisfy foreign demand while the westerners sold finished goods to these countries. Leading in the twin revolutions were the United Kingdom, the United States, France and Germany The invention of machines and their use in manufacturing brought about significant changes in people’s lives. Some of the positive effects brought about by this development include the following: “The rise of the factory system; ‘Mass production of essential and non- essential goods; Improvement of people's standard of living; Greater urbanization of society; Beginnings of specialization or division of labor; Invention of labor-saving devices; ‘The beginnings of industrial capitalism; Fostering of liberalism and nationalism; and Encouragement of people's mobility. On the other hand, there were negative effects of Industrial Revolution to people. Some of the evils associated with the Industrial Revolution are as follows: Widening of the gap between the rich and the poor; Unending economic warfare between labor and capital; Pollution and other environmental problems; Beginning of child and women labor; and Intensification of imperialistic rivalry between and among industrialized countries. ‘The need to industrialize meant that more goods can be bought and sold. The Industrial Revolution was prompted by another revolution, the Commercial Revolution. Under the Commercial Revolution there was an increased demand for raw materials chiefly from Asia and Africa. The goods made in Europe are then sold around the world including the Asian and African colonies, More can be made at levels never before imagined and this gave rise to big business conglomerates and corporations. VVYYYYYVYY YvvYvY 15In the Philippines, the twin revolutions caused the displacement of the farmers from their lands. To solve the evils created by the industrial system, different measures Were proposed by concerned sectors of world society (Doreen, 1991). For the liberals, laissez-faire policy or government's non-interference in the conduct of trade and business has to be sustained for the continuous expansion of the economy. The socialists assert that the government has to control vital industries and resources. This is necessary in promoting equality of opportunity and people's welfare in society. The communists, on the other hand, suggested that all factors of production be owned and controlled by the government. Equality in society can be achieved if social classes are destroyed and dictatorship of the proletariat is established. Though the Catholic Church calls for humane treatment of workers, respect for workers’ rights, and social justice for the Poor. It was also a big land owner and it owned vast estates or haciendas to produce crops like rice and sugar which were exported. The Advancement of Science The rapid expansion of scientific knowledge profoundly influenced Western thought in the 19th century (Hunt et al, 1995). Breakthroughs in industrial technology enormously stimulated basic scientific inquiry. The result was an explosive growth of fundamental scientific discoveries from 1830's onward. These theoretical discoveries were increasingly transformed into material improvements for the population, The translation of better scientific knowledge into practical benefits was evident in biology, medical sciences, physics, and chemistry. The 19th century was a time for the expansion of scientific knowledge. This means that the search for knowledge and truth could be explained by a rational and empirical approach. This was a result of the Age of Enlightenment during the 18th century, when blind belief and dogma were challenged by the principle that everything could be explained by reason. Thig resulted in the development of the scientific method, where knowledge needs to be proven by Photo taken from: en.witipediaorg a systematic and rational approach, which in effect, resulted in advances in the sciences. The advancement of science and technology had at least three significant consequences. » Everyday experience and innumerable scientists impressed the importance of science on the mind of ordinary citizens, > As science became more prominent in popular thinking, the philosophical implications of science spread to broad sections of the population. Technical advances led the people to develop optimistic faith in man’s capability to achieve progress. > The methods of science acquired unrivaled prestige after 1850. For many, the union of careful experiment and abstract theory was the only route to truth and objective reality. ‘ 16The effects of the scientific revolution spilled to the challenging of traditional beliefs in religion and politics. A belief emerged that the Church is not the sole source of knowledge but everyone can be capable of achieving knowledge and challenging the old established belief as long as this could be scientifically explained, replicated and validated. |The scientific revolution gained headway in Western European countries like Germany, France, and Great Britain which became centers of learning in the 19th century. Its universities and society became free market places of ideas, characterized by a large degree of intellectual freedom that is unhampered by religious dogma and superstition. German, French, and English scientists were at the forefront of this revolution and abroad, explorers, archeologists, and anthropologists scoured all parts of the world for new discoveries. Unfortunately, however, though Spain was overshadowed by countries like Germany, France and Great Britain in the advancing science and technology, its universities remained great places of learning. However, this trend did not extend to the Philippines due to the tight control by Spanish colonial authorities who made sure that no liberal ideas would spread to the islands. This was done through the control of education and heavy censorship of the press. The Resurgence of Western Imperialism In the 19th century, the industrializing West entered the third and most dynamic phase of its centuries-old expansion into non-Western lands. Those lands especially in Africa and Asia would supply the goods needed by ‘Western factories. For this reason there is a renewed effort to colonize Asian and African lands. In so doing, these Western nations profitably subordinated those lands to their economic interests, sent forth millions of immigrants, and political 5 daha fron ea wildpl influence in’ Asia and vast political empires in Afica.? eee aes "The reasons for this culminating surge were many, but the economic thrust of robust industrial capitalism, an ever-growing lead in technology, and the competitive pressures of European nationalism were particularly important. Western expansion had far-reaching consequences. For the first time in human history, the world became in many ways a single unit. Moreover, European expansion diffused the ideas and techniques of a highly developed civilization. Yet the West relied on imperialist struggle for dignity, genuine independence, and modernization, Colonized - peoples, therefore started to assert their right to self-determination or the right to choose the kind of government under which they would live. Optimism and Confidence in Progress Optimism. or faith in society and man's ability to progress was brought. about by the advancement of science, the coming of steam-powered industry, and the spread of liberalism and socialism (Chodorow et al, 1994). The optimism of the century was summed by Marquis de Condorcet in his work, Sketch for a Historical Picture of the Progress of the Human Mind. He saw that Marquis De ‘Condorcet Photo taken from: en.wikipedia.org 7set no limit to the realiz: < for believing that nature f i 0n of ous “henge retail o¢ inequity between #3 ins the prope of ea weithin nations, and the true perfection of humanly P a AAs Pendent of ny power that might wish Co halt itand will never be revers — Optimism and confidence in progress can be gleaned trom the achievements omy in the 19th century. Notable among these were the following (Capino, 1977): “the strongest t > Extension of human rights to many peoples > Promotion of higher education for men and women; > Education for nationalism in schools; > Investment in science to serve mankind; > Improvement of public health through the establishment of numerous hospitals; and > Emergence of realistic literature, depicting the life of the time. Spain in the 19th Century Political Instability in Spain. After the death of Ferdinand VII, Spain went through a downward spiral as a world power. By 1830 all of Spain’s American colonies have seceded and became independent states with the exception of Cuba and Puerto Rico. A struggle for the throne followed between the forces loyal to Ferdinand’s daughter Isabella and his brother Charles (Carlos). The ensuing struggle would be Carli known as the Carlist Wars. The forces loyal to Isabella defeated list Wars is ‘ ¢ Photo taken from:spanishwarsnet_ the Carlists. Owing to the brief tenure of office of governor- generals, colonial administration became very inefficient and corrupt. In addition to the foregoing, the Philippines became a dumping ground for the relatives and favorites of Spanish politicians in Madrid. Abandonment of mercantilism, Along with political change, there was also a shift in the world economy. Before the 19th century, European practiced mercantilism, which is an economic doctrine based on the idea that the country’s wealth and power can be measured in its stock of gold and silver. It also means that all trade should be conducted within a certain country and its colonies. Trade was dictated by the monarch and wealth should flow toward the center of imperial power. hs peste in to the creation of monopolistic ventures like the galleon trade between i co, which began in 1565. The Philippines was prohibited from redlng ah ne oe ries, _ Nonetheless, by the 18th and 19th centuries, faire or free market trade, Countries and their coloni Merchants began trading freely as Profits from inter: official policies. There was a demand for Philippine there was a shift towards laissez national commerce began to shape Products such as sugar, coffee, rice: 18indigo, and tobacco. Though foreign trade in the Philippines was still restricted by Spain's policies in the late 18th century, the colony began trading with British, French, and American merchants. With the uselessness of mercantilism, the Philippines was officially opened to foreign trade by 1834. Foreign trade brought forth wealth for more people. Before, only the Spaniards benefitted from the galleon trade, with free trade, the growers and traders of Philippine products gained wealth. At the same time, there was a rising class composed of merchants, who were mostly mestizos, who gained advantage from trade with foreigners Spain's adoption of the laissez-faire policy affected the Philippines in several ways (Capino, 1977). Laissez Faire Photo taken from: feeorg ‘The result of greater participation in trade created a new middle class in the colony. With the new-found wealth, middle class families were able to send their children to acquire higher education which gave them perspectives on Spain's treatment of the Philippines. Increased contact with the West brought home political ideas prevailing in Europe. These ideas were mainly enlightenment ideas which preached equality and God-given rights of men. The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 and the laying of a telegraph line, which connected the Philippines to rest of the world, brought Europe closer to the Philippines and the enlightenment ideas became more prevalent among the members of the middle class. These people became known as the ilustrados or the “enlightened ones.” Imbued with civic courage, they began questioning the abuses of the Spanish Regime and began to clamor for reforms. This class brought forth reformists, which included Rizal. faa oetpceeeypsom The Philippines During Rizal’s Time “By the 19th century, there was a great disparity between the majority natives who remained poor and the minority who consisted of peninsular Spaniards, Philippine-born Spaniards and mestizos who comprised the rich in the islands.” The latter which included the clergy owned most of the agricultural Jands of the islands while the natives toiled... Administrative Organization ‘The Philippines was governed directly by the Spanish Crown, through the Ministry of Colonies in the 19th century. The government of the country was unitary as policies implemented by colonial administrators from: Luzon to Mindanao emanated from the Manila, the seat of the central government. ‘The Governor-General, appointed by the Spanish monarch, was the head of the Spanish colonial government in the country, As such, he represented the Crown in all governmental matters. He was the Vice Royal Patron over religious affairs. As the Vice Royal Patron, he could nominate priests for ecclesiastical administration of the parishes. He was also the commander in chief of the colonial army. As the chief executive of the colonial government,-he was an ex-officio president of the Royal Audiencia, the Supreme Court in the Philippines during those times. Considering that there was no lawmaking 19eral had legislative powers. At his discretion « povernor- Ee vin the country then, the governor gi , evs, At body in the country ted by the governor- general were caljey fe can legislate laws for the colony. Laws enac actos ac ordade (Maguigad, 2000). had ‘ : » Philippines, the governor-general had the pow since Spain was very far from the Philip : . eae te the power to decide which law or royal decree should co implememey ot iPtomded in the colony if they have deemed to impractical, Below the nationg} re the local government uni ly: provinces, towns, cities, and barr; ca ts, namely: provil ns, cil ios zovernment were the local government uni nely: pre (Agoncillo, 1990). The provinces during the ‘Spanish regime were headed by a gover 7 ‘The provinces were divided into towns or pueblos. Each pueblo was headed ty a gobernadorcilla or town mayor. At first, he was elected by all mar tml es, In the Toth century, he was voted by 13 electors, chaired by the outgoing 8 ror ‘As the town executive, his principal responsibility was tax collection. fo a collection, sind remittance ofthese taxes, he was required to mortgage his properties to the governmeny at the beginning of his term of office. vided into barrios or barangays (Romero et al, 1978). As the yy was headed by a cabeza de barangay. His main ‘d order and the collection of taxes and tributes Each town was di smallest unit of government, each barangay function was the maintenance of peace ans in the barangay. ‘The city government during the Spanish Regime was called ayuntamiento (Zaide, 1994). It was governed by a cabildo or city council composed of a city mayor (alealde en ordinario), councilors (regidores), chief constable (aguacil mayor), and a secretary (escribano). A key figure in the local administrative set-up was the Spanish friar (Schumacher, 1997). This was because of the union of the church and state in the Philippines, a principle upon which the Spanish colonial government in the country was founded. The friar was the supervising representative of the Spanish government for all local affairs. Thus, his approval was necessary on almost all acts of the local officials. He was practically the ruler of the town as he was the local school inspector, health inspector, prison inspector, inspector of the accounts of the gobernadorcillos and cabeza de barangays. His approval was required in census lists, tax lists, list of army conscripts, and register of births, deaths, and marriages. Eventually, the friars became more powerful and influential that even civil authorities feared them. This situation was what Lopez Jaena termed as frailocracia. The rise in power and influence of the friars cah be attributed to frequent changes in the top colonial administration in the country from 1849 to 1895. Spain tightened her control over the country through the friars for fear of losing the Philippines. Owing to the fact that they remained in colony every time a governor-general was removed from office, their advice on the proper management of governmental affairs was sought by every new governor- general. This eventually paved the way for their control and influence over colonial affairs. Aside from the friars who were considered as the governors of both bodies and soul, another institution feared in the Philippines then was the Guardia Civil. The Guardia Civil was organized in 1867, as a corps of native police under the leadership of Spanish officers for the purpose of dealing with outlaws and renegades (Maguigad et al, 2000). In 1880, it asthe most feared instrument of summary arrests of individuals identified by the fra 20as Silibusteros or enemies of the government and erehes or heretics who are considered enemies of the Catholic Church, Judicial power of the government was vested on the Audiencia Real, the Supreme Court during those times and the lower courts (De Leon, 2000). Below the Audiencia Real were two territorial audiencias, courts of first instance, and the justice of the peace courts. As the highest court in the Philippines, the Audiencia Real did not only adjudicate appeals for civil and criminal cases. It also served as a forum for settling important issues on governance and an auditing agency of the finances of Spanish colonial administration in the country. ‘There was no national legislature in the Philippines before the country was taken over by the United States in 1898. Philippine representation in the Spanish Cortes or lawmaking body was abolished in 1837 (Schumacher, 1997).’To oversee the colonial affairs of the islands the Philippines was placed under an Overseas MinistriSs. As a consequence, governance of the Philippines was based on special laws aside from the earlier laws and decrees. Corollary to this, Las Leyes de Indias continued to be the basic law but gradually modified by royal decrees, which extended various parts of Spanish peninsular law into the Philippines. On the whole, Spanish colonial administration was corrupt and inefficient. This can be attributed to several factors. Owing to the distance of the Philippines from Spain, the governor-general exercised absolute powers. He could reward positions in the bureaucracy to his favorites who were unqualified and unfit for goyernment service. Although the Spanish Crown had instituted the residencia, the trial of an outgoing governor-general to account for his acts during his tenure of office and the visitador or investigating officer to. probe on the complaints against the governor-general, he was not able to resist corruption for his personal advantage. Another source of weakness and abuse of Spanish government was the widespread selling of lower positions to highest bidders (Capino, 1977). On account of the foregoing many government officials in the country were appointed not on the basis of merit but ability to buy the position. This situation had given rise to misadministration of governmental affairs, bribery, as well as graft and corruption. There was also the strong influence of the Church especially from the friars who interferred with the government policies. The Social Structure of Filipino Society 19th Century Social Pyramid —> Peninsulares (Spanish born in Spain) > Insulares Filipinos (Spaniards born in the Philippines) ——> Mestisos (Spanish and Chinese half-breeds) —— > Indios or Natives At the apex of the social pyramid were the peninsulares or the Spaniards born ii Spain. Below them were the inisulares Filipinos or Spaniards born in the Philippine:the Spanish and Chinese mestizos, and the principalia or the ruling class of native elites composed of the gobernadorcillo, cabeza de barangay, landowners, merchants, and wealthy native families. At the bottom of the social pyramid, however, were the Indios or the browt ined natives who composed the majority of the people. As a consequence of the colonizers’ application of the doctrine of limpieza de sangre, « social ranking was created in our society during the Spanish regime which favored only Spaniards of the povest Catholicism. Social tensions were created between and among the classes, where the lower classes were victimized by the upper classes. The peninsulares thought of themselves superior to Philippine-born Spaniards and Spaniards born in other Spanish colonies, who in turn detrimental against the mestizos, Yet, the native-born people somehow formed a bond against the foreign-born Spaniard, Moreover, a system of racial discrimination came to be institutionalize. High Positions in government were opened only to the pure blooded Spaniards. Members of the middle class and the Indios were considered inferior by the upper classes and unworthy of education. Educational System Up to the middle of the 19th century schools were under the control of the friars. Primary education was placed under parochial schools in many towns. Instruction at these schools centered on the teaching of fear of God and obedience to the friars, with indoctrination as the principal method of. teaching. Children in these schools were impressed that they were of inferior intelligence and were suited only for manual work. With the use of vernacular language, students’ learning was measured in terms of how well they can parrot the contents of a book even without comprehension. As a consequence of this method of teaching employed by the friars, Filipino children were not able to develop ' self-confidence in their ability to learn. In addition, native children developed severe inferiority complex. The culture of silence came to be instilled in the minds of the Filipino Jearners. By the end of the 19th century, only the University of Santo Tomas (UST) 'was the existing higher education University of Sto. Tomas _institutionin the Philippines. UST, founded by the Dominicans Photo taken from: arquitecturema- in 1611, was the only university, which offered courses in nilabegspetcom * . medicine, pharmaéy, theology, philosophy, as well as canon and civil law. At the beginning of its operation most of those seeking admission into its various programs were Spaniards and mestizos. Nevertheless, its doors were opened to the Filipinos during the last half of the 19th century. The Spaniards also opened secondary schools for boys during this period. Notable among these schools were the San Juan de Letran in Manila, which was under the Dominicans, as well as the Ateneo Municipal, run by the Jesuits (Schumacher, 1997). Secondary education for girls were provided by the following schools in Manila (Maguigad, 2000), namely: Santa Isabel; La Concordia, Santa Rosa; and Santa Catalina. All these schools were subject to the inspection of the Dominican Rector of the University of Santo Tomas. Students seeking admission into the secondary schools were, therefore, required to take examination before a board appointed by the Rector of UST. 22Colegio de Sto. Tomas. Colegio de Sto. Tomas. La Concordia Phot taken from: fckrsom Photo taken from commnans. ‘Phot taken fom: flik.com wikimediaore Santa Isabel Colegio de San Juan de Letran Santa Rosa Photo taken from: santaisabel.edu.ph Photo taken from: pinterest.ph Photo taken from: hndborg It was also in this century when public education for the natives was begun (Agoncillo, 1990). The Educational Decree of 1863 was implemented in the colony, which required the establishment of one elementary school for boys and one elementary school for girls in each town in the Philippines. The same decree provided for the establishment of anormal school for the training of teachers with a mastery of the Spanish language, under the direction of the Jesuits, as Spanish shall be the medium of instruction in all schools. “The friars resisted the teaching of Spanish language to the Filipinos. They feared that knowledge of the language would lead to the development of political and social awareness among the natives, which in effect could trigger in them the desire to work for freedom and independence. Thus, they pressed on the need to keep the Filipinos in ignorance and opposed all efforts to improve education in this Spanish colony. Nevertheless, Spanish was used as the medium of instruction in Ateneo, Letran, and UST. ‘Although the Spanish government exerted efforts to educate the Filipinos in the 19th century, the educational system implemented in the country had serious weaknesses. Notable among these weaknesses were as follows (Romero et al, 1978): > Over-emphasis on religion; Limited and irrelevant curriculum; Obsolete classroom facilities; Inadequate instructional materials; ‘Absence of academic freedom; and ‘The shortcomings in the educational system reflected the dire Spanish Empire which was in decline. vvvvyY 23Economic Situation The country was opened to foreign trade in 1832, which resulted in the rapid ris, e of foreign firms in Manila. The presence of these foreign traders stimulated agriculture production and export of sugar, rice, hemp, and tobacco. ‘The growing prosperity of the Philippines in the 19th century had significan consequences (Schumacher, 1997). Opportunities for trade, increased Filipino conta’ with foreigners and peninsular Spaniards. Moreover, a number of families, whigh prospered from foreign commerce and trade, were able to send their sons for an educatc, in Europe, further destroying the isolation of the country from the rest of the wor a Filipinos, who were educated abroad, were able to absorb the intellectual developments fa Europe. The awareness of a completely different type of society prevalent in Europe mada these European-educated Filipinos disenchanted with Spain. Among the major income generating mechanisms used by the Spaniards were galleon trade, monopolies, encomienda, and tributes. Encomienda Photo taken from: wams.nyhistory og Monopoly n from: kahimyang.com Photo taken from: worldhistory.org Photo take