Strain Measurement
Resistive transducers
• A resistive transducer is used to measure various quantities
such as temperature, light intensity, position, force,
pressure, etc
• The principle of resistive transducers is that the measured
quantity causes a resistance change in the sensing element.
• R = f(T) temperature
• R = f(f) light
• R = f(Δd) displacement
• R = f(Δθ) angle
• R = f(Δ) stress
• R = f(H) magnetic field
• R = f(RH) humidity
• R = f(N) gas concentration
Resistive transducers
• Work in such a way that the output from the
primary mechanical transducer becomes the
input for the variable resistance transducer.
• The output is then calibrated against the input
to directly give a value of the input.
• In such a case it acts as a secondary
transducer.
Resistive sensors
• Devices designed to exhibit a change in resistance as a
result of experiencing strain to measure displacement in
the order of nanometer.
• For a simple wire:
L
R= (1)
A
• A change in R will result from a change in (resistivity),
or a change in L or A (dimension).
4
Resistive sensors – Strain Gage
• Strain Gage – Device designed to exhibit a change
in resistance as a result of experiencing strain to
measure extremely small displacement in the
order of nanometer.
• Used to indicate torque, force, pressure, etc.
• Output is change in resistance due to strain, which
can be converted into voltage.
5
Stress
On the surface, the average
force per area is denoted as
F (N )
= = 2
A (m )
A = xy Stress
-solid
(cf. Pressure)
F = mg -liquid, gas
F is sometimes called the “LOAD”
Strain
L
F
( m)
= =
L ( m)
F
Strain
(Dimensionless)
& CURVE
① Brittle material (eg. glass)
n rupture
Broken: Brittle material’s property
Non-linear
Linear region
; elastic region (like spring)
Not linear over a wide range
& CURVE
② Ductile material (eg. Al, Steel)
ys n
PL rupture
rupture PL
rupture
;Al Steel
elastic region plastic elastic plastic
region region region
= E
For elastic region ( Linear region )
Young’s modulus
( < PL)
(cf. y = kx)
(modulus of elasticity)
In Summary...
F
= =
A L
= E
Cantilever
L
F
= E
F
=E
A L
E : constant
A & L are almost constant
F = AE = AE
L Provided that you can
measure , it is possible to
calculate F
Strain gage is widely used to measure F
The Poisson's Ratio (y) of a material
• is defined as the negative ratio of the strain in
the transverse direction (perpendicular to the
force) to the strain in the axial direction
(parallel to the force). Poisson's Ratio for steel,
for example, ranges from 0.25 to 0.3.
The Principle of Weighing Machine
F = AE = mg
L
Able to derive ‘m’
The electrical resistance strain is a metal wire
or metal foil strip which is wafer-like and can
be stuck onto surfaces like a postage stamp.
Strain-gauge
Typical bonded strain gages
Strain Gages
Substrate
A : resistivity
8XL
Eight X Electrical
times length
L
Electrical wire R=
A
The relation between
Strain and Resistor
Strain Gages
Partial Derivative in order to know the relation to each component
R L L
= R =
A A
L R
R= = RL = L
A L A A
R − L L
= 2 RA = − 2 A
A A A
Strain Gages
L
R= (1)
A
The differential change in R is found by taking the differential
R = R + RL + RA
dL LdA L d
dividing members of dR = − + (2)
(2) by corresponding A A2 A
members of (1) and
introducing R L dA d
incremental values = − +
R L A
Resistor Strain
We must determine the relationship between the strain
and the change in resistance
R L dA d
= − +
R L A
The term dL/L is the axial strain a
The term dA/A can be D2
A=
evaluated by considering 4
This equation can be dA dD
=2
differentiated to obtain A D
dD/D, is known as the transverse strain εt
Solid state physics provides the following relationship
between the axial and the transverse strain:
t = − a Where is the Poisson’s ratio
Solid state physics provides the following relationship
between the axial and the transverse strain:
t = − a Where is the Poisson’s ratio
D
t
=− = − D
a L
L
R L dD d
= −2 +
R L D
R L d
= (1 + 2 ) +
R L
Strain gages
L
D D − D
The gage factor, G, is used to compare various strain-gage
materials 0 if d = 0
R / R /
G= = (1 + 2 ) +
L / L L / L
For most metals = 0.3
For metal strain gages G ~ 1.6 – 2.2
Semiconductor has larger G (100 ~ 170 )
but more sensitive to temperature!! 21
When strain gauges measure the changing
dimensions of an object, they are measuring strain.
Mechanical strain ε = ΔL / L
When subject to strain, its resistance R changes,
the fractional change in resistance ΔR/R being
proportional to the mechanical strain i.e.
Electrical strain ΔR/R= G . ΔL/L
where G is the gage factor
R varies between 50 Ω and 2KΩ
(for metal strain gages; G 1.6 – 2.2 )
Strain gage signal conditioning
Potential Divider
Potential Divider with
differential amplifier
STRAIN GAGE SENSITIVITY
• Strain measurement involves very small displacements.
• Therefore to measure strain requires accurate
measurement of a very small change of resistance
Example:
To measure a strain of 500 microstrain, with strain gage
factor = 2. Then R=G = 2 x 500 10−6 or 0.1%
If the strain gage has R=120 W (typical for a strain gage to
measure strain) R=0.12 W
which is a very small resistance change too small to be
accurately measured using ordinary voltmeters
• To measure such small changes in resistance, a bridge
circuit is needed to convert this change in resistance to the
change in voltage
The Wheatstone bridge
For a bridge circuit to be "balanced"
there is zero voltage between the
two opposite corners of the circuit
(where the battery does not
connect)
R3 R4
Vo = − Vs
R2 + R3 R1 + R4
Then to balance the bridge
R3R1 - R4R2=0
OR
R3/R2 = R4/R1
Usually one of the resistors is a variable or adjustable so
that it is varied until the balance condition is reached.
21 March, 2023 26
Strain Gauge
R3 R1
R2
Rs
21 March, 2023 27
STRAIN GAGE BRIDGE CIRCUIT
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
For the Wheatstone bridge arrangement
R3 R4
Vo = − Vs
R2 + R3 R1 + R4
For example strain gage is in R3
The initial resistance of strain gage is R3i
Then to balance the bridge
R3iR1 - R4R2=0 OR R3i/R2 = R4/R1
Then if the gage is strained R3=R3i+R3
R1R3
Vo = Vs
( R2 + R3i + R3 )( R1 + R4 )
R3 small compared to R3i and can be neglected a = Vo
(R2 + R3i )2
Vo become linear function of R3 then Vs SR2 R3i
EXAMPLE
A single strain gage has a nominal resistance of 120 W and a
gage factor of 2.06. For a quarter bridge with 120 W fixed
resistor, what will be the voltage output with a strain of
1000 strain for a supply voltage of 3 V?
Solution:
Using equation a = Vo
(R2 + R3i )2
Vs SR2 R3i
2
V (120 + 120 )
1000 10−6 = out Vout = 1.544 mV
3 2.06 120 120
Strain Gauge Bridge (one sensor)
R R
VS Vout
R + ΔR R
Vout = VS[(R+ΔR)/(R+ R+ΔR) - R/(2R)], then
Vout = VS[R+ΔR /(2R+ΔR) - 1/2], then
Vout = VS.ΔR/2(2R + ΔR) or VS.ΔR/4R if R >> ΔR
When ΔR = 0, then Vout = 0
Strain gauge bridge (2 sensors)
Temperature compensation
R- ΔR R
R+ΔR
tension
VS Vout
compression
R- ΔR
R + ΔR R
Vout = VS[(R + ΔR)/(R + ΔR + R - ΔR) - R/2R]
Vout = VS[(R + ΔR) /(2R) - 1/2]
Vout =VS. ΔR/2(2R + ΔR) …. slight non-linearity at high loads
ΔR/4R if R >> ΔR
Load cell bridge (4 sensors)
increased sensitivity, linearity
R- ΔR R + ΔR
VS Vout
R + ΔR R- ΔR
Vout = VS[(R + ΔR)/(2R) - (R - ΔR)/(2R)]
Vout = VS. (ΔR /R)
SEVERAL BRIDGE ARRANGEMENTS
quarter bridge circuit half bridge circuit
full bridge circuit
increased
sensitivity, linearity
Properties of common strain gage material
Temperature
Gage Factor Coefficient of
Material Composition
(Sensitivity) Resistance
(10-6/C)
Constantan 45% Ni, 55% Cu 2.0 15
36% Ni, 52% Fe,
Isoelastic 8% Cr, 4% (Mn, 3.5 200
Si, Mo)
74% Ni, 20% Cr,
Karma 2.3 20
3% Fe, 3% Al
Monel 67% Ni, 33% Cu 1.9 2000
Silicon p-type 100 to 170 70 to 700
Silicon n-type -140 to –100 70 to 700
Disadvantages of Semiconductor Strain Gages
• The strain-resistance relationship is nonlinear
• They are brittle and difficult to mount on curved surfaces.
• The maximum strain that can be measured is smaller
• They are more costly
• They have a much larger temperature sensitivity.
Application & Installation
• The output of a strain gage circuit is a very low-level voltage
signal requiring a sensitivity of 100 µV or better.
• The low level of the signal makes it particularly susceptible
to unwanted noise from other electrical devices.
• Capacitive coupling caused by the lead wires' running too
close to AC power cables or ground currents are potential
error sources in strain measurement.
• Other error sources may include magnetically induced
voltages when the lead wires pass through variable magnetic
fields, unwanted contact resistances of lead wires, insulation
failure, and thermocouple effects at the junction of
dissimilar metals.
• The sum of such interferences can result in significant signal
degradation.
Shielding
• Most electric interference and noise problems can be
solved by shielding and guarding.
• A shield around the measurement lead wires will
intercept interferences and may also reduce any errors
caused by insulation degradation.
• Shielding also will guard the measurement from
capacitive coupling.
• If the measurement leads are routed near
electromagnetic interference sources such as
transformers, twisting the leads will minimize signal
degradation due to magnetic induction.
• By twisting the wire, the flux-induced current is
inverted and the areas that the flux crosses cancel out.
Problem……..
The bridge circuit in the Figure is supposed to respond to changes in
specimen strain, but explain what will happen to the voltage measured
across this bridge circuit (VAB) if the specimen's temperature increases
(with no stress applied), assuming that the bridge begins in a balanced
condition with no strain on the gauge, at room temperature. Assume a
positive value for the strain gauge conductors.
21 March, 2023 38
Temperature compensation
Any change in resistance of RG caused by change in
temperature will be compensated by the dummy gage
resulting in only strain imposed in active RG being
detected
