Name: Dan Lhyona V.

Frasco Date: March 29, 2025

Epicurean Ethics

Key Ideas

Epicurean philosophy is centered on atomic theory and materialism, it says that everything,
including the soul, consists of atoms and void, rejecting the notion of immaterial forces governing
existence. Since the soul is material, it does not survive death, making the idea of an afterlife or divine
punishment baseless. Central to Epicurean thought is the belief that pleasure is the highest good, but
not in the form of indulgence; rather, true pleasure is attained by minimizing pain and living rationally.
According to Epicurus, knowledge is obtained through sensory perception, meaning that direct
experience, rather than abstract reasoning, is the foundation of truth. He also proposed the idea of
atomic swerve, a small randomness in atomic motion that allows for free will, preventing strict
determinism. Lastly, he viewed mental disturbance (tarakhê) as the root of suffering, emphasizing that
unnecessary fears and desires cause most human unhappiness.

Core Beliefs

Epicurean ethical system starts with hedonism. Its distinction is evident in the belief that the
greatest pleasure is not indulgence but the absence of pain and mental distress. This philosophy is also
empirical, holding that reality is understood through sensory perception and mental images, rejecting
the idea of innate knowledge. Epicureans advocate for moderation and simplicity, arguing that true
happiness arises from satisfying only natural and necessary desires, such as food, shelter, and
companionship, rather than pursuing luxury. They see friendship and community as essential for a
fulfilling life, considering strong personal relationships a greater source of security than wealth or power.
Epicureans strongly oppose superstition and fear of the gods, asserting that religious beliefs based on
divine punishment are false and only serve to disturb the mind. They emphasize rational decision-
making, teaching that not all pleasures should be pursued indiscriminately, as some immediate pleasures
lead to long-term suffering, and true wisdom lies in choosing wisely between them.
Epicurean Practices

Epicurean philosophy promotes a simple way of life, advising the pursuit of only the necessities of
existence, basic sustenance, shelter, and meaningful social life, while avoiding unnecessary luxuries. They
desire to overcome the fear of death. Desire is categorized into necessary, natural, and empty, with
empty desires arising from false beliefs and leading to unnecessary suffering. In practical matters, it
warns against politics and competition, viewing the pursuit of power and wealth as sources of anxiety
that distract from true happiness. Followers often have daily engagement with philosophy is encouraged
to dispel false beliefs and cultivate a peaceful mind. Lastly, they upholds deep friendships as the most
reliable source of happiness and security in life.

References

Beard, Kristen (2015) "To Avoid Pain or Die Trying: A Philosophical interpretation of Epicureanism,"
Pursuit - The Journal of Undergraduate Research at The University of Tennessee: Vol. 6 : Iss. 1 ,
Article 4. https://doi.org/10.7290/pur6tsiw

Konzman, David “Epicurus. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy” Fall 2022 Edition, The Metaphysics
Research Lab, Stanford University, 2022,
https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2022/entries/epicurus/.
Name: Dan Lhyona V. Frasco Date: March 29, 2025
Program & Section: BSA 2B Subject: Ethics

Stoic Ethics

Core Beliefs

Stoicism asserts that true happiness comes from virtue, not external factors like wealth or health. It
teaches that virtue is the only good, and everything else, including wealth, reputation, health, is
indifferent. Humans should live in harmony with nature by aligning their reason with the universe's
rational order. Stoicism emphasizes the distinction between what we can control and what we cannot.
Negative emotions arise from incorrect judgments and can be controlled through reason, leading to
emotional resilience. Ultimately, happiness is found by focusing on internal virtue, not external
circumstances.

Key Principles

Stoicism centers on four cardinal virtues: wisdom (knowledge of good and bad), courage (resilience in
adversity), justice (fairness toward others), and temperance (self-control). The Dichotomy of Control
teaches that we should focus on what we can control, actions and desires, while accepting what we
cannot control. Stoic practices like apatheia (freedom from destructive emotions) and amor fati (love of
fate) encourage embracing life's challenges and accepting fate. The principle of memento mori reminds
us of our mortality, prompting a focus on virtue. Ultimately, Stoicism teaches self-sufficiency, finding
happiness through inner virtue rather than external success.

Key Figures in Stoicism

Key figures in Stoicism include Cicero, a Roman philosopher who popularized Stoic ideas; Musonius
Rufus, who emphasized practical philosophy and taught Epictetus; and Hierocles, who expanded Stoic
ethics and cosmopolitanism. Posidonius integrated Stoic thought with science, and Justus Lipsius revived
Stoicism during the Renaissance. Stoics like Panaetius adapted Stoic philosophy for Roman culture, while
philosophers like Cornutus and Cleomedes contributed to Stoic theology and physics.
Core Stoic Figures

The Stoic school was founded by Zeno of Citium, who stressed virtue and rationality. Cleanthes, his
successor, contributed to Stoic theology, while Chrysippus systematized Stoic logic and ethics. Roman
Stoics like Seneca wrote on practical ethics, emphasizing virtue in governance. Epictetus, a former slave,
focused on self-discipline and the Dichotomy of Control. Marcus Aurelius, the Roman Emperor, applied
Stoic philosophy to leadership, reflecting on life and virtue in his Meditations. Together, these figures
shaped Stoicism into a practical guide for living virtuously.

References

Sellars, J. (2006). Stoicism (1st ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315712093

Durand, Marion, Simon Shogry, and Dirk Baltzly. "Stoicism." The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy,
edited by Edward N. Zalta and Uri Nodelman, Spring 2023, Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford
University, https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2023/entries/stoicism/.
Name: Dan Lhyona V. Frasco Date: March 29, 2025
Program & Section: BSA 2B Subject: Ethics

Virtue Ethics

Core Focus

Aristotle's Virtue Ethics centers on developing virtues as stable character dispositions rather than
focusing solely on individual actions. He believes that a virtuous person is someone whose character
naturally leads them to act in ways that are in line with reason, promoting human flourishing
(eudaimonia). This emphasis on character over isolated actions marks a departure from other moral
theories, like Utilitarianism or Kantian Ethics, which focus primarily on evaluating specific actions. For
Aristotle, the central question is "How should I be?" rather than "What should I do?" This agent-centered
approach highlights the importance of cultivating virtuous traits that shape a person’s overall moral life.
Similarly, the Lugbara people also focus on the development of virtues as deeply ingrained traits, but
they place a greater emphasis on communal values and ancestral teachings in shaping moral character.

Emphasis

One of the key concepts in Aristotle's Virtue Ethics is the "Golden Mean," which asserts that virtue lies
between two extremes known to be as deficiency and excess. For example, courage is the mean
between cowardice (deficiency) and rashness (excess). The virtuous response to emotions like anger or
fear is not a matter of avoiding feelings, but of responding appropriately in a balanced and reasoned
way. The emphasis is on acting in moderation and aligning one’s actions with reason. The Lugbara
tradition also stresses balance but in a broader sense, emphasizing virtues such as justice, kindness, and
self-control as balanced responses to various life situations. Both Aristotle and the Lugbara see virtue as
a dynamic process, not a rigid standard, allowing for different expressions of virtue depending on
context.

Examples of Virtues

Aristotle provides many examples of virtues and their corresponding vices, such as courage (the Golden
Mean between cowardice and rashness), patience (between lack of spirit and irascibility), and generosity
(between stinginess and profligacy). These virtues are not isolated actions but consistent dispositions
toward appropriate responses in a variety of situations. Similarly, the Lugbara emphasize virtues like
justice (fairness in society), wisdom (rational action), and kindness (promoting goodwill). These virtues
are viewed not only as moral ideals but as practical behaviors that individuals must embody through
consistent practice. In both traditions, virtue is not a one-time act but an enduring character trait that
guides one’s actions in a range of situations, ensuring alignment with reason and moral order.

How to Develop Virtues

Both Aristotle and the Lugbara agree that developing virtue requires continuous practice and habit.
Aristotle famously said, "We are what we repeatedly do. Excellence, then, is not an act but a habit."
Virtues are cultivated through repeated actions, much like skills are honed through practice. A person
does not simply acquire virtue through intellectual understanding, but through habitual behavior that
aligns with moral reasoning. Similarly, the Lugbara stress the importance of communal involvement and
learning from role models, particularly elders, who guide individuals in practicing virtue. Regularly
performing virtuous acts, such as demonstrating kindness, fairness, or courage, helps to internalize these
qualities, making them second nature. Reflection on one’s actions is also essential to ensure that they
align with virtuous living, allowing individuals to grow and refine their moral character over time. Both
traditions highlight that virtue is a lifelong journey of consistent effort, requiring both practice and
reflection.

References

Mark Dimmock and Andrew Fisher, Ethics for A-Level. Cambridge, UK: Open Book Publishers, 2017,
https://doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0125

Van Hooft, Stan. Understanding Virtue Ethics. 1st ed., Routledge, 2006.
https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315712130.