Introduction to Magnetism

What is a magnet?
A magnet is a substance that has two regions called poles
where the magnetic effect is strongest. These two regions are
usually saturated near the end of each of the magnet and no
matter how small a magnet is it must have these two poles and
its properties.
What is Magnetic field?
Magnetic field is the field that surrounds a magnet. It is
basically the region surrounding a magnet where magnetic
force is felt or experienced. Like electric line of force magnetic
line of force can also be drawn. The compass needle is used to
draw the magnetic line of force.

1
Properties of Magnetic Flux
1. Magnetic field line originated from the north to the
south.
2. Magnetic field at any point in space is a vector.
3. The numbers of magnetic line per unit cross-sectional
area is proportional to the magnitude of the magnetic field.
4. Magnetic field lines are drawn so that the tangent to a
field line at any point gives the direction of the magnetic
field at that point.
5. Unlike pole attracts while like poles repel.

2
How to Setup Magnetic Fields
They are set up in the following ways:
 By moving electrically charged particles
(electron flowing in current carrying
conductors).
 By presence of elementary particles e.g
electron are known to have some internal
magnetic field around them.
 Presence of a physical magnet.

3
Relationship between Electricity and Magnetism
One of the major significant connection or relationship
between electricity and magnetism is that electric current
produces magnetic field.
This implies that when current flows in a wire, there is a
magnetic field around the wire.
The magnetic field lines of a wire carrying current are in form
of circles around the wire.
A simple method of determining the direction of magnetic field
line around a wire carrying a current is the right hand rule.

4
Right Hand Rule states that if one holds the wire with the right
hand in such a way that the thumb is in the direction of the
current, then the fingers will encircle the wire in the direction
of the magnetic field lines.

5
Magnitude of a Magnetic Field
FB
B
qv sin 
FB  q vB sin   qv  B (1)
where, FB = force magnitude of the magnetic field, q =
electron of the charge, v = velocity in the field, ϕ = angle
between the direction v and the magnetic field, B.
The unit for magnetic field is Telsa (T) and 1 Telsa = 104 Gauss
Eq 1 is the magnetic force law, also known as the Lorentz
force law (It is named after Hendrik Lorentz, who first derived
it in 1895.). It describes the force experienced by a charged
particle moving in a magnetic field.

6
Motion of a Charged Particle in a Magnetic Field
Assuming a particle of mass m and charge q moves normally
(perpendicularly) i.e. 900 in a uniform magnetic field.
If the angle they form is 900
 FB  qvB (2)
The side way force will produce a centripetal force to make the
particle move in a circle of radius r.
mv 2
 qvB 
r
mv (3)
r
qB
The radius r is called a cyclotron radius because of its
importance in cyclotron. They are one of the easiest particles
of an accelerator.
Cyclotron frequency can also be determined from Eqn. (3);
7
 v FB mv
wc  ;sin ce, v  and , r 
r qB qB
qB (4)
 wc 
m

qB
wc  2 f c 
m
But,  f c  qB (5)
2 m
 A cyclotron is a type of particle accelerator that uses a
combination of electric and magnetic fields to accelerate
charged particles to high energies.
 It was invented by Ernest O. Lawrence in 1929 and was the
first particle accelerator to produce high-energy particles.

8
 A cyclotron consists of two hollow, D-shaped electrodes
(called dees) that are placed in a vacuum chamber between
the poles of a large magnet. The dees are connected to a
radiofrequency oscillator, which creates an alternating
electric field between the dees. The charged particles are
injected into the center of the cyclotron and are accelerated
by the electric field as they travel from one dee to the other.
 The magnetic field causes the particles to travel in a circular
path, and as they gain energy, they spiral outward.
 The frequency of the radiofrequency oscillator is
synchronized with the particles' circular motion, so that the
particles are always accelerated as they pass through the
dees. This allows the particles to reach very high energies
in a relatively short amount of time.

9
 Cyclotrons are used in a variety of applications, including
nuclear medicine, basic research, and particle physics.
 In nuclear medicine, cyclotrons are used to produce
radioactive isotopes, which are used in diagnostic and
therapeutic procedures.
 In basic research, cyclotrons are used to study the
properties of subatomic particles.
 And in particle physics, cyclotrons are used to create
beams of high-energy particles for experiments.

 Here are some of the advantages of cyclotrons:

 They are relatively inexpensive to build and operate.
 They can accelerate particles to very high energies in a
relatively short amount of time.

10
  They can be used to accelerate a wide variety of charged
particles.
 Here are some of the disadvantages of cyclotrons:
 They can only accelerate particles to a certain
maximum energy.
 They can be large and bulky.
 They can produce harmful radiation.

11
Question:
A proton moves along an ark of 30cm radius when moving
perpendicular to a magnetic field of 1.0 telsa. Calculate the
cyclotron frequency and the momentum of the proton (mass of
the proton = 1.6×10-27 )

12
Solution
Angular cyclotron frequency, wc = qB / m
wc = (1.6 × 10^-19 C) * (1.0 T) / (1.6 × 10^-27 kg)
wc = 1 × 10^8 Hz

fc = qB / (2πm)
fc = (1.6 x 10^-19 C) x (1.0 Tesla) / (2π x 1.6 x 10^-27 kg)
fc ≈ 5.0 x 10^7 Hz

Momentum (p) can be calculated using the formula:

p = m*v
where m is the mass of the particle and v is its velocity.

13
The velocity of the proton can be calculated using the
equation for the circumference of a circle:

Circumference = 2πr
Given:
Radius (r) = 30 cm = 0.3 m

Using the formula for the circumference:

Circumference = 2π(0.3 m) ≈ 1.88 m

Since the proton travels along the circumference in one

revolution, the distance travelled is equal to the
circumference.

Now, we can calculate the velocity, v of the proton:

14
v = distance / time

Since the time taken to complete one revolution is the period

(T), we can rewrite the formula as:
v = 2πr / T

But the period (T) is the reciprocal of the frequency (f):

T=1/f

Therefore:
v = 2πr / (1/f)
v = 2πrf

Substituting the values:

v = 2π(0.3 m)(5.0 x 10^7 Hz) ≈ 9.42 x 10^7 m/s
15
Now, we can calculate the momentum:
p = (1.6 x 10^-27 kg) x (9.42 x 10^7 m/s)
p ≈ 1.51 x 10^-19 kg m/s

16
A Magnetic Field at a Point Due to a Current (Ampere’s
Circuital Law)
It has been proven experimentally that the magnetic field at a
point close to a wire carrying current is directly proportional to
the current and inversely proportional to the distance from the
wire.
I 0 I
B  B  (6)
r 2 r
Where µo is proportionally constant called the permeability of
free space (4π×10-7 Tm/A).
The relationship between the magnetic field around a wire and
the current in the wire irrespective of the shape is given by the
expression;
 
 B l   I
0 (7a)

17
Integral form as;
 

 B.d l   I   I
0 0 enclosed (7b)
Ampere’s law can also be stated as; the line integral of B
around a closed path is equal to the net current enclosed
multiplied by the permeability of material.
Eqn. (7) is the mathematical form of Ampere’s law and it is
used for the computation of magnetic field for highly
symmetric distribution.

General Application of Ampere’s Law

 To determine the magnetic field strength at a distance from
a long uniform wire

18
 0 I
B
2 r (8)
 Determine the magnetic field due to long straight
cylindrical conductor
0 J  r 2
B
2 r
I I
Re call , J  J 2
A a
0 Ir (9)
B 
2 a 2
 If we want to determine the field at a point outside the
cylindrical wire;

19
Re call ,  B .dl   0 I
 B 2 r   0 I
0I (10)
B 
2 r
 For calculation of the magnetic field for a long cylindrical
shell

B

0 r 2  r12 

2 r r22  r12  (11)
Please note that as r tends to r1, Eqn. (11) tends zero, but as r
tends r2 it tends to the expression of B for a long uniform wire.
 For the calculation of a magnetic field of a solenoid, A
solenoid is a long cylindrical coil of wire consisting of
many loops.
20
 0 NI
B
l (12a)
N is the total number of turns of wire in solenoid.
We can also write Eqn. (12a) as;
N
B  0 nI  sin ce, n 
l (12b)
Where n is the numbers of loops per length.
From Eqn. (12b), it is obvious that the magnetic field inside a long solenoid
depends on the current (I) and the numbers of loops per unit length (n)
and it does not depend on the position of the point within the solenoid
provided that we are far from the ends.

21
Force between two Parallel Conduction
If we consider two parallel wires like the diagram below that
are separated by a distance r and each of them carry current say
I1 and I2 respectively.

22
Since a wire carrying current produces a magnetic field around
it, then each wire is inside the magnetic field set up by the
other. Thus, each is expressed to have a force on the other.
Therefore, the force per unit length on each wire is given by;
F 0 I1 I 2

l 2 r (13)
There are two important points when using this equation:
It must be noted that this equation gives the force per unit but
not the force on the wire.
Both wires experience an equal and opposite force (Newton’s
third law of motion) and the force between the wires are
attractive if the parallel current runs in the opposite direction.

23
The attractive force between the parallel wires defines Ampere
precisely. For example, if two wires are 1m apart and the
current I1 and I2 are equal to I;
F 0 I 2
 ,
l 2 r
but , 0  4 107
F 4 107  I 2 (14)
   2  107 I 2
l 2
If the current I, is adjusted until the force by unit length is
exactly 2×10-7 I2 N/m, the value of the current is defined as 1A.
Hence, we can now define 1A as the current flowing in each of
the two long parallel conductor 1m apart, which results in a
force of exactly 2×10-7 N/m2 of length on each conductor.

24
Biot-Sarvant Law
In applying ampere law, for determining the magnetic field due
to wire carrying current, it is assumed that the magnetic field
is constant and can be removed from the integral sign in
ampere’s law (because the magnetic field is constant); this is
so because we are assuming that the symmetry of the given
current is great.
But if the symmetry of the current is small, Ampere’s law
cannot be applicable, we therefore, need to use or apply the
Biot-Sarvant law.

According to Biot-Sarvant a current element Idl set up a

differential magnetic field dB at a fixed point as shown in the
figure below:
25
Biot-Sarvant law states that if dl represents any infinitesimal
(very small) length of wire along which current is flowing; then

26
the magnetic field dB at distance r due to this element of
current is given by:
 
 0 Idl r
dB  
4 r 2 (15a)
Where r is a displacement vector from the element dl to the
field point which is q
Eqn. (15a) can also be written as;
0 Id sin 
dB 
4 r 2 (15b)
Where ϕ is the angle between dl and r
To find the resultant magnetic field B at a point q, we add the
contribution dB from the entire current element Idl that make
up the current distribution;

27
 
B   dB (15c)

Application of Biot-Sarvant Law

 Determination of magnetic field near a long straight wire
carrying current.
 Determination of the magnetic field at a point on the axis of
the circular loop.

28
Introduction to Electromagnetism
Faraday in his early experiments discovered that steady current
has no detachable effect on a near-by circuit. He therefore
concluded that steady magnetic field does not induce current
in a closed circuit but changing magnetic field does.

Faraday’s law of Electromagnetic Induction

It states that the emf induced in a coil of wire is directly
proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic flux linking
the coil. This implies that the induced emf (ε) in a closed loop
equals the negative of the time rate of change of the magnetic
flux (ϕB) through the loop.

29
 dB

dt
dB d
  N  N  B A cos  
dt dt
   (16)
 B    B . N dl  BA
 
 
N is the number of loops in the wire and A is the area of the
surface. The unit is Telsa metre square or Weber (Tm2 or Wb)
The negative sign in Faraday’s law indicates that the time rate
of change and the emf are in opposite direction which is
specified by Lenz’s law; because Lenz’s law tells us about
direction.

30
Lenz’s Law
Lenz’s law states that the direction of any induced emf is
always such that it opposes the change that generated the emf.
In other words, an induced emf always gives rise to a current
whose magnetic field opposes the original change in the
magnetic flux.
We can therefore conclude that Faraday’s law has to do with
steady magnetic field and it does not include current in a closed
circuit but changing magnetic field does.

31
Examples/Assignment Four
1. If an electron has a velocity V = (2×106i + 3×106j) m/s
moves through a magnetic field B = (0.03i – 0.15j) T.
Calculate the force on the electron and the magnitude of the
magnetic field.
2. A proton is observed to move along an arc of 32cm
radius when moving perpendicular to a magnetic field of
1.4T. Find the cyclotron frequency and the momentum of
the proton.
3. A circular coil of 160 turns has a radius of 1.9cm. Find
the current that produces a dipole moment of 2.3Am2 and
the maximum torque that the coil carrying this current can
experience in a 35mT magnetic field.
4. The magnetic flux through a loop increases according to
the relationship: ϕ = 6t2 + 7t, where ϕ is in milliweber and
32
 t in seconds. Find the magnitude of the induced emf in the
loop when t = 2s.

Home Work Four

An electron in a TV tube is moving at 720×106m/s in a
magnetic field of strength 83mT. Calculate the maximum
force, the least force and the angle between V and B at one
point the acceleration of the electron is 4.9×106 m/s2.

33
 Introduction to Modern Physics
It was in the 19th century that the idea about of an inside atomic
structure was proposed.

Models of Atomic Structure

J.J Thompson Atomic Model (Plum-, Pudding+ Model)

In 1897, he proposed that atom was a neutral particle made of
positive charge with lumps of negative charge within it. The
radius of atomic structure was approximately 1.0×10-10 m and
the field strength on the surface of the atom was approximately
1.4×1011 v/m. By so doing he discovered electron and
successfully measured its charge to mass ratio (e/m).

34
Rutherford Atomic Model
He discovered that the positive charge is concentrated on the
nucleus and the electron gives it’s the property or proper
understanding of an atom. The radius of the nucleus is
approximately 6.9×10-5 m, while the field strength on the
surface of the atoms is about 3.0× 1019v/m

Structure of the Nucleus

There are two basic particles that make up the nucleus: the
proton which is the positively charged stable particle and the
neutron which is the neutral particle and it is only stable when
in the nucleus.
All nuclei, except that of hydrogen which has only one proton
has both types of particles. In most cases the neutron is always
more than the proton.
35
The force that holds this particle together is called the Nuclear
Force; this force acts only over a small distance in the nucleus.

The Proton (Atomic Number, Z) is the number of protons

that are present in the nucleus of an atom.

The Nucleon Number (Mass Number, A) is the number of

proton and neutron in the nucleus of an atom.

Electron Volt (eV)

As stated earlier, the electron gives a proper understanding of
an atom. When an electron is accelerated through a potential
difference of one volt, the energy that is gained is what we call
eV and it is approximately 1.6 × 10-19 J.

36
Thermionic Emission (1880 by Edison)
It is the emission of free electrons from hot metal surface. The
rate at which this emission occurs varies from metal to metal.

Cathode Rays Tube

The properties of cathode rays’ tube:
 It has rectilinear propagation
 It causes fluorescence
 It possesses kinetic energy
 It is deflected by both electric and magnetic field.

The Electron Gun (Read it please)

2eV
Note that the electron velocity  (1)
m

37
Specific Charge
It is the charge to mass ratio of a charged particle (q/m). But
for the electron the quantity is denoted by e/m.

Binding Energy
Mathematically, the binding energy is the total energy in the
nucleus (bond system minus the combined energy of the
separated neutron or mass number.

Radioactivity
 Radioactivity refers to the spontaneous emission of
radiation from the nucleus of an atom. It is a natural
property exhibited by certain isotopes, known as
radioactive isotopes or radioisotopes, which are unstable
and undergo radioactive decay.
38
 Radioactive decay occurs when the nucleus of a
radioactive atom undergoes a transformation to achieve a
more stable configuration. During this process, various
types of radiation are emitted, including alpha particles
(helium nuclei), beta particles (electrons or positrons), and
gamma rays (high-energy photons). The emission of these
particles and rays is accompanied by a release of energy.
 The rate at which a radioactive isotope undergoes decay
is measured by its half-life. The half-life is the time it takes
for half of the radioactive material to decay and is unique to
each radioisotope. Some radioisotopes have very short half-
lives, while others have extremely long half-lives, ranging
from fractions of a second to billions of years.
 Radioactivity has both beneficial and harmful effects. In
terms of beneficial applications, radioisotopes are used in
39
 various fields such as medicine (e.g., diagnostic imaging
and cancer treatment), industry (e.g., gauging thickness and
density), and scientific research (e.g., tracing biological
processes and determining the age of objects through
radiometric dating).

 However, exposure to high levels of radioactivity or

prolonged exposure to certain radioactive materials can be
hazardous to human health and the environment. The
ionizing radiation emitted by radioactive isotopes can
damage living tissues and DNA, leading to health issues,
including increased risks of cancer and genetic mutations.
 To ensure safety, radioactive materials are handled and
stored with strict regulations and precautions. Monitoring
and controlling radiation exposure through the use of
40
 shielding, proper containment, and adherence to safety
protocols are essential in minimizing the risks associated
with radioactivity.

Radioactivity is the spontaneous emission of radiation from

the surface of a substance. There are three radiation particles
namely;
1. Alpha
2. Beta
3. Gamma
The time rate of change of nucleus is directly proportional to
the nucleus.

41
Mathematically,
N
N
t (2)
 N   N t
The negative sign implies that N decreases with time (that is
ΔN is negative)
∆N is the number of nuclei
∆t is the small-time interval
N is the radioactive nuclei
 is the proportionality constant known as the Decay Constant.

42
Decay Rate/Decay Activity (R)
The decay rate of a simple is the number of decays per seconds.
Mathematically,
N
R
t
 N (3)
If we use calculus to solve Eqn. (2), we find out that;
The disintegration of atomic nuclei obeys statistical law of
chance. The number of atoms disintegrating per second is
directly proportional to the number of atoms present at that
instant.

43
dN dN
N    N
dt dt
dN
   dt
dt
Integrating ;
dN
 dt    N
Log e N  C  t
Initially, t  0; N  N 0
 Loge N 0  C  C   Log e N 0
 Loge N  Loge N 0   t (4a)
 N  N
 Loge      t   e  t

N
 0 N0
 N  N 0 e  t
N  N 0 e  t (4b)
44
Where N is the number of radioactive nucleus present at time t
No is the number of radioactive nucleus present at time t = 0
e is Euler’s constant = 2.718
Any process that obeys Eqn. (4) are sometimes said to undergo
Exponential Decay

45
Half Life (T1/2)
Half-life of a radioactive substance is the time it takes for half
of a given number of a radioactive nucleus to decay.
We can derive T1/2 mathematically,
Re call , Eqn.(4); N  N 0 e t
N0
N , T  T1/2
2
N
 0  N 0 e  T1/2
2
 21  e  T1/2
taking log;
ln 21  lne T1/2  ln 2  T1/2 lne (5)
0.693  T1/2
0.693 0.693 ln 2
T1/ 2    
 T1/2 T1/2

46
The Mean Life of a Radioactive Sample
It is the average or mean time taken for a particle or an atom to
exist in a particle form. It is normally expressed as the inverse
or reciprocal of the decay constant.
Mathematically the mean life, T;
1 1
 
 0.693
T1/ 2

T 
T1/ 2
 T1/ 2  0.693T
(6)
0.693

47
Wave Particle Duality
Before we talk about this, we have to study Quantum Model
Physics, Newtonian Physics, Classical Physics to explain the
phenomenon of tiny particle.
Around the 20th century, scientist observed that Classical
Physics could not explain same certain phenomena like
 Spectra line of atom
 X-ray production
 Photoelectric and
 Compton effect
Why did Classical Physics fail to answer this question?
One of the major reasons why Classical Physics failed is due
to the fact that these phenomena are produced by interaction of
sub-atomic particles.

48
To solve this problem, scientist brought up Quantum Physics.
The cornerstone in Quantum Physics is that physical quantities
can exist in discrete or integral values, when physical quantity
exists in such integral values, we say such quantity is
quantized. Using the idea of quantization, scientists were now
able to use Quantum Physics to answer these phenomena.
 Photoelectric Effect
 Compton Effect [Arthur Compton]
 X-ray production
Phenomenon such as reflection, refraction, interference and
diffraction conclusively establish the wave nature of light
while phenomenon such as photoelectric effect, Compton
effect establishes the particle nature of light. These two aspects
seem to be in direct conflict; how can light be a wave and
particle at the same time. This apparent wave particle conflict
49
was resolved in 1928, when Bohr proposed the principle of
complementarity.
The principle of complementarity states that the wave
description and the particle description are complementary.
This implies that we need both descriptions to complete our
understanding of the nature of light but we never need to use
both descriptions at the same time (simultaneously) to describe
a single part of occurrence.
De Broglie in 1924, extended the wave particle concept to
matter, he ideal was that since light is dualistic in nature, if
nature is symmetric then particle like matter (electron, proton,
etc.) would sometimes behave as wave.
A wave is always associated with a wavelength and a
frequency. If a particle is to act as wave, then it should have a
wavelength,  and frequency, f. De Broglie postulated that a
50
free particle with rest mass, m moving with a non-relativistic
speed, v (meaning v << c) should have a De Broglie
wavelength related to its momentum, P.
P  mv
h h
   (7)
P mv
Eqn. (7) is the De Broglie Hypothesis and h is Planck’s
constant.
The assumption by De Broglie hypothesis that particle would
sometimes behave as wave, was a radical ideal and was
criticized by Physicist to theoretically establish the rabidity of
his hypothesis. He applies his hypothesis to Bohr’s model to

51
establish Bohr’s postulate that the angular momentum of the
electrons in the permitted orbits is quantized.
He believed that the motion of the electrons was guided by a
standing pilot wave that fit into the circumference of the
circular orbits. Hence, for orbits with radius r, and
circumference 2πr, the standing wave must satisfy the
condition;
2 r  n , n  1, 2,3,... (8)
 h 
Re call , 2 r  n  
 mv 
nh
 mvr   nL
2
h (9)
where, L 
2

52
Note: Nuclei found in the nature with atomic number greater
than that of lead (Z=81), are radioactive. Also, most artificial
elements with smaller atomic number are also radioactive.

53
 Isotopes
 Isotopes are variants of a chemical element that have the
same number of protons but differ in the number of
neutrons in their atomic nuclei. This means that isotopes of
the same element have identical atomic numbers but
different mass numbers.
 For example, carbon has three naturally occurring
isotopes: carbon-12 (12C), carbon-13 (13C), and carbon-14
(14C). These isotopes have 6 protons each (since carbon has
an atomic number of 6) but differ in the number of neutrons.
Carbon-12 has 6 neutrons, carbon-13 has 7 neutrons, and
carbon-14 has 8 neutrons.
 Isotopes exhibit similar chemical properties since they
have the same number of protons and, therefore, the same
electron configuration. However, they may have different
54
 physical properties, such as different atomic masses and
nuclear stability. Some isotopes are stable and do not
undergo radioactive decay, while others may be radioactive
and decay over time.
 Isotopes are commonly represented using the element's
symbol with the mass number as a superscript before the
symbol. For example, the isotopes of carbon are written as
12C, 13C, and 14C. The mass number is the sum of the
protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.
 Isotopes have various applications in fields such as
radiometric dating, nuclear medicine, isotopic labeling in
scientific research, and tracing chemical and biological
processes.

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 Particle emission

Particle emission is the release of subatomic particles from an atomic nucleus. It is
a type of radioactive decay, and it can occur in a variety of ways.
 The most common type of particle emission is alpha decay. In alpha decay, a
nucleus releases two protons and two neutrons, which form an alpha particle. Alpha
particles are very weakly penetrating, and they can be stopped by a sheet of paper
or a few centimeters of air.
 Another type of particle emission is beta decay. In beta decay, a neutron in the
nucleus decays into a proton, an electron, and an antineutrino. The electron is
emitted from the nucleus, while the proton and antineutrino remain in the nucleus.
Beta particles are more penetrating than alpha particles, and they can be stopped by
a few millimeters of aluminum or a few centimeters of lead.
 Gamma decay is a type of particle emission that does not involve the emission of
any particles. In gamma decay, a nucleus releases a high-energy photon. Gamma
rays are the most penetrating type of radiation, and they can only be stopped by
thick layers of lead or concrete.
 Particle emission can be used for a variety of purposes. It is used in medical
imaging, such as positron emission tomography (PET) scans. It is also used in
industry, such as in the production of nuclear power.

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 Particle emission can also be harmful to human health. Alpha particles and beta
particles can damage cells, and gamma rays can cause cancer. People who are
exposed to high levels of radiation may experience a variety of health problems,
including nausea, vomiting, hair loss, and death.

Here are some of the health risks associated with particle emission:
 Alpha particles: Alpha particles can damage cells by directly hitting them. They can
also damage cells by releasing energy when they are stopped by matter.
 Beta particles: Beta particles can damage cells by directly hitting them. They can
also damage cells by releasing energy when they are stopped by matter.
 Gamma rays: Gamma rays can damage cells by interacting with the electrons in the
cells. This can cause the electrons to be knocked out of their orbits, which can
damage the DNA in the cells.

The severity of the health risks associated with particle emission depends on the
type of particle, the energy of the particle, and the dose of radiation. The dose of
radiation is the amount of radiation that is absorbed by the body. The higher the
dose of radiation, the greater the risk of health problems.

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 There are a number of things that can be done to reduce the risk of health
problems from particle emission. These include:
 Eliminating or minimizing exposure to radiation: This can be done by working in a
safe environment, using protective gear, and following safety procedures.
 Getting regular medical checkups: This is important for people who have been
exposed to radiation, as it can help to detect any health problems early on.
 Taking steps to reduce the damage caused by radiation: This can be done by eating
a healthy diet, getting regular exercise, and avoiding smoking.

Particle emission is a serious issue that can have a significant impact on human
health. It is important to be aware of the risks associated with particle emission and
to take steps to reduce the risk of exposure.

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 Fission and Fusion
 Fission and fusion are both nuclear reactions, but they are
very different. In fission, a large nucleus is split into two
smaller nuclei. In fusion, two smaller nuclei are combined
to form a larger nucleus.
 Fission is a chain reaction, which means that each fission
event can cause multiple other fission events. This can lead
to a rapid release of energy, which is why fission is used in
nuclear weapons and nuclear power plants.
 Fusion is a very different process. It requires very high
temperatures and pressures to overcome the repulsive force
between the nuclei. However, fusion releases much more
energy per unit mass than fission.
 This is why fusion is the process that powers stars, and why
it is being studied as a potential source of energy on Earth.
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Here is a table that summarizes the key differences between
fission and fusion:
Property Fission Fusion
Type of Splits a large nucleus Combines two smaller
nuclear into two smaller nuclei to form a larger
reaction nuclei nucleus
Releases Yes Yes
energy
Chain reaction Yes No
Temperature Low High
and pressure
required
Potential Nuclear weapons, Powering stars, future
applications nuclear power plants source of energy on Earth

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 Both fission and fusion have the potential to be used to
generate electricity. However, fusion is much more
challenging to achieve. The temperatures and pressures
required for fusion are much higher than those required for
fission. This makes fusion reactors much more difficult and
expensive to build.
 Despite the challenges, fusion is a promising source of
energy. It has the potential to produce large amounts of
energy without emitting greenhouse gases. This makes it a
potential solution to the problem of climate change.
 Research into fusion is ongoing, and scientists are working
to develop fusion reactors that are efficient and cost-
effective. If successful, fusion could provide a clean and
abundant source of energy for the future.

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Examples/Assignment Five
1. Photoconductivity occurs in silicon oxide, when it is
illuminated with photon of energy 1.14eV or greater.
Calculate the corresponding wavelength.
2. A photon of orange light has a wavelength of 610nm.
Calculate the photon’s frequency and energy leaving your
answer in eV.
3. Calculate the energy of a quantum of light with
frequency of 5×1014Hz.
4. When ultraviolet light of frequency 1.3×1015 Hz is
shinned on a metal, photoelectrons are ejected with a
maximum energy of 1.8eV. Find the work function of the
metal in eV and the frequency.

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 5. If the activity of a radioactive sample reduces to 1/16 of
its initial value in 1hr 20mins. Calculate its half-life.

Home Work Five

The activity of a radioactive sample drops to 1/32 of its initial
value. If the half-life of the sample is 10.8hrs, calculate the total
time taken.

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