Autumn Semester (2025-26) Food Engineering Lab:01 23-07-2025

Aim
To study solar drying of food products

Objectives
1. To determine the drying kinetics of potato cylinders in an indirect solar dryer.

2. To plot graph between time of the day vs temperature variation at different locations

inside the dryer.

Agricultural and Food Engineering Department

Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur
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 23-07-2025

1. Introduction
• Drying is a simultaneous heat and mass transfer process resulting in removal of
moisture by evaporation from the food surface.

Air flow
Evaporation
Need of Drying
• To improve the shelf life of food products through Heat transfer Food sample Moisture transfer
reduction in moisture content of the products to
an extent that microorganisms can not grow Diffusion

• It is an important food preservation technique

• It also saves shipping and transportation costs as Fig. 1 Heat and moisture flow during hot air drying
volume and weight both decrease.

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Thermal drying
• It is the most common but highly energy-intensive dryers

• Harness the heat derived either from electricity or conventional energy resources, for
example coal, liquid fuel etc.

• Unavailability and intermittent supply of electricity to remote rural locations of the

developing countries

• Scarcity of fossil fuels with their rising cost of product and adverse environment impacts
emphasize the need of the utilization of solar energy as an alternative energy source.

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2. Theory Table: Moisture content food Products and Maximum
• Solar Drying—A Sustainable Way of Food Processing Temperature Allowable for Drying

• The application of solar energy in drying of agricultural Crop Initial MC (%) Final MC (%) Temperature (°C)

products has tremendous potential, since it can easily

provide the low temperature heating required for drying
Classification of Solar energy drying

Open sun drying Solar drying

Active solar dryers Passive solar dryer

(Forced convection) (Natural convection)

• Direct solar dryer

• Indirect solar dryer
• Mixed mode solar dryer

• Fan/blower is added • Air is heated and circulated

• Faster drying naturally by buoyancy force
• Required air flow can be • Inexpensive
supplied • Slower drying
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Principle of open sun drying Long wavelength
radiation loss to
• Products are dried on the ground, on concrete, ambient
Reflected
and even on roads under the sun. Short wavelength loss
solar radiations
• The solar radiation falling on the food product is Wind
Convective
losses
partly absorbed and partly reflected.
Crop
• The absorbed radiation and surrounding heated Heat absorbed
air heat the food surface. A part of this heat is
Conductive
utilized to evaporate the moisture from the crop losses to ground
Fig. 2 Working principle of open sun drying
surface to the surrounding air. The part of this
heat is lost through conduction to the ground to
the atmosphere.
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• Factors affecting rate of drying
• Solar radiation
• Ambient temperature External
• Wind velocity parameters
• Initial moisture content Internal
• Type of food material parameters
• Food absorptivity
• Mass of product per unit exposed area

• This traditional method of drying suffers from high product losses due to inadequate
drying, fungal growth, attack of insects, birds, rodents etc. resulting in poor quality
product.
• The reduced heat and mass transfer due to low ambient air conditions cause prolonged
drying time to achieve desirable moisture content.

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 Solar dryers 23-07-2025

1. Principle of direct solar dryer • A part of incident solar radiation on the glass cover is
Transparent reflected back to the atmosphere and remaining is
cover transmitted inside the cabinet dryer.
• Further a part of transmitted radiation is reflected
Convective back from the food sample and remaining part is
losses absorbed by the food surface.
Short wavelength
solar radiations • Due to absorption of solar radiation, the food
Wind Air out temperature increases and starts emitting long
wavelength radiation.
Long wavelength
radiation • The long wave radiations are not allowed to escape
Reflected to atmosphere due to the presence of glass cover.
loss
• The glass cover also served to reduce the convective
heat losses to the ambient resulting in the rise of
Crop
food temperature and drying chamber.
• Advantages:
• Direct solar dryers are generally simpler in
construction
Air in • They are less expensive
Fig. 3 Working principle of direct solar dryer
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 2. Principle of indirect solar dryer Air out23-07-2025
Chimney
• In an indirect solar dryer, the sun‫׳‬s heat is first
collected by the solar collectors and is then Short wavelength Crop
passed onto the dryer cabinet, where the solar radiations
drying occurs. Conductive and
• Ambient air is supplied to a solar air heater and Convective losses
is heated up in the solar air heater when it
comes in contact with absorber. The hot air is
supplied through a pipe/duct to the drying Reflected
chamber from the solar air collector. Dry air
• The advantage of this dryer is that localised
heat damage of food product does not occur
Conductive and Convective losses
because solar radiation is not incident directly
on the food due to opaque cover of drying Air in
chamber leading to good product quality in Fig. 4 Working principle of indirect solar dryer
terms of colour retention.

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 3. Principle of mixed mode solar dryer
Air out
Chimney
• Mixed-mode solar dryers combine the
features of the direct and indirect type Short wavelength Crop
solar radiations
solar dryers.
• The drying chamber is composed of Conductive and
Convective losses
transparent cover for allowing solar
radiation.
• The combination of solar radiation Reflected
Dry air
incident on the product and preheated
air in a solar collector is used for the
drying process. Conductive and Convective losses
Air in

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 Laboratory scale solar dryers developed at IIT Kharagpur

Direct solar dryer (DSD) Indirect solar dryer (ISD) Mixed-mode solar dryer (MSD)
Design variables
• Collector length and width
Process variables
• Insulation thickness • Mode of heat transfer
• Emissivity of absorber plate • Insolation
• Clearance between plate and glass • Temperature
• Tilt angle • Humidity
• Size of drying chamber
Agricultural and Food Engineering Department Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur
 Drying kinetics of food products 23-07-2025
Drying rate regimes
(a) Constant rate regime

Drying rate (kg water/h.m2)

(b) falling rate regime
(kg water/ kg dry solid)
Free Moisture content

Adjustment period:
AB and A’B

Mc

Drying time (h) Free Moisture content (kg water/ kg dry solid)
Fig. 5 Drying kinetics of food products Fig. 6 Drying rate curve of food products
• Constant rate period (BC): Moisture is unbound and evaporation takes place as it is occurring from a thin film of water.
• Falling rate period: Average moisture content has reached a critical value MC, dry spots start appearing on the surface and
drying rate starts reducing. Now, diffusion becomes the controlling mechanism of mass transfer.
• First falling rate period (CD): Often linear, Wetted area decreases until surface is completely dry at point D
• Second falling rate period (DE): rate of drying falls more rapidly,
• For grains: Mi < Mc
• Equilibrium Moisture content (E): Drying stops ultimately
• Vegetables and fruits: Mi >Mc
• Drying of most of the agricultural food materials takes place in falling rate period.
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3. Materials and methods
A. Equipment required
• Indirect solar dryer (self tracking indirect solar dryer)

B. Instruments required
• Weighing balance
• Thermocouple
• Pyranometer Thickness: 1 cm
Length: 5 cm
C. Food sample required Potato Cutter Potato
• Potato cylinder cylinder
Fig. 7 Sample preparation
D. Data analysis or
representation
• MS-Excel

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 23-07-2025
4. Experimental setup and experimentation
(a) (b)

Chimney
Trays
Dead weight
(sand)
A water
Water container container
Dead weight Drying chamber
(Sand)
Reflectors

Glass cover

Solar collector
Pyranometer
Absorber plate
Shaft
Air inlet holes

(a) (b)
Fig. 8 (a) Experimental set up (b) Schematic diagram of self tracking indirect solar dryer
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 23-07-2025
5. Theoretical consideration and calculations
WW: weight of wet sample
Moisture content calculation
Wd: weight of dry matter
• Wet basis moisture content: The amount of water is MCdb: Moisture content at dry basis
divided by the total weight of the sample MCwb: Moisture content at wet basis

𝑊𝑤 −𝑊𝑑 • Total samples: 33 potato cylinder

𝑀𝐶𝑤𝑏 % = ×100 … Eq. (1)
𝑊𝑤 • Weight of 1 sample: 4.20 g
Amount of water=Ww-Wd • Bone dry weight of 1 sample: 0.55 g

• Dry basis moisture content: The amount of water is divided by the dry weight
𝑊𝑤 −𝑊𝑑 … Eq. (2)
𝑀𝐶𝑑𝑏 % = ×100
𝑊𝑑
• Bone dry weight: estimated using
hot oven method (AOAC method)
• Association of Analytical Chemist
• At 70 °C for 24 hours

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• Relationship between dry basis and wet basis moisture content

𝑀𝐶𝑤𝑏
𝑀𝐶𝑑𝑏 = … Eq. (3)
1 − 𝑀𝐶𝑤𝑏
• Total samples: 33 potato cylinder
• Weight of 1 sample: 4.20 g
𝑀𝐶𝑑𝑏 • Bone dry weight of 1 sample: 0.55 g
𝑀𝐶𝑤𝑏 = … Eq. (4)
1 + 𝑀𝐶𝑑𝑏

Time (min) Sample weight MC (db), fraction

(g)
0 125 g 125−(0.55×33)
𝑀𝐶𝑑𝑏 = =5.88
(0.55×33)

30 117 g 𝑀𝐶𝑑𝑏 =
117−(0.55×33)
=5.44
(0.55×33)

60 … …
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90 … … 15
 Plot of moisture content 23-07-2025

Lower tray Middle tray Upper/Top tray

7
Time Weight Weight Weight
6 MCdb MR MCdb MR MCdb MR
(min) (g) (g) (g)
Moisture content (db)

5 Top tray
6.77
Middle tray 0 141.0 6.77 =1.00 125.1 5.89 1.00 133.9 6.38 1.00
6.77
4
Lower tray 4.92
3 30 107.4 4.92 =0.73 96.9 4.34 0.80 113.7 5.26 0.82
6.77
2 60 72.1 2.97 0.44 74.8 3.12 0.58 94.9 4.23 0.66
1
… … … … … … … … … …
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 1.0
Drying time (min)
0.8
Fig. 9 Plot of dry basis moisture content with time Top tray

Moisture ratio
Middle tray
Moisture Ratio (dimensionless moisture content) 0.6
Lower tray
0.4
(𝑀 − 𝑀𝑒 )
𝑀𝑅 = … Eq. (5)
(𝑀𝑜 − 𝑀𝑒 ) 0.2

Mo: Initial moisture content

Since, Me <<< Mo 0.0
M: Moisture content at any time 0 50 100 150 200 250
Drying time (min)
𝑀 … Eq. (6) Me: Equilibrium moisture content
𝑀𝑅 = Fig. 10 Plot of moisture ratio with time
𝑀𝑜
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 6. Results: Observation tables and graphs 23-07-2025

Lower tray Middle tray Upper tray

Time Weight MCdb MR Weight MCdb MR Weight MCdb MR
(min) (g) (g) (g)
0 124.78 116.60 125.81
30 93.23 90.18 98.00
60 68.55 70.32 81.00
MR: Moisture Ratio
(dimensionless
90 54.15 57.73 66.00
moisture content)
120 42.29 45.48 53.00
150 36.58 38.29 43.00
180 33.21 33.11 37.00
210 28.52 30.62 34.00
240 24.50 26.00 28.40
270 23.11 23.50 26.00
300 22.20 21.79 23.80
330 21.50 20.80 23.00
360 20.90 20.37 22.60
390 20.60 19.48 21.20
420 19.26 21.11
450 20.80
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1.0
Time Insolation Tair (°C) Tambient Tsample (°C)
0.8
(min) (W/m2) (°C) Top tray

Moisture ratio
Middle tray
0.6
Lower tray
0 676.88 46.33 33.22 27.68
0.4
30 766.69 50.67 34.90 29.61
0.2
60 796.47 52.11 36.11 29.85
90 823.76 53.92 38.03 29.97 0.0
0 50 100 150 200 250
120 841.13 55.00 38.51 31.05 Drying time (min)

150 842.37 55.72 41.16 32.74

180 786.54 56.93 39.96 33.34 80 900
800

Solar intensity (W/m2)

70
210 743.12 56.56 43.33 46.58 700

Temperature (°C)
60
240 667.44 55.48 42.12 40.32 50
600
Tambient 500
270 586.80 55.12 42.36 38.87 40
Tair 400
30 Tsample
300 511.13 53.44 40.68 41.16 300
20 Solar intensity 200
330 410.64 50.43 38.75 41.04 10 100
360 358.04 43.69 36.35 40.80 0 0
0 100 200 300 400
390 224.06 42.72 33.70 39.80 Time (min)

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7. Lab experiment video 23-07-2025

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 8. Finite element modeling of DSD, ISD and MSD

Geometry

Material property

Input parameters

Meshing

Simulation

Governing equations: 3D and Meshed Geometry of DSD, ISD and MSD

T Boundary Number
C p + q = Q Boundary condition
t Direct Indirect Mixed mode

q = hc, p −a (Tp − Tair ) 5 (glass cover) 4 (glass cover) 4, 7, 8 (glass cover) Diffuse surface

Diffuse surface : 2 (absorber plate) 2, 3 (absorber plate) 2, 3 (absorber plate) Convective heat flux

−n.q =  ( I − eb (T )) 1, 3, 4, 6 (wall) 1, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 (wall) 1, 5, 6, 9 (wall) Insulation

Agricultural and Food Engineering Department Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur
 Temperature distribution profile in solar dryers
Temperature (K) Temperature (K) Temperature (K)

t= 0 h t= 4 h t= 6 h
Direct solar dryer at no load

Direct solar dryer Indirect solar dryer Mixed-mode solar dryer

Agricultural and Food Engineering Department Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur
 Finite element model validation of DSD, ISD and MSD
70 60
60 50

Temperature (°C)
Temperature (°C)
50 40
40
30
30
20 Indirect solar dryer
20 Direct solar dryer
10 Tpr Texp
10 Tpr Texp
0 0
0 100 200 300 400 0 100 200 300 400
Time (min) Time (min)

80
70
Statistical error analysis
Temperature (°C)

60 Dryer MAE RMSE SE

50 type
40
30 Direct 2.65 3.54 1.06
20 Mixed-mode solar dryer
Tpr Texp
Indirect 1.53 2.17 0.65
10
Mixed
0 2.5 2.86 0.86
0 100 200 300 400 mode
Time (min)

Agricultural and Food Engineering Department Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

 Temperature and moisture distribution profile
Temperature (K) Moisture content (wb) Model validation

(a) at 0 h (a) at 0 h

In good agreement with the

experimental results

(b) at 3 h (b) at 3 h

(c) at 5 h (c) at 5 h
Agricultural and Food Engineering Department Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur
 23-07-2025

Things to be instituted in the lab record

1. Aim and objectives of the experiment
2. Theory
3. Schematic sketch of the open sun drying, direct, indirect and mixed mode solar dryer, sun
tracking indirect solar dryer
4. Observation table and calculation of dimensionless moisture content
5. Graphs of (i) MR v/s time, (ii) Tair, Tambient, Tsample, Insolation v/s drying time
6. Discussion about the results
7. Conclusion

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