WRITING

INFORMAL emails/letters
For people we know well, like friends or family. The language we use is more casual and relaxed.
Beginning:
− Thanks for your email/letter
− It was great/lovely to hear from you
− Dear Lucy, / To Lucy, / Hi Lucy, / Hey Lucy!
− That’s good news about/Pleased to hear about (sth)
− It’s a shame about/Sorry to hear about (sth)
− (sth) sounds wonderful/terrible
− I enjoyed reading your email
− Use friendly expressions like: How are you / How are you doing? / I hope you are well /
What have you been doing? / What’s up?
− Sorry for not writing earlier / Sorry that I haven’t been in touch for a while / I hope you and
your family are well
Giving advice and making suggestions
− If I were you, I’d/I wouldn’t…
− Make sure you…
− You could/should try…
− It’s (not) a good idea to…
− It’s the best (not) to…
Ending:
− Anyway,
− Well, that’s all for now
− Give my love/regards to your family
− Say hello to the kids for me
− Thanks again for your help
− I hope to hear from you soon / Write soon / Keep in touch! / Looking forward to hearing
from you soon
− See you soon
− Take care
Sign off: (Lots of) love, / Best wishes, / Yours, / All the best, / Bye for now / PS: postscript means
written after. Use it to add something to a letter after it’s been written and signed.
▬ Tips: use exclamation signs (!) / use first name, title not required / short paragraphs can help the
reader / use contractions / think about why you’re writing this letter / you decide how polite you
want to be depending on who you’re writing to and what you’re asking for / think of how you want
to end the letter or email.
FORMAL emails/letters
Beginnings and endings:
− Dear Sir or Madam and Yours faithfully
− Dear Ms Bentley and Yours sincerely
Reason for writing
− I saw/have seen your advertisement in…
− I am writing to apply for the job/position of a…
− I would like to apply for a grant to study/for…
− I would like to volunteer to work with…
Describing skills and experience:
− I have (a great deal of/some) experience of (looking after animals)
− I spent (two months) working as (a kitchen assistant)
− I have excellent communication/computer/organisational skills
− I have a good knowledge of (first aid/French/website development)
Personal qualities and suitability:
− I have a/an friendly/sensitive/easy-going/enthusiastic nature
− I feel I have the necessary (patience) and (energy) for the job
− I am confident I would be well suited to the job
− I believe I am an ideal candidate for a grant/the job
Closing remarks: I hope you will consider my application / I look forward to your reply/hearing
from you.

LETTER OF COMPLAINT
Opening Greeting:

− Dear Sir / Madam,

− Dear Mr. / Mrs. / Ms. + last name,

Introduction:

− I am writing to complain about ...

− I am writing regarding ...
− I am writing on the subject of ...
− I am writing to tell you how disappointed/annoyed I feel about ...
− I was deeply dissatisfied with/by / I am writing to express my strong dissatisfaction with
− I am writing to express my dissatisfaction at the service I received
− After leaving your shop today, I realized I had been charged $100 instead of $60.
− I have been a regular costumer of your shop for many years.
Main Body

− As you must realize / I am sure you know that... / I am sure you can imagine...
− In spite of the fact that... / Although I was told there would be...
− To make matters worse, ...
− The label (etiqueta) says ...
− There is a one-year guarantee ...
− What went wrong: I was appalled at the poor quality / rude service / unsatisfactory
accommodation / overpriced rooms / There is an error in the bill / There seems to be a
problem with the battery / The delay was unacceptable / When I checked the item, I found
that it had been damaged / I haven't received … I ordered ... / I used it/them only a few
times

Conclusion

− I look forward to receiving...

− I feel you are partly responsible for...
− The least you can do is...
− I insist upon full compensation/refund or I will be forced to take this matter further
− I trust that you will replace the item.
− I hope you will deal/resolve with this matter quickly / I trust this matter will receive your
immediate attention.
− I hope you can take steps to make sure this does not happen again

Closing

− Thank you for considering my complaint

− Yours faithfully, / Yours sincerely,

ARTICLE

Brings out topics or a matter of interest, provides information, offer suggestions and pieces of
advice.

Structure:

− Headline: catchy title; sum up the general point; omit auxiliaries, articles and some
prepositions; use of words and phrases cleverly; use tenses selectively.
− An introduction: general statement about the topic; keep the reader’s attention (by stating
an opinion, make reference to something strange, address the reader directly, start with
quotation or question).
− A main body: describe in detail
▪ Formal: develop issue throughout (in every part, or during the whole period of time)
paragraph; use linkers and sequencing; use sophisticated vocabulary.
▪ Informal: contractions and phrasal verbs.
 − A conclusion: can state an opinion / give the reader something to consider / summarize the
article / end with a quotation.

Involving the reader:

− Can you imagine…?

− Have you ever…?
− How would you feel if…?
− Did you know that…?
− Just think…
− You have to admit…
− I’m sure you’d agree…
− Just imagine
− You wouldn’t believe…

Attitude adverbs: Naturally, Personally, Interestingly, (Un)fortunately, Importantly, (Not)

surprisingly, Worryingly, Incredibly.

Rhetorical questions

− Was I surprised? Well, not really

− Are you keen on adventure? Then why not…
− Have you ever heard anything like it?
− How would you react in a situation like this

Techniques:

− Argumentative: persuasive and/or argumentative writing contains the biases and opinions
of the writer. It also includes justifications, reasons, and arguments in an effort to convince
the reader to agree with the writer’s opinion, accept an idea, or take an action.
− Narrative: is used when telling a story, which can be fact or fiction. This is one of the most
versatile styles because it allows writers to create from imagination. Narrative tells a story,
and has a logical beginning, middle, and end. But for most news articles, narratives should
be short and to the point and used only where telling a personal story helps to convey the
point of the article. The New Yorker is noted for using narrative form.
− Descriptive: is similar to expository. It explains something to the reader, but it does so
with very descriptive language that uses all five senses (sight, sound, taste, touch, smell) to
create a vivid image for the reader. Descriptive writing is often personal and subjective
while expository writing is typically impersonal or distant.
ESSAY

Is an opinion writing with which we analyse a topic, a situation or an issue from different points
of view, providing different arguments and expressing our opinion about it. We can consider both
sides of the argument or just only one point of view.

Opening

− It is often said that / Many people claim that

− In this day and age / Nowadays / These days
− We live in an age when many of us are…
− …is a hotly-debated topic that often divides opinion
− It is generally agreed that…

Introducing points:

− Firstly, let us take a look at

− To/Let’s start with / To begin with
− First of all, it is worth considering
− It is a well-known/undeniable fact that…
− It is a common/knowledge belief that…
− Secondly / Thirdly
− Furthermore - moreover (in addition to; also and more importantly) / What is more / On
top of that / Above all
− Besides (also; además)
− Another point worth noting is… / Another factor to consider is…
− Lastly / Finally / Last but not least
− Another advantage of…
− Yet another reason is…

Presenting ideas and giving examples

− When it comes to
− In terms of
− With respect to
− Not only…but also…
− According to experts or scientific research / It has been found that / Research has shown
that
− There are those who argue that
− To illustrate this point
− For instance / For example / such as
Result and reason

− As a result (of)
− …has lead to… / Owing to…
− Consequently / Therefore
− On account of / Due to
− One reason behind this is

Contrasting

− Although / Even though (aunque, a pesar de que)

− Despite/In spite of
− Despite the fact that
− On the one hand…on the other hand
− However, / Nevertheless (sin embargo) / Even so
− Alternatively,
− Whereas (compared with the fact that; but)

Concluding

− To sum up / In conclusion / Concluding

− All things considered
− Taking everything into consideration
− Weighing both sides of the argument

Opinion

− As far as I’m concerned

− From my point of view / The way I see it / As I see it
− My own/personal view on the matter is
− In my opinion / I believe that / My belief is that
− Personally speaking

Avoid contractions (I’m, they’re, we’re) as this is a formal writing.

Don’t use first person pronouns (I, my, our, us).
Practise under timed conditions.
Use model answers to practise fixed expressions.

Different ways of saying the same thing:

− advantage = benefit, positive, upside
− disadvantage = downside, drawback
− effect = influence, impact, result, outcome
− problem = issue, challenge, difficulty, obstacle, setback, complication
− important = valuable, essential, beneficial
− expensive = costly, dear, high-priced, extortionate
− cheap = inexpensive, affordable, economical
− big = great, large, sizeable, considerable, wide, vast
− small = slight, tiny, little
 Weak words to cut from your writing: really, very, certainly, extremely, simply, basically,
essentially, literally, quite, completely, totally, absolutely.

You’re expected to have a good grasp on the grammar. Participle clauses, conditionals, modal
verbs, passive with reporting verbs, inversion, cleft sentences, comparatives, relative clauses.

REVIEW

Title + Introduction. Name what you are going to be reviewing, state its genre, etc.

− It is set in (Wales) in (the nineteen eighties)

− The main character is (Owen, an unemployed miner)
− It tells the story of (a family in crisis)
− The play/film/series star (Paul Fairburn) as (Owen)

Main content: paragraphs 1-2. Can be used to describe good/bad points respectively and giving
an opinion. Paragraph 3 (optional). You can outline the negative points or compare the ones
mentioned above.

− One of its strength/weaknesses is…

− It is full of drama/romance/humour/suspense… / It is moving
− The thing/What I liked most was…
− I found the plot rather predictable/disappointing
− The (acting) is/was impressive/exceptional/outstanding/disappointing/awful or Her
performance was mesmerizing (having such a strong effect on you that you cannot give
your attention to anything else)
− The funniest/best/most entertaining part of the (play) came/comes when…
− I particularly enjoy(ed)…I don’t/didn’t particularly like…
− The movie was completely engrossing from start to finish / I really liked her last novel – I
found it very absorbing
− Characters: villain / hero / heroine / anti-hero / main character / protagonist
− … left a lot to be desired (wasn’t good enough)
− It is hands down (easily and without any doubt) the best movie this year
− I was on the edge of my seat (exciting)
− My first parachute jump was an exhilarating experience
− Unputdownable: (of a book) so exciting or interesting that you cannot stop reading it
− The menu was not varied enough / There was too much noise / The service was slow /
The food portions were too small / The waiters were rude / The food was not well cooked
/ The restaurant was dirty / The food was too expensive
Recommendation. Contain your general impression and your veredict.

− It is definitely worth watching/reading/buying/going to see

− It's a definite must-read
− I would certainly recommend it to…/If you get a chance to
− (Young children) are sure to enjoy it
− It is suitable/ideal for (teenagers)
− It will appeal to (all fans of the crime genre)

DESCRIBING A PHOTO OR PICTURE

Useful language:
− In the top left / At the top / In the top right
− On the left / In the centre/middle / On the right
− In/At the bottom
− In the background (al fondo) / In the foreground (primer plano)
− Behind / Next to / In front of /
− It looks as if /as though…
− The (woman) may / might be … / Perhaps (quizás, tal vez)
− The photo reminds me of…
− There are/is…
− The picture shows…

REPORT

Introducing the report

− The aim of this report is to (analyse/present)…

− In this report I will…
− I have been asked to write a report about…
− The purpose of this report is to outline… / to talk about…

Giving advice and making suggestions

− I would recommend/advise them to go…

− I suggest you/they… / Taking all this into account, I suggest that…
− It seems to me that the best solution is…
− The best place for (music) is (‘Spins’)
− You/They should/really must/are advised to (go to Disney)
 − (A visit to the zoo) is an option worth considering
− (A boat trip) is a must/is to be recommended
− It is advisable/a good idea to (book in advance)

Describing amounts or quantities

− A wide range/selection/variety of (clothes shops)

− A large number of (restaurants)
− A great deal/large amount of (litter = rubbish left lying in an open or public space)
− Plenty of/several/many/numerous (parks and gardens)

Talking about facilities

− The shopping/sports/cultural/leisure/restaurant facilities are…

− …excellent/outstanding/second to none
− …adequate/reasonable
− …poor/inadequate/basic

Finishing

− In conclusion, I think that…

− To conclude, I would say that…
− To sum up, I think…
− The main conclusion of my report is that…
− Taking everything into account, I conclude that…

PROPOSAL

Mientras que un report se centra en algo ya pasado (para hacer propuestas de mejora), un proposal
se centra en algo para futuro.

Introducing the proposal

− The principal objectives of this proposal are to… / The objective of this proposal is to…
− The purpose of this proposal is to examine/evaluate/explain/describe/analyse/present…
− This proposal aims to…

Rhetorical phrases:

− What do you think about…?

− Are you one of those people who thinks that…? / Are you one of those people who…?
− What would life be like if…?
− Will the future bring us…?
Background information

− At the present moment,

− Comments made at the end of the questionnaires suggest…
− Following a survey among…
− Concerned members of the local community were invited to attend…
− A number of concerns with regard to XYZ were expressed by…
− The following areas for improvement can be highlighted

Introducing points

Recommendations and suggestions

− There should be….

− It would be advantageous to…
− It is/I recommended that…
− Final recommendations
− Implementation of the above ideas would result in…
− The following actions ought to be performed with a view to (improving the quality of…)

Conclusion

NARRATION
Two primary types of narrative tense blending are applied to narrate events/actions of the past:
• Past Simple and Past Continuous: this comes into play when one action is indicates to
interrupt another. Ex.: the road was brimming with lights when I reached home this evening.
• Past Simple and Past Perfect: to describe an action/event/situation that happened before
another past action. Ex.: the farmer realized that the strong gale of wind the previous night
had blown away a lot of crops.
Henceforth/Henceforward = starting from this time. Ex.: Henceforward, the farm was to be
known as “The Manor Farm”.
Hitherto = until now or until a particular time; “hasta ahora”
Before long = pronto

ANECDOTE
− Setting the scene: “This happened to me when I was...” / “I was...-ing when... / I...because
I had / hadn't...”
− The main events: “I decided to... because...” / “So then I...” / “Suddenly / At that moment...”
− What happened in the end: “In the end / eventually...” / “I felt...”