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Ayush Krishna (IFS)
GEOGRAPHY
UPSC: (IFS) AIR-06, (CSE) AIR-720
66th BPSC Rank-09, IIT Guwahati
RDT-2524-25
Drainage System in India

Area from which a river

Catchment Area collects water.
Concept

Area drained by a river

Drainage Basin and its tributaries

Boundary separating
Watershed different drainage basins.

Arabian Sea Bay of Bengal Water

Drainage: 23% of Drainage: 77% of Divide: Delhi
India’s drainage, India’s drainage, Ridge, Aravalis,
including rivers including rivers and Sahyadris s
like Indus, Narma like Ganga, Brahm eparate the two
da, Tapi, Mahi, Pe aputra, Mahanadi drainage
riyar. , Krishna. systems.

Resembles the
Dendritic branches of a tree.

Rivers flow outwards

Radial from a central point
Drainage
pattern Primary tributaries
Trellis flow parallel, and Difference between River Basin and Watershed
secondary tributaries
join at right angles.  Watersheds: Smaller areas (drained by small
Rivers flow towards a rivulets).
Centripetal central lake or
 River Basins: Larger areas (drained by major
depression.
rivers).

Comparison between Himalayan Drainage System and Peninsular Drainage System

Aspect Himalayan Drainage System Peninsular Drainage System
Younger (still evolving due to ongoing Older (formed millions of years ago, with mature
Age
geological processes). rivers).
Originates in the Himalayas (snowmelt Originates in the Peninsular Plateau, mainly
Source
and precipitation). from Western Ghats.
Perennial (fed by snowmelt and rainfall, Non-perennial (flow varies seasonally, more
Flow
continuous flow throughout the year). dependent on rainfall).
Tortuous in mountain regions, Fixed course, less meandering, no major shift in
course
meandering in plains. riverbeds.
Valleys and Characterized by V-shaped valleys, Shallow valleys, graded courses, absence of major
Gorges deep gorges, rapids, and waterfalls. gorges.
Depositional In plains: Flood plains, ox-bow Limited depositional features (except near coastal
Features lakes, braided channels, deltas. areas) due to less sediment deposition.
Carries large quantities of sediment Carries less sediment due to lower erosion rates
Sediment Load
(e.g., Kosi brings huge sediment load). (except in Narmada and Tapi).

Page | 1
 Frequent flooding due to sudden rise in Less frequent flooding, generally less destructive
flooding water levels, especially during (except in Godavari and Krishna).
monsoons.
River Meandering tendency in plains, high Mature rivers, steady flow, lack of meanders, low
Characteristics discharge in rainy season. discharge in dry periods.

THE RIVER SYSTEMS OF THE HIMALAYAN DRAINAGE

Indus River System
Origin: From a glacier near Bokhar Chu in the Tibetan region, at an altitude of 4,164 m in
the Kailash Mountain range.
Total Length: 2,880 km.
Length in India: 1,114 km.
 Origin
 Originates from a glacier near Bokhar Chu in the Tibetan region at an altitude of 4,164
m in the Kailash Mountain Range.
 Known as ‘Singi Khamban’ (Lion’s mouth) in Tibet.
 Course
 Flows northwest between Ladakh and Zaskar ranges, passing through Ladakh and
Indus River
Baltistan.
 Cuts through the Ladakh range, forming a gorge near Gilgit in Jammu and Kashmir.
 Enters Pakistan near Chilas in the Dardistan region.
 Tributaries
 Himalayan Tributaries: Shyok, Gilgit, Zaskar, Hunza, Nubra, Shigar, Gasting, Dras.
 Right Bank Tributaries: Kabul, Khurram, Tochi, Gomal, Viboa, Sangar (originating
from Sulaiman ranges).
 Panjnad
 Formed by five rivers of Punjab: Satluj, Beas, Ravi, Chenab, Jhelum.
 Joins the Indus above Mithankot.
 Source
 Originates from a spring at Verinag, located at the foot of the Pir Panjal range in the
south-eastern valley of Kashmir.
 Course in India
Jhelum River  Flows through Srinagar and Wular Lake.
 Entry into Pakistan
 Crosses into Pakistan through a deep, narrow gorge.
 Confluence
 Joins the Chenab River near Jhang in Pakistan.
 Formation
 Formed by the confluence of two streams: Chandra and Bhaga.
 These streams join at Tandi near Keylong in Himachal Pradesh.
 Alternate Name
The Chenab
 Known as Chandrabhaga due to the combination of the Chandra and Bhaga streams.
River
 Course
 Flows for 1,180 km before entering Pakistan.
 Significance
 The largest tributary of the Indus River.
Page | 2
  Source
 Originates west of the Rohtang Pass in the Kullu hills, Himachal Pradesh.
 Course in India
 Flows through the Chamba Valley in Himachal Pradesh.
The Ravi  Drains the area between the south-eastern Pir Panjal and Dhauladhar ranges.
 Entry into Pakistan
 Crosses into Pakistan and joins the Chenab River near Sarai Sidhu.
 Significance
 An important tributary of the Indus River.
 Source
 Originates from Beas Kund near the Rohtang Pass at an elevation of 4,000 m above
mean sea level.
 Course in Himachal Pradesh
 Flows through the Kullu Valley.
The Beas River  Forms gorges at Kati and Largi in the Dhauladhar Range.
 Course in Punjab
 Enters the Punjab plains.
 Meets the Satluj River near Harike.
 Significance
 An important tributary of the Indus River.
 Source
 Originates from Raksas Tal near Mansarovar Lake in Tibet at an altitude of 4,555 m.
 Known as Langchen Khambab in Tibet.
 Course
 Flows almost parallel to the Indus for about 400 km in Tibet before entering India.
 Passes through Shipki La in the Himalayan ranges.
The Satluj River
 Emerges from a gorge at Rupar and enters the Punjab plains.
 Nature
 Classified as an antecedent river.
 Significance
 A crucial tributary of the Indus River.
 Feeds the canal system of the Bhakra Nangal Project.
 Origin
 West of Rohtang Pass in the Kullu Hills, Himachal Pradesh.
 Flow Path
 Passes through the Chamba Valley in Himachal Pradesh.
 Drains the area between southeastern Pir Panjal Range and Dhauladhar Range.
 Confluence:
Ravi River  Joins the Chenab River near Sarai Sidhu in Pakistan.
 International Boundary
 Crosses into Pakistan from India.
 Indus Water Treaty
 Allocated to India for unrestricted use under the treaty.
 Tributary of Indus River.

Page | 3
Ganga River System
 Source and Origin
 Originates from the Gangotri Glacier near Gaumukh (3,900 m) in the Uttarkashi district,
Uttarakhand.
 Known as Bhagirathi in its initial
course.
 Formation
 At Devprayag, Bhagirathi
meets Alaknanda, and the
combined river is called the Ganga.
 Alaknanda originates from
the Satopanth
Glacier near Badrinath.
 Tributaries of Alaknanda:
 Dhauli and Vishnu
Ganga meet at Joshimath (Vishnu Prayag).
 Pindar joins at Karna Prayag.
 Mandakini (Kali Ganga) meets at Rudra Prayag.
 Entry into Plains
 Ganga enters the plains at Haridwar, Uttarakhand.
 Course and Distributaries
Ganga River
 Flows south, southeast, and east before splitÝng into two distributaries:
 Bhagirathi (West Bengal).
 Padma (Bangladesh).
 Discharges into the Bay of Bengal near Sagar Island.
 Length and Coverage
 Total Length: 2,525 km.
 Length in States:
 Uttarakhand: 110 km.
 Uttar Pradesh: 1,450 km.
 Bihar: 445 km.
 West Bengal: 520 km.
 Basin Area in India: 8.6 lakh sq. km.
 Tributaries
 Right Bank: Son River.
 Left Bank: Ramganga, Gomati, Ghaghara, Gandak, Kosi, Mahananda.
 Significance
 The largest river system in India.
 Contains perennial rivers from the Himalayas and non-perennial rivers from the
Peninsula.
 Holds immense cultural and religious significance.
 Source and Origin
The Yamuna
 Originates from the Yamunotri Glacier on the western slopes of the Banderpunch
River
range (6,316 m).

Page | 4
  Course and Confluence:
 The westernmost and longest
tributary of the Ganga.
 Joins the Ganga at Prayag
(Allahabad).
 Right-Bank Tributaries:
 Rivers originating from the Peninsular
Plateau:
 Chambal, Sind, Betwa, Ken.
 Left-Bank Tributaries:
 Rivers: Hindan, Rind, Sengar, Varuna,
etc.
 Irrigation Significance:
 Supplies water to the Western Yamuna Canal, Eastern Yamuna Canal, and the Agra
Canal for irrigation.
 Source and Origin
 Originates near Mhow in the Malwa Plateau, Madhya Pradesh.
 Course
 Flows northwards through a gorge near Kota, Rajasthan.
The Chambal
 Passes through Bundi, Sawai Madhopur, and Dholpur before joining the Yamuna River.
River
 Dams and Projects
 The Gandhisagar Dam is constructed on the river near Kota.
 Notable Feature
 Famous for its badland topography, known as the Chambal Ravines.
 Formation and Source
 Comprises two streams: Kaligandak and Trishulganga.
 Originates in the Nepal Himalayas between Dhaulagiri and Mount Everest.
 Course
 Drains the central part of
The Gandak Nepal.
River  Enters the Ganga plain in
the Champaran district of
Bihar.
 Confluence
 Joins the Ganga
River at Sonpur near Patna.

 Source and Origin

 Originates from the Mapchachungo Glaciers.
 Course:
 Collects waters of tributaries: Tila, Seti, and Beri.
The Ghaghara
 Emerges from the mountains, cutÝng a deep gorge at Shishapani.
River
 Major Tributary
 The river Sarda (Kali or Kali Ganga) joins it in the plains.
 Confluence:
 Meets the Ganga River at Chhapra.
Page | 5
  Source and Origin
 An antecedent river with its source north of Mount Everest in Tibet.
 Main stream: Arun River.
 Tributaries
The Kosi Rover  Joined by:
 Son Kosi from the west.
 Tamur Kosi from the east.
 Formation
 Forms Sapt Kosi after uniting with the Arun River.
 Source and Origin
 Originates in the Garhwal Hills near Gairsain.
The Ramganga  Course
River  Changes direction to the southwest after crossing the Shiwalik Hills.
 Enters the plains of Uttar Pradesh near Najibabad.
 Confluence
 Joins the Ganga River near Kannauj.
 Geography
 Flows along the eastern margins of the Chotanagpur Plateau through a rift valley.
 Confluence
 Joins the Hugli River.
The Damodar  Major Tributary
River  Barakar River.
 Historical Significance
 Known as the ‘Sorrow of Bengal’ due to frequent flooding in the past.
 Management
 Controlled by the Damodar Valley Corporation (DVC), a multipurpose project aimed at
flood control, irrigation, and power generation.
 Source and Origin
 Originates from the Milam Glacier in the Nepal Himalayas.
 Known as Goriganga in its upper course.
The Sarda or
 Course and Names
Saryu River
 Along the Indo-Nepal border, it is called Kali or Chauk.
 Confluence
 Joins the Ghaghara River.
 Source and Origin
The
 Originates in the Darjeeling Hills.
Mahananda
 Confluence
River
 Joins the Ganga River as its last left-bank tributary in West Bengal.
 Source and Origin
 Originates from the Amarkantak Plateau.
 Key Feature
The Son River
 Forms a series of waterfalls at the edge of the plateau.
 Confluence
 Joins the Ganga River at Arrah, west of Patna.

Page | 6
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The Brahmaputra System
 Source and Origin
 Originates from the Chemayungdung Glacier in the Kailash Range near Mansarovar
Lake.
 Known as the Tsangpo in Tibet, meaning ‘the purifier’.
 Course in Tibet
 Traverses 1,200 km
eastward through a dry and flat
region in southern Tibet.
 Major tributary: Rango
Tsangpo (right bank tributary).
 Gorge Formation
 Carves out a deep gorge
near Namcha Barwa (7,755 m)
The in the Central Himalayas.
Brahmaputra  Emerges from the foothills as Siang or Dihang.
River  Entry into India:
 Enters India west of Sadiya in Arunachal Pradesh.
 Tributaries in India
 Major left bank tributaries: Dibang (Sikang) and Lohit.
 Major right bank tributaries: Burhi Dihing, Dhansari (South), Subansiri, Kameng, Manas,
and Sankosh.
 Subansiri is an antecedent river.
 Journey in Assam
 Flows for 750 km through the Assam Valley.
 Entry into Bangladesh
 Enters Bangladesh near Dhubri.
 Known as Jamuna after receiving the Tista on its right bank.
 Confluence
 Merges with the Padma River and flows into the Bay of Bengal.

THE RIVER SYSTEMS OF THE PENINSULAR DRAINAGE

 Significance
 The largest Peninsular river
system.
 Also called the Dakshin Ganga.
 Source and Origin
The Godavari  Originates in the Nasik
River district of Maharashtra.
 Course and Length:
 Flows 1,465 km before
discharging into the Bay of
Bengal.
 Catchment Area
 Covers a catchment area of 3.13 lakh sq. km.
Page | 7
  49% of the catchment area is in Maharashtra, 20% in Madhya Pradesh and
ChhatÝsgarh and the rest in Andhra Pradesh.
 Principal Tributaries
 Penganga, Indravati, Pranhita, and Manjra.
 Flooding and Navigation
 Subjected to heavy floods in its lower reaches, especially to the south of Polavaram.
 Forms a picturesque gorge in this area.
 Navigable only in the deltaic stretch.
 Delta Formation
 After Rajahmundry, splits into several branches, forming a large delta.
 Significance
 The second largest east-flowing Peninsular river.
 Source and Origin
 Rises near Mahabaleshwar in the Sahyadri range.
 Course and Length
 Flows for 1,401 km.
The Krishna River
 Catchment Area
 The total catchment area is divided as follows:
 27% in Maharashtra.
 44% in Karnataka.
 29% in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana.
 Major Tributaries
 Koyna, Tungbhadra, and Bhima.
 Source and Origin
 Rises in the Brahmagiri hills (1,341m) in Kodagu district (Karnataka).
 Course and Length
 Flows for 800 km.
 Catchment Area
 Drains an area of 81,155 sq. km.
 Seasonal Water Flow
 Upper catchment receives rainfall during the southwest monsoon (summer), and the
The Kaveri River
lower catchment during the northeast monsoon (winter).
 Result: The river has a year-round flow with comparatively less fluctuation than other
Peninsular rivers.
 Basin Distribution
 3% of the basin in Kerala.
 41% in Karnataka.
 56% in Tamil Nadu.
 Major Tributaries
 Kabini, Bhavani, and Amravati.
 Source and Origin
 Originates on the western flank of the Amarkantak plateau at an elevation of 1,057 m.
The Narmada
 Geographical Features
River
 Flows in a rift valley between the Satpura range (south) and the Vindhyan range
(north).

Page | 8
  Famous for its marble rocks and the Dhuandhar waterfall near Jabalpur.
 Length and Course
 Flows for about 1,312 km.
 Mouth and Estuary
 Meets the Arabian Sea south of Bharuch, forming a 27 km long estuary.
 Catchment Area
 The catchment area of the Narmada is approximately 98,796 sq. km.
 Important Projects
 The Sardar Sarovar Project has been constructed on the Narmada.
 Source and Origin
 Originates from Multai in the Betul district of Madhya Pradesh.
 Length and Course
 Flows for 724 km.
 Catchment Area
The Tapi River
 Drains an area of 65,145 sq. km.
 Geographical Distribution
 79% of its basin lies in Maharashtra.
 15% in Madhya Pradesh.
 The remaining 6% in Gujarat.
 Luni is the largest river system in Rajasthan, located west of the Aravali range.
 Origin: It originates near Pushkar from two branches:
 Saraswati
 Sabarmati
 Confluence
 The Saraswati and Sabarmati branches join at Govindgarh.
The Luni River
 Course and Flow
 After joining at Govindgarh, it emerges from the Aravali range as Luni.
 Flows westward till Telwara, then takes a southwest direction towards the Rann of
Kuchchh.
 Ephemeral Nature
 The entire river system is ephemeral, meaning it does not flow throughout the year.

River Disputes
● Entry 17 of State List deals with water i.e., water
supply, irrigation, canal, drainage, embankments,
water storage and water power.
● Entry 56 of Union List empowers the Union
Government for the regulation and development
of inter-state rivers and river valleys to the extent
declared by Parliament to be expedient in the
public interest.

Cauvery water regulation committee, CWRC decided

that Karnataka has to ensure the release of 3000
cusecs of water starting October 16-31, 2023. CWRC
during its 88th meeting made crucial decisions

Page | 9
regarding water allocation and shortages pertaining to the ongoing Cauvery River Water dispute between Karnataka
and Tamil Nadu.

Surface water is controlled by Central Water Commission (CWC) and ground water by Central Ground Water Board of
India (CGWB).
Both bodies work independently and there is no common forum for common discussion with state governments on
water management.
Read various names of issues and read provisions of
 ARTICLE 262
 The Inter State Water Dispute Act, 1956
 The River Boards Act 1956

SUKAPAIKA RIVER
 National Green Tribunal (NGT) directs to revive Sukapaika river, in next six months. NGT alleged that the river
became dead because of the closure of its mouth in the 1950s.
 It is one of the several distributaries of the Mahanadi River in Odisha.
 In 1952, the Odisha government blocked the starting point of the river with an embankment to prevent flooding
in the delta of Sukapaika.
 Since the river has lost its water holding capacity.

INDIA'S LARGEST RUBBER DAM

 India’s largest rubber dam named 'Gayaji Dam' built on Falgu River in Gaya, Bihar (pilgrimage site of Hindus and
Buddhism).
 The dam uses rubber instead of concrete. It is also environmentally friendly. At the same time, it is being claimed
that it will not deteriorate for one hundred years.
 Rubber dams are weir systems in which an elongated rubber body is firmly connected to the foundation of the
weir system. The rubber body can be filled with water or air, depending on the design.

SHALLOW WATER MINING

 It is mining that takes place in the sea at a depth of fewer than 200 meters, occurring on the continental shelf with
easier access to the coast. It is opposed to deep-sea operations that target less accessible resources and require
specialized technology.
 The part of the ocean that lies below a depth of 200 m is defined as deep sea, and the process of extracting
minerals from this area is known as deep-sea mining.
 Compared with terrestrial mining and deep-sea mining operations, it may save operational costs, as mining takes
place closer to shore and uses existing technology.
Countries Already Adopting Shallow Water Mining
1. Namibia has been mining diamonds off its coast in depths of up to 130 m.
2. Indonesia has been extracting placer deposits, and sediments containing gold, silver, tin, and platinum.
3. Mexico, New Zealand, and Sweden have proposed shallow water.

RIVERS IN NEWS
PO RIVER - It is the longest river in Italy, rising in the Monte Viso group of the CotÝan Alps on Italy’s western frontier.
It emptying into the Adriatic Sea. It has 141 tributaries, some major tributaries are Pellice, Varaita, Maira, Chisola,
Sangone, Dora Riparia, Stura di Lanzo and Malone
RHINE RIVER- It is one of the longest and most important river in Europe. It is the second-longest river in Central and
Western Europe after the Danube. It flows through 6 countries – Switzerland, Principality of Liechtenstein, Austria,
Germany, France and Netherlands-- before flowing into the North Sea at Rotterdam.

Page | 10
FRYING PAN RIVER - named after a historical incident involving the Ute tribe, is a significant tributary to the roaring
Fork river in Colorado. It originates from Mount massive and offers diverse activities. The river is home to 4 types of
trout and is vulnerable to climate change.
Atmospheric rivers
 These are relatively long, narrow
regions in the atmosphere, like rivers
in the sky that transport most of the
water vapour outside of the tropics.
 These columns of vapour move with
the weather, carrying an amount of
water vapour roughly equal to the
average flow of water at the mouth of
the Mississippi River.
 When atmospheric rivers make
landfall, they often release this water
vapour in the form of rain or snow.
 Recently affected California.
 Pineapple Express storms are the
most commonly represented and
recognized type of atmospheric
rivers- A strong atmospheric river
that is capable of bringing moisture from the tropics near Hawaii over to the U.S. West Coast.

JOSHIMATH LAND SUBSIDENCE

Recently, residents of the holy town of Joshimath in Uttarakhand have been concerned after spotÝng cracks in the
town's buildings and streets, which they have described as the town "gradually sinking"
FACTORS THAT MAKE JOSHIMATH HIGHLY VULNERABLE TO SINKING
 Situated in the middle slopes of a hill.
 Area around town covered with thick
layer of overburden material.
 Perennial streams- Karmanasa and
Dhaknala streams on west and east
and Dhauliganga and Alaknanda
rivers on south and north.
 Snow in upper reaches, and highly
weathered rocks with low cohesive
characteristics.
 Tectonic activity due to location on a
fault line (Vaikrita Thurst) and near
Main Central Thrust and
Pandukeshwar Thrust.
 City built on an ancient landslide
material, i.e., rests on a deposit of
sand and stone, not rock, which doesn’t have high load-bearing capacity.
Unplanned construction and improper water drainage without due regard to bearing capacity.

Page | 11
LAND SUBSIDENCE
 According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), subsidence is the “sinking of the
ground because of underground material movement”.
 It can happen for a host of reasons, man-made or natural, such as the removal of water, oil, or natural resources,
along with mining activities.
Earthquakes, soil erosion, and soil compaction are also some of the well-known causes of subsidence.
PREVENTIVE MEASURES

IMMEDIATE LONG TERM

 Relocating residents to a safer  The town’s planning must be reimagined to accommodate the new
place. variables and changing geographical factors.
 Experts recommend that all  One of the most important factors that needs to be studied and
development and hydroelectric redeveloped is drainage and sewer planning.
projects in the region be halted  Experts have also suggested replanting in the region, particularly in
completely. vulnerable areas, to retain soil capacity.

GLACIAL LAKE OUTBURST FLOOD

Concept
 It is a glacial lake meltwater release caused by a dam failure in a moraine-dam or ice-dam glacial lake. This flood
is the result of a glacier’s abrupt release of a water dam.
 This flooding happens as a result of the accumulation of melting glaciers behind glacial or moraine dams. Due to
the pressure from the water build-up, when
such natural dams fail, the water gushes
down in a powerful flow.
 Because moraine dams are typically weak
structures, they may rupture due to pressure
build-up. In addition, landslides, earthquakes,
and avalanches can cause them to fail.
 Due to an increase in temperatures brought
on by anthropogenic activities that hasten
the melting of glaciers, environmental
pollution can also cause GLOFs. Millions of
cubic meters of water can be released in a
short amount of time if moraine dams fail.
Main features of GLOFs
 A sudden release of water
 Generally, they are rapid events, lasting hours to a day.
 Cause large downstream river discharges.

The boundaries of glacial lakes breach due to multiple reasons. Like,

 A buildup of water pressure or structural weakness of boundary due to an increase in the flow of water.
 An earthquake (Tectonic) or cryoseism (non-tectonic seismic event of the glacial cryosphere) can also cause GLOF.
During this, the boundary of the glacial lake will collapse suddenly and release the water in the glacial lake.
 An avalanche of rock or heavy snow: During this, the water in the glacial lake might be displaced by the avalanche.

Page | 12
 Volcanic eruptions under the ice can also cause GLOF. These volcanic eruptions might displace the boundary or
increase the pressure on glacial lake or both.
 Heavy rainfall/melting of snow: This can lead to massive displacement of water in a glacial lake.
 Long-term dam degradation can also induce GLOF.
 Other reasons such as the collapse of an adjacent glacial lake, etc.

MAPPING OF PLACES IN NEWS

PLACES REASONS TO BE IN THE NEWS

Nadabet Inaugural of an India-Pakistan border viewing point at Nadabet in Gujarat.
The Erra MatÝ Dibbalu, situated between the Visakhapatnam and Bheemunipatnam, are
Erra MatÝ Dibbalu
uncommon red sand dunes that serve as a reminder of millions of years of geological activity.
The state government of Karnataka originally commissioned the Mekedatu project in 2017.
Mekedatu
It is a contentious project between Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
The state government of Assam has issued an initial notice for the addition of 200.32 square
kilometres to the 78.82 square kilometres Orang National Park, which is the state’s oldest
Orang National
reserve, and which is located around 110 kilometres northeast of Guwahati. On September
Park
21, 2021 the government removed the ‘Rajiv Gandhi’ prefix from Orang, which had been
provided by the government in 1992.
Chisumle- India inaugurated the world’s highest motorable road in Umling La Pass, located in eastern
Demchok Road Ladakh.
The World Book of Records has recently certified Atal Tunnel as the World’s Longest Highway
Atal Tunnel Tunnel over 10,000 feet. It connects Manali to the Lahaul-Spiti Valley in all weather
conditions.
The Zojila tunnel, which would be India’s longest road tunnel, and Asia’s longest
Zojila Tunnel bidirectional tunnel, is being proposed. When completed, the Zojila tunnel would allow year-
round travel across Srinagar and Ladakh.
Pangong Tso The continued border tension between India and China around Pangong-Tso Lake in Ladakh.
One of Meghalaya’s major rivers is the Lukha. The river has been rendered dead by unchecked
River Lukha
mining activity and efnuents released by cement factories.
The death knells for the River Bhogdoi in Assam have been sounded by uncontrolled coal
River Bhogdoi mining activities in Nagaland, along with efnuent discharges from tea farms and
encroachment.

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