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IB MYP Chemistry Study

Guide 2017 - 2019
Index
Chapter 1: What Is Matter? 3
Matter and Mass 3
Classification of Matter 4
States of Matter 5
Kinetic Theory 6
Diffusion 7
Terminology and Skills 8

Chapter 3.1: Atomic Structure 14

Atomic Structure 14
Isotopes 16

Chapter 3.2: The Periodic Table 16

The Periodic Table 17
Metals and Non Metals 18
Groups in the Periodic Table 21
Ions 23

Chapter 4: How do atoms bond? (Bonding) 24

Valency 25
Balancing Equations 26
Ionic Bonding 26
Covalent Bonding 27
Metallic Bonding 28
Skills 29

Chapter 5: What are the impacts of the chemical industry? (Acids & Alkalis) 30
Acids and Alkalis 30
Neutralization 35
Chapter 6: What determines chemical change? (Stoichiometry) 35
Moles 36
Moles and Mass 37
Moles and Concentration 37
Practical Applications 39
Skills 40

Chapter 9: How are environmental systems sustained by their chemistry? (Atmosphere)51

Atmospheric Composition 52
Greenhouse Effect 54
Nutrient Cycling 56
Air & Water Pollution 57

Chapter 10: How can our energy resources be accessed fairly? (Enthalpy)
Combustion

Chapter 11: How can we shift the balance of a reaction? 65

States of Matter & Kinetic Theory 65
Collision Theory 66
Equilibrium 67
Rate of Reaction 69
Catalysts 73
Chapter 1: What Is Matter?
Sub Topic Objectives

Matter & Mass - Define Matter

- Solve questions using the density formula
- Define the law of conservation of mass

Classification - Identify the difference between atoms, elements,

Of Matter compounds & mixtures in terms of physical &
chemical properties
- Illustrate the difference between pure & impure substances
States Of - Describe states of matter with examples
Matter - Describe the properties and the associated particle
arrangement in each of the three states of matter
- Identify a link between STP and gas volume
- Identify changes of state from a graph
- Explain the interconversion of states of matter in
terms of the kinetic theory

Kinetic Theory - Define and explain what is meant by kinetic theory

- Describe kinetic theory in terms of movement of
particles whose average energy is proportional to
temperature
- Describe particle movement as translational,
vibrations and rotations
- Investigate Brownian Motion
Diffusion - Define the term diffusion
- Deduce the factors that affect the movement of particles
- Describe the dependence of rate of diffusion on molecular
mass
Terminology & - Apply knowledge of scientific notation to convert
Skills numbers expressed in decimal format to normal
numbers
- Measure the volume of different liquids, taking into
account meniscus and parallax error

Matter and Mass

1. Define Matter
a. Matter can be defined as the amount of a substance to exist or any object
which has a mass and occupies space
2. Solve Questions using the density formula
a. Density (p) is the mass per volume of an object
b. It can be calculated by the formula:
Density= Mass/Volume or p=m/V
c. Example question: An ice block has a volume
of 125cm3 and has a density of 5g/cm3, what is
the mass of the ice block?
d. Answer: 625 grams
 3. Define the Law of conservation of mass:
a. The law of conservation of mass states that mass in an isolated system
can neither be created or destroyed,
b. Energy is only transferred into different forms and the total mass of the
reactants in a chemical reaction equals the sum of the mass of the
products
c. It prevents gas from escaping
d. Example: Barium Chloride + Sodium Sulphate → Sodium Chloride +
Barium Sulphate.
e. As seen above, none of the chemicals are lost and all of them are just
displaced or changed positions hence nothing is being destroyed or created

Classification of Matter
1. Identify the difference between atoms, elements, compounds and mixtures in terms
of physical and chemical properties
a. Atoms - Smallest part of any element while still retaining the properties of
that element. Made up of protons, neutrons and electrons which are the 3
subatomic particles. Example:
Hydrogen atom, gold atom
b. Element- Substance made up of only one type of atom. Example: Gold, Silver, Iron.
c. Compound- Composed of two or more different atoms chemically bonded
which cannot be separated by physical means . Atoms are in a fixed ratio
such as H2O2 or H2O
d. Mixture - Composed of two or more different atoms that are not
chemically bonded and can be separated by physical means, example salt
and water
e. Molecule - two atoms (same or different) chemically bonded. Can be a
molecular element or molecular compound.
f. Atoms are the smallest particles which make up elements, compounds and
mixtures. While elements are made of only an atom and the number of atoms
determines the chemical and physical properties of an element. Two or more
elements or atoms form either compounds or mixtures, where the only
difference would be that compounds are chemically bonded and cannot be
separated physically while mixtures are not chemically bonded and can
separate physically.
2. Illustrate the differences between pure and impure substances
a. A pure substance is an element or compound which contains only one
substance with no other substances acting as an impurity or it can be
defined as a
substance which has a uniform atomic structure where all
the molecules are uniform and have the same build. It is
has a clear melting point. It is always homogeneous.
b. Whereas an impure substance or mixture would be
many different elements or compounds mixed together
where there can be a mix of different molecules made
up for different atoms. It does not have a clear/definite
melting point. It is usually a mixture and is always
heterogeneous.
States of Matter
1. Describe the states of matter with examples, talk about density, kinetic
energy and arrangement of particles and attraction of particles
a. Solids
i. Densely packed together
ii. Particles are strongly attracted to each other
iii. Can’t flow and has a definite shape and volume
iv. Not easily compressible
v. Low kinetic energy
vi. Since the solids are tightly packed and are very dense they are
hard and have a solid shape
vii. Vibrations along a fixed position
viii. Examples: Wood, Paper, Plastic
b. Liquid
i. Less densely packed compared to solids
ii. Particles are attracted to each other
iii. Can slide past each other
iv. Cannot hold a specific shape on their own and take the shape of their container
v. Since the molecules are more loosely packed the molecules flow
over each other thus can't hold a specific shape
vi. Lack of density means there is more space for the particles to vibrate
around hence generating more kinetic energy
vii. Examples: Water, juice, soda
c. Gas
i. Particles are loosely packed together
ii. There is a lot of space between particles hence there is a lot of
kinetic energy generated as the particles can move around more
freely
iii. Can’t hold their shape
iv. Attract each other very slightly
v. Free to move around
vi. Examples: Oxygen, Carbon Dioxide, methane
2. Describe the properties and the associated particle arrangement in each of the
three states of matter
a. Answered Above^^^
3. Identify a link between STP and gas volume
a. STP refers to the Standard temperature and pressure
b. Standard temperature is 273 K/ 0 degree celsius at standard atmosphere
pressure of 1 ATM
c. 1 atm = 101 kPa
d. At STP, one mole of gas occupies 22.7L of volume (space)
e. When pressure increases then the volume of gas decreases
4. Identify changes of state from a graph

Temp
 5. Explain the interconversion of states of matter in terms of kinetic energy
a. When a substance changes from solid to liquid there would be a gain in
kinetic energy because there is more space for the particles to move
around and the same applies for liquid to gas
b. While when an object move from gas to liquid and liquid to solid there is a
decrease in the amount of kinetic energy.

Kinetic Theory
1. Define and explain what is meant by kinetic theory

a. The kinetic theory is a theory which explains the physical properties of

matter in terms of motions of its constituent particles as shown above.
b. Less dense particles, gas particles or ones with greater kinetic energy due to
temperature, occupy more volume with the same mass and rise whereas
cooler and more solid particles sink as they are denser.
2. Describe kinetic theory in terms of movement of particles whose average energy is
proportional to temperature
a. As temperature rises and there is a conversation in the states of matter for
example from solid to liquid, there is more space for the particles to move
around thus more kinetic energy is being produced by the substance or
particles.
b. The higher the temperature the faster the particles move around thus
movement of particles and temperature are directly proportional
3. Describe the particle movement as translational, vibrations and rotations
a. Translational: is the motion of a molecule as a whole moving from place to place
b. Rotational motion: is the motion of a turning molecule
c. Vibrational motion: is the back and forth movement of a vibrating molecule
4. Investigate brownian motion
a. Brownian motion is named after a botanist Robert Brown who first observed this in
1827
b. Particles in both liquids and gases move randomly. This is called Brownian
motion, they do this because they are bombarded by the other moving
particles in the fluid (liquids and gases). Larger particles can be moved by
light or fast moving particles
c. The higher the temperature the faster the particles move around thus
movement of particles and temperature are directly proportional.
Diffusion
1. Define the term diffusion
a. Diffusion occurs when particles spread.
b. They move from region where they are in high concentration to a region
where they are in a lower concentration.
c. Essentially the movement of molecules from regions of high concentration
to regions or low concentration to fill their entire container/ environment.
2. Deduce the factors that affect movement of particles
a. Temperature has an an effect as higher temperatures cause particles to
move faster since they have more kinetic energy.
b. Mass of particles have an effect as well in which heavier particles will diffuse
slower as described in Graham’s Law. If a particle’s molar mass is greater
than another particles then it will diffuse slower.
c. Chemical factors such as concentration difference and electric charges
can play a huge role in the speed of diffusion
3. Describe the dependence of rate of diffusion on molecular mass
a. Smaller molecules will diffuse faster than larger molecules due to the
difference in their molecular mass.
b. Based on Graham’s Law, the rate of diffusion of gas is inversely proportional
to the square root of its molecular mass.

In the experiment above, HCl and Ammonia solution are soaked in steel/ cotton wool and
placed on either side of a glass test tube placed horizontally. With time, a white ring of
ammonium chloride (the product of HCl and ammonia) is formed. However, as you can
see it is formed closer to the HCl and further away from the ammonia. This is because
ammonia has a lower molar mass (17 g/mol) than HCl (36.5 g/mol) therefore it diffuses
faster and the point where the 2 compounds meet is closer to HCl since the ammonia
travelled more than the HCl in the given time frame.

Terminology and Skills

1. Apply knowledge of scientific notation to convert numbers expressed in
decimal format to normal numbers
a. Parallax error is the effect whereby the position or direction of an object
appears to differ when viewed from different positions. Essentially, the
volume of the liquid (usually water) in a glass container is measured either
as too much or too little than it actually is due to the angle from which it is
observed. To avoid this, scientists worldwide decided that to avoid parallax
error, they would always measure from below the meniscus from eye level to
get the most accurate (sorry reliable) value of the volume.
b. The reason why a meniscus occurs is due to adhesion and cohesion.
Adhesion (linking of unlike molecules) is when the molecules of the liquid
(water) have a greater attraction to the molecules of the container (glass).
 It causes a concave meniscus. Cohesion (linking of like molecules) is when
the molecules of the liquid are more attracted to themselves than the
container, it causes a convex meniscus. One key example of cohesion is
mercury in a glass test tube.
c. NOTE: scientific notation ALWAYS HAS TO BE in the form N x 10^x
where N MUST be between 1 and 10 and x is the power.
2. Measure the volume of different liquids, Taking into account meniscus
a. Meniscus is the curve in the upper surface of a liquid close to the surface of
the container or another object caused by surface tension.
b. It can either be concave or convex depending on the liquid and the surface
c. The edge of the curve has to be inline with the desired measurement
level for accurate measurements
d. TIP: The correct level of water to refer to is where you see the curve or the
vertex of the parabola (ultra cheeky math + chem link ;)
e.
Chapter 3.1: Atomic Structure
Sub Topic Objectives

Atomic - State the position of protons, neutrons & electrons in the

Structure atom
- Define the terms mass number (A) and atomic number (Z)
- State the relative masses and relative charges of the
subatomic particles
- Draw the electronic configuration for atoms up to Z=20
- Determine valency of electrons using electronic structure
- Define Ion
- Evaluate the models for atomic theory
- State evidence for the existence of atomic energy levels

Isotopes - Define the term ‘isotope’

Atomic Structure
1. State the position of protons, neutrons and electrons in the atom
a. Protons and neutrons are found at the core of the atoms also called the
nucleus which is positively charged since the protons are positively
charged and neutrons do not have a charge.
b. There is a lot of space between the nucleus and the electrons but the
electrons revolve around the nucleus in shells or orbits.
c. Each shell can have a different amount of electrons. There is a general
formula for the nth shell which is 2(n^2). For example, 1st shell = 2(1 x 1) = 2
electrons.
2. Define the terms mass number (A) and atomic number (Z)
a. Mass number refers to the total number of protons and neutrons present in
the atom's nucleus. Mass number is always the bigger number when
represented in the periodic table
b. Atomic number refers to the total amount of protons present in an atom
3. State the relative masses and relative charges of the subatomic particles
a. When an atom loses or gains electrons then it is said to be an ion with
either a negative or positive charge depending on whether it lost or gained
electrons
b. The term relative atomic mass refers to the total abundance of the certain
substance in terms of its various isotopes. In essence it is the average
mass of the element taking into account all isotopes in accordance to their
abundances.
c. Its calculated by the total percent of abundance of that isotope x (mass
number) + the different isotopes with their mass numbers / 100
d. Example (Chlorine): Chlorine has two isotopes which include Chlorine-35
which is around 75% of the total Chlorine, and Chlorine-37 which amounts to
25% of the total Chlorine. To calculate the relative atomic mass of Chlorine,
we would take the mass of each isotope and multiply them by their %
abundance and add them together and divide by 100. In this case; (35*75) +
(37*25) / 100 = 35.5, which is the relative atomic mass of Chlorine.
 Protons +
1
Neutrons 0

Electrons -1

4. Define Ion
a. Ion is an atom or group of atoms which have a charge, either negative or
positive. If it is a positive ion, it is called a cation, although, if it is negative,
it is called an anion.
b. OH= hydroxide and has a charge or -1
c. NH4- Ammonium and has a charge of +1
d. The compound NaCl: Na has a positive charge and Cl a negative charge (Na+Cl-)
5. Determine valency of electrons using electronic structure
a. Valency just refers to the outermost shells so if your able to organise the
first 20 elements in their shells , then the electrons in the outermost shells
are valence electrons
b. For instance, if you have Oxygen which has 8 protons and 8 electrons in its
neutral state, you can organize it into its electronic structure. In this case it
would be 2, 6 which means that there are 2 electrons in Oxygen’s first shell,
and 6 in its last shell, or valence shell. This means that Oxygen has 6
valence electrons.
6. Evaluate the models for atomic theory
Isotopes
1. Define the term ‘isotope’
a. Isotopes are atoms that retain the same chemical properties and atomic
number of an element but have a different atomic mass due to change in
the number of neutrons.
b. Having a different amount of neutrons only affects the physical properties of the atom
c. Some isotopes of different elements are radioactive, such as Carbon-14
d. Carbon dating is measuring the ratio of Carbon-14 atoms to Carbon-
12 atoms to determine how old an object is

Chapter 3.2: The Periodic Table

Sub Topic Objectives

The Periodic Table - Distinguish between the terms

‘group’ and ‘period’
- Identify the relationship between and electronic arrangement
of elements & their positions in the periodic table up to Z=20
- Identify the relationship between the number of electrons in
the highest occupied energy level for an element & its
position in the periodic table
- Describe the history of the periodic table (Lavoisier,
Döbereiner, Newlands, Mendeleev, Moseley, The
modern periodic table)
 Metals & Non- - Describe the properties of metals and Non- Metals and
Metals compare to metalloids
- Suggest how metallic bonding explains the properties of metals
- Outline how metals can be extracted in relation to the reactivity
series
Groups In the - Outline the properties of the following groups:
periodic Table - Groups 1 & 2: Electrical conductivity & Malleability
- Group 7: State at room temperature; Reactivity with
metals
- Group 8: Inert
- Outline the periodic trends for groups 1, 2, 7, & 8
- Atomic size
- Boiling and melting points
- Reactivity
- Explain uses of different elements in Real life/ industry
Ions - Deduce the ions formed when groups 1, 2, 3 lose electrons
- Deduce the ions formed when groups 5, 6 ,7 gain electrons
- State that the transition elements can form more than one
ion, including examples
- State the formula of common polyatomic ions

The Periodic Table

1. Distinguish between the terms ‘Group’ and ‘Period’

Grou Perio
p d
Groups are the vertical columns on the Periods are the horizontal rows on the periodic
periodic table table

There are 18 groups in the periodic table There are 7 periods in the periodic table
Group numbers usually indicate the Period numbers indicate the number of
number of valence electrons in the atom electron shells in the atom of the elements
of the elements (Excluding Transitional
Metals)

2. Identify the relationship between electronic arrangement of elements & their

positions in the periodic table up to Z=20
a. In an atom, there are electron shells and valence electrons that occupy them.
As the atomic number increases, the number of electrons increase and so
does the number of electron shells as well as the number of valence
electrons.
b. The number of electron shells in the atom of an element corresponds with
the period number the element is located in the periodic table. If an atom has
2 electron shells, then it will be located in period 2 of the periodic table.
Therefore, it can be said that the number of electron shells is equal to the
period number.
c. The number of valence electrons in the atom of an element corresponds
with the group number the element is located in the periodic table. If an
atom has 2 valence electrons, then it will be located in group 2 of the
periodic table. Therefore, it can be said that the number of valence
electrons is equal to the group number.
3. Identify the relationship between the number of electrons in the highest occupied
energy level for an element & its position in the periodic table
a. The number of electrons occupied in the highest energy level (outermost
shell) in an atom of a specific element signifies the group number the
element is located in the periodic table. Ex: Oxygen has 6 electrons in the
highest energy level (outermost shell) thus it is located in Group 6 of the
periodic table.
4. Describe the history of the periodic table (Lavoisier, Döbereiner, Newlands,
Mendeleev, Moseley, The modern periodic table)
a. Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner- he put them into triads
b. Henry Moseley organized the table by atomic number (number of protons).
c. John Newlands created the law of octets which states that every shell after
the first one can hold up to a maximum of 8 electrons
d. Lavoisier organized the elements into a list of substances
e. Dmitri Mendeleev organized the elements in atomic masses and
valencies to their chemical properties and left gaps for undiscovered
elements.

Metals and Non Metals

1. Describe the properties of metals and Non- Metals and compare to metalloids

Physical
Properties
Metal Non-
s Metals
Usually have high melting and boiling point Low melting and boiling point

Good conductors of heat and electricity Poor conductors of heat and electricity
(Except Carbon - Graphite conducts
electricity)
Solid state at room temperature (Except Solid, liquid or gas at room temperature
Mercury - Liquid)

Typically malleable and ductile - Can be made Usually brittle - Breaks or shatters when
into different shapes and wires hammered

Lustrous - Shines and reflects light Non-lustrous and do not reflect light
attractively
Sonorous - Makes a ringing sound when hit Non-sonorous

Usually have high densities and are hard and Usually have low densities and are weak
strong
Metal atoms have 1 to 3 valence electrons Non-metal atoms have 5 to 7 valence
electrons
Non-ductile

Chemical
Properties
Metal Non-
s Metals
Metals lose electrons easily Non-metals share or gain electrons easily

Most metals form basic oxides Most non-metals form acidic oxides

Metals act as a reducing agent as it gives Non-metals act as a oxidizing agent as it

electrons takes electrons

Firms positive ions

Metalloid - A metalloid is any chemical element which has properties in between those of
metals and non- metals.

Metalloids
Properties
Physica Chemic
l al
Solid at room temperature Forms alloys with metals

Metalloids are semiconductors as only some React with halogens to form compounds
of them can conduct electricity under the
right conditions such as silicon and
germanium
Dull and lustrous Gain electrons when reacting with metals
and lose electrons when reacting with non -
metals
Brittle The oxidation number can range from
+3 to -2, depending on the group in
which it is located
Conduct heat and electricity but not as well as
metals
Often ductile and malleable

2. Suggest how metallic bonding explains the properties of metals

a. Metallic bonding is the chemical bond that takes
place between the atoms of the same metal.
Metallic bonding occurs due to the electrostatic
force of attraction between the metal cations and
the free flowing delocalized electrons.
b. Metallic bonds have a very strong force of
attraction between the atoms and as a result,
large amounts of energy are required to break this
bond. Thus, the melting and boiling points of these
bonded atoms are high.
c. The space between the cations allow for the
movement of the delocalised electrons which
allows the atoms to conduct heat and electricity
d. The bonded atoms are arranged in layers which slide over each other
easily and are therefore malleable and ductile.

3. Outline how metals can be extracted in relation to the reactivity series

a. The method used to extract metals from the ore in which they are found
depends on their reactivity. For example, reactive metals such as aluminium
are extracted by electrolysis, while a less-reactive metal such as iron may
be extracted by reduction with carbon or carbon monoxide.
b. Thus the method of extraction of a metal from its ore depends on the
metal's position in the reactivity series:
4. See this website:
https://www.bbc.com/bitesize/guides/zsm7v9q/revision/3#glossary 5.
Groups in the Periodic Table
1. Outline the properties of the following groups:
a. Groups 1 & 2: Electrical conductivity & Malleability
i. Since these groups are metals, they have a relatively high
conductivity as there are more carriers which allow for the transfer of
current due to the fact that they are metallically bonded.
ii. In the case of metals and elements in Group 1 & 2, the reactivity
increases as the period number increases. This means that elements
located further down the table in Groups 1 and 2 are more reactive.
iii. This is because the force of attraction between the electrons and the
nucleus is weaker as the distance between them is greater. This
happens because the atomic radius increases and therefore the
distance increases which makes the force of attraction weaker.
Because of this, it is easier for the atom to lose electrons and react as
compared to elements with a smaller radius.
iv. As we go down the group the melting point and boiling point
decreases whereas density increases apart from Sodium and
Potassium where K has a lower density than Na
b. Group 7: State at room temperature; Reactivity with metals
i. The Halogens are the most reactive nonmetals in the periodic table.
It can be said that the higher up the element is located in the group,
the more reactive it is for non - metals.
ii. This is because the force of attraction between the electrons and the
nucleus is greater as the distance between them is low. As the atomic
radius is relatively the smallest, the distance is the least and
therefore the force of attraction is greater. Because of this, it is easier
for the atom to gain electrons and react as compared to elements
with a larger radius.
 iii.In the case of group 7, fluorine is most reactive and astatine is least
reactive. A similar trend applies for the physical state of the elements
in room temperature. The more reactive elements, fluorine and
chlorine, are gases followed by bromine which is liquid and then
iodine and astatine which are least reactive and are solids.
c. Group 8: Inert
i. Elements in group 8 of the periodic table are inert or unreactive
because they have complete outermost shells. These elements have
no valence electrons and therefore have complete and full outermost
shells.
ii. Because of this, the elements don’t have to react in order to lose or gain
electrons
to obtain a full outermost shell.

2. Outline the periodic trends for groups 1, 2, 7, & 8

a. Atomic size - The trend in the atomic sizes of elements for all groups on
the periodic table are the same. As the atomic number increases so does the
number of electrons and therefore electrons shells. When there are more
electron shells, the atom becomes bigger and has a larger radius and overall
increases in atomic size.
Group 1 Group 2 Group 7 Group 8

Smallest Lithium Beryllium Fluorine Helium

Biggest Francium Radium Astatine Radon

b. Boiling and melting points - The melting and boiling point trend for elements
in group 1 and 2 are similar to each other but different to the trend in
elements in group 7 and 8 which are also similar to each other. The trend in
the elements in groups 1 and 2 is that the higher up the element is located
in the group, the higher the melting and boiling point it has. Whereas, the
trend in the elements in groups 7 and 8 is that the lower down the element
is located in the group, the higher the melting and boiling point it has.
Group 1 Group 2 Group 7 Group 8

Highes Lithium Beryllium Astatine Radon

t
Lowest Francium Radium Fluorine Helium
c. Reactivity - Similar to the melting and boiling point trend, the reactivity of
elements in group 1 and 2 are the same but different to the reactivity of
elements in group 7. The trend in elements in groups 1 and 2 is that the
lower down the element is located in the group, the more reactive it is.
Whereas for group 7 elements, the higher up the element is located in the
group, the more reactive it is. Group 8 elements are an exception as they do
not naturally react in nature at all as they are inert and so there is no
observable reactivity trend.
Group 1 Group 2 Group 7 Group 8

Most Francium Radium Fluorine -

Least Lithium Beryllium Astatine -

3. Explain uses of different elements in Real life / industry

a. Sodium - Sodium is used in real life to de - ice roads by adding it to the ice.
b. Beryllium - Beryllium is used in alloys with nickel or copper to make sprigs and
 electrodes.
c. Aluminium - Aluminium is used to make foils, cans, kitchen utensils and aeroplane
parts.
 d. Carbon - Carbon is used in pencil tips, electrodes and lubricants (graphite)
e. Nitrogen - Nitrogen is used to make fertilizers for plants and crops.
f. Oxygen - Oxygen is used in industry for the manufacturing of steel.
g. Chlorine - Chlorine is used to make water safe for drinking as well as
treating swimming pools.
h. Helium - Helium is used to inflate blimps and balloons.

Ions
1. Deduce the ions formed when groups 1, 2, 3 lose electrons
a. The formation of ions is a process that makes the atoms electronic
structure more stable. Metal atoms form groups 1, 2 and 3 lose all of their
outer shell electrons when forming ions. As each electron corresponds to a
negative charge then the loss of one electron produces a positive ion with
one positive charge. The loss of two electrons produces a positive ion with
two positive charges etc.
i. Group 1 metals form single positive ions
ii. Group 2 metals form double positive ions
iii. Group 3 metals form triple positive ions
b. These rules do not apply to the transition metals.

2. Deduce the ions formed when groups 5, 6 ,7 gain electrons

a. Atoms in groups 5, 6 and 7 gain electrons to obtain a full outer shell. This
means that atoms in group 6 form ions with a double negative charge and
atoms in group 7 form ions with a single negative charge.
i. Oxygen (configuration 2, 6) forms oxide ions (configuration 2,8), O2-
ii. Sulfur (configuration 2, 8, 6) forms sulfide ions (configuration 2, 8, 8), S2-
iii. Fluorine (configuration 2, 7) forms fluoride ions (configuration 2,8), F-
iv. Chlorine (configuration 2, 8, 7) forms chloride ions (configuration 2, 8, 8), Cl-
b. Non-metals gain just enough electrons to fill their outer shells. Each
electron gained corresponds to a negative charge and so group 6 non-
metals form double negative ions.
i. Sulphur (2,8,6) --> [sulphide ion (2,8,8)]2-
ii. Similarly group 7 elements need only one electron for a full outer shell
and so form single negative ions.
iii. Chlorine (2,8,7) --> [chloride ion (2,8,8)]-
3. State that the transition elements can form more than one ion, including examples
a. The normal rules do not apply to the transition metals as they can form more
than one type of ion. The reason for this lies in the electronic configuration
which involves electrons from the 3rd level called 'd' electrons.
i. Example: Fe2+ Fe3+
b. In these two ions the Iron atoms have lost either two electrons (in the
case of Fe2+) or three electrons (in the case of Fe3+). This type of
behaviour is possible for all of the transition metals.
4. State the formula of common polyatomic ions
Type Of Ion Formula
Nitrate NO3 {-}
 Hydroxide OH {-}
Sulfate SO4 {2-}
Carbonate CO3 {2-}
Phosphate PO4 {3-}
Ammonium NH4 {+}
Hydrogen HCO3 {-}
carbonate

Chapter 4: How do atoms bond? (Bonding)

Subtopic Objective
s
Valency - Identify the charges on atoms in a compounds
- State that transition metals can form more than
one ion, including examples
- State the formula and charges on common
polyatomic ions
Balancing Equations - Describe the law of conservation of mass
- State the rules to be followed when balancing
chemical equations
- Balance Chemical equations

Ionic Bonding - Describe how ions are formed as a result of electron

transfer
- Describe the process of ionic bonding using
scientific terminology
- Name and write the correct chemical formula
of ionic compounds
Covalent Bonding - Describe how a covalent bond is formed using
scientific terminology
- Identify differences between single, double and triple
bonds
- Illustrate a covalent bond
- Describe & compare carbon allotropes (diamond,
graphite, graphene & C60 fullerene)
- Describe and compare simple and giant covalent
structures (silicon dioxide and silica)
Metallic Bonding - Describe the metallic bond using scientific
terminology
- Illustrate a metallic bond
- Create links between the bonding which occurs in
metals and the properties of metals
Skill - Compare and explain the properties of substances
resulting from different types of bonding
- Draw both lewis structure and dot and cross
diagrams to represent bonding
- Differentiate between intermolecular and
intramolecular forces of attraction and include
examples
Valency
1. Identify the charges on atoms in a compounds
a. An atom can either be
i. Positively charged (more protons than electrons)
ii. Negatively charged (more electrons than protons)
iii. Neutrally charged (Equal amounts of protons and electrons)
b. In a compound, both elements have to cancel out each other resulting in a
neutral charge such as
i. NaCl - Na or sodium has a charge of +1 as it is a group 1 metal and
donates one electron whereas Chlorine is a group 7 non metal and
gains one electron thus have a -1 charge. So when they chemically
bond, their charges cancel each other out and are neutral

2. State that transition metals can form more than one ion, including examples
a. Transition metals located between groups 3 and 12 can share different
amounts of electrons which causes for them to form more than one
ion
b. Example- Iron(II) and Iron(III) this varies due to the fact in Iron(II) only two
electrons are shared whereas in Iron (III) 3 electrons are shared
3. State the formula and charges on common polyatomic ions
Balancing Equations
1. Describe the law of conservation of mass
a. The law of conservation of mass states that matter can neither be created
nor destroyed and only transferred from one state to another
2. State the rules to be followed when balancing chemical equations
a. Rule 1 - If two identical elements combine then the name does not change
i. H2 = Hydrogen
ii. F2 = Fluorine
iii. O2 = Oxygen
b. Rule 2 - When two elements join, the end is usually ide
i. Magnesium + Oxygen = Magnesium Oxide
ii. Lithium + Iodine = Lithium Iodide
iii. Oxygen + Iron = Iron Oxide
iv. KBr = Potassium bromide
v. CaO = Calcium Oxide
c. Rule 3 - When 3 or more elements combine and one of them is oxygen is ate
i. Copper + Sulphur + Oxygen → Copper sulfate
ii. Calcium Carbonate
iii. Silver nitrate
3. Balance Chemical equations
a. Check Edmodo for worksheets

Ionic Bonding
1. Describe how ions are formed as a result of electron transfer
a. For an atom to gain stability, it needs to have 8 electrons in the valence
shell as per the octet rule (exception for the first shell where it needs to
have 2 electrons)
 b. Atoms gain such stability through the giving or taking of electrons from the valence
shells.
This creates ions
c. Ions are charged atoms
d. A Cation is a positively charged atom (usually a metal and donated its electrons)
e. An Anion is a negatively charged ion where it has received an electron.
(usually tends to be Non metals)
2. Describe the process of ionic bonding using scientific terminology
a. A chemical bond formed between nonmetals and metals with opposite
charges. Ionic bonds form when one atom gives up one or more
electrons to another atom.
b. In Ionic bonding, it can be said that the metals are ‘electron donors’, whilst
the non-metals are ‘electron recievers’. These bonds can form between a
pair of atoms or between molecules and are the type of bond found in salts.
c. Usually happens between metal and non metal
d. Ionic bonding occurs because the transfer of electrons causes opposite
charges on the ions (donator becomes positively charged, and receiver
becomes negatively charge), this leads to a strong electrostatic force of
attraction which forms the ionic bond.

3. Name and write the correct chemical formula of ionic compounds

a. Sodium chloride consists of Na+ ions and Cl- ions bound together.
b. Magnesium oxide consists of Mg2+ ions and O2- ions bound together.

Covalent Bonding
1. Describe how a covalent bond is formed using scientific terminology
a. Covalent bonds usually join a non metal to another non metal.
b. A Covalent bond is when two nonmetals share their valence electrons in
order to gain chemical stability
2. Identify differences between single, double and triple bonds
a. Single bonds are when one pair of electrons is shared by two atoms in a molecule
b. Double bonds are when two pairs of electrons are shared by two atoms in a molecule
c. Triple bonds are when three pairs of electrons are shared by two atoms in a molecule
3. Illustrate a covalent bond

a.
4. Describe & compare carbon allotropes (diamond, graphite, graphene & C60 fullerene)
a. Carbon Allotropes are the different forms of carbon which exist due to the
fact that their strong covalent bonds have very different arrangements.
There are three main types -
i. Graphite - Formed when carbon atoms are bonded and are arranged
together into layers over each other with weak intermolecular forces
ii. Diamond - Carbon are bonded to 4 other carbon atoms called as a
tetrahedral bond and is arranged into a crystal lattice structure.
iii. Buckminsterfullerene - Fullerenes are made from carbon atoms joined together
to
 make balls, ‘cages’ or tubes of carbon.
iv. Use this link for more detailed info -
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/add_gateway_pre_2011
/chem ical/nanochemistryrev1.shtml
5. Describe and compare simple and giant covalent structures (silicon dioxide and silica)
a. Simple molecules contain only a few atoms held together by strong
covalent bonds. An example is carbon dioxide (CO2), which contain one
atom of carbon bonded with two atoms of oxygen. Their properties are as
follows:
i. Low Melting and Boiling Points - Simple covalent structures have very
strong intramolecular bonds between the atoms but weak
intermolecular forces holding the molecules together. Due to this,
these molecules have low melting and boiling points as it requires
less heat energy to break these weak forces.
ii. Non Conductive - substances with a simple molecular structure do
not conduct electricity. This is because they do not have any free
delocalised electrons or an overall electric charge
b. Giant covalent molecules contain many atoms that are arranged in a
crystal lattice structure. Their properties are as follows:
i. Strong - The physical arrangement of atoms into a lattice structure
give them a strong shape as there are multiple strong forces
between these bonds.
ii. High Melting and Boiling Points - Due to multiple bonds being present
between these atoms and molecules and strong intermolecular
forces, lots of heat energy is required to break them and change the
physical state of the molecules.
iii. More info at this link -
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/add_aqa/bonding/
structure_p ropertiesrev2.shtml

Metallic Bonding
1. Describe the metallic bond using scientific terminology
a. Metals already consist of a continuous lattice of positive ions within a sea
of delocalized electrons. This sea of electrons are the ones involved in
chemical reactions or valence electrons.
b. The electrical attraction between these delocalized electrons and the
positive metal ions explain how the atoms of metal are bonded.
c. This attractions occurs in all directions and decreases with distance. As a
consequence, metallic bonds are able to resist forces such as bending or
hitting the metal with a hammer. Instead the ions slip to new relationships
with delocalized electrons.
d. Metals are insoluble, although some will react with water to produce a soluble product.
2. Illustrate a metallic bond
 3. Create links between the bonding which occurs in metals and the properties of metals
a. Metallic bonding is the chemical bond that takes place between the
atoms of the same metal. Metallic bonding occurs due to the electrostatic
force of attraction between the cations and the free flowing delocalized
electrons.
b. Metallic bonds have a very strong force of
attraction between the atoms and as a result,
large amounts of energy are required to break
this bond. Thus, the melting and boiling points
of these bonded atoms are high.
c. The space between the cations allow for the
movement of the delocalised electrons which
allows the atoms to conduct heat and electricity
d. The bonded atoms are arranged in layers which
slide over each other easily and are therefore
malleable and ductile.

Skills
1. Differentiate between intermolecular and intramolecular forces of attraction and
include examples

Intermolecul Intramolecul
ar ar
Intermolecular forces are the forces Intramolecular forces are the forces
that exist between molecules that exist within a molecule

Intermolecular forces include: (in order of Intramolecular forces include:

strength from least to greatest) ● Metallic Bonding
● London Dispersion Attraction ● Ionic Bonding
● Dipole - Dipole Interactions ● Polar Covalent Bonding
● Hydrogen Bonding ● Nonpolar Covalent Bonding
Chapter 5: What are the impacts of the chemical industry?
(Acids & Alkalis)
Subtopic Objectives

Acids and - Define an acids as a Proton/H+ donor and a base proton/H

Alkalis acceptor
- Distinguish between aqueous solutions that are acidic,
neutral or alkaline using the pH scale
- State the formula of common acids and bases
- Describe strong and weak acids and bases in terms of
the extent of ionization
- Describe that strong acids and bases of equal
concentrations have higher conductivities than weak
acids and bases
- Distinguish between strong and weak acids and bases in
terms of the rates of their reactions with metals, metal
oxides, metal hydroxides, metal hydrogen carbonates and
- metal carbonates and their electrical conductivities for
solutions of equal concentrations
Neutralizatio - Define neutralization reactions
n - Identify the acid and base needed to make different salts
and write balanced equations to represent reactions
- Explain the use of neutralization in everyday life

Skills - Identify products and reactants in a chemical equation

- Classify substances using state symbols
- Identify reactions as ‘displacement’ or ‘precipitate’ reactions
- Balance chemical equations for the reaction of acids with
metals, metal oxides, metal hydroxides, hydrogen
carbonates and carbonates

Acids and Alkalis

1. Define an acids as a Proton/H+ donor and a base proton/H acceptor
a. An acid is defined as a chemical substance that when dissolved in water, or disassociated,
can
 donate hydrogen ions, H+, or a proton. They are solutions of pure compounds in
water. They are also defined as an acid by the following properties:
i. pH - Less than 7
ii. Turn Litmus Paper from Blue to Red
iii. Sour Taste
iv. Corrosive, (when concentrated)
v. Turn universal indicator from Green to Red.
b. A base is defined as a chemical substance that when dissolved in water or
disassociated, donates OH- ions and they neutralize acids. They are also defined
as a base by the following properties:
i. pH - More than 7
ii. Doesn’t change Blue Litmus paper, however can turn red litmus paper back into blue
litmus paper
iii. Soapy or Bitter Taste
iv. Corrosive, only to the skin and not metals
v. Dissolves fats and oils.
vi. Neutralizes Acids
vii. Turn universal indicator from Green to Dark Violet.

2. Distinguish between aqueous solutions that are acidic, neutral or alkaline using the pH
scale.
a. pH refers to the power of hydrogen and measures the concentration of an acid or
alkali with the concentration of Hydrogen ions in an acidic, basic or neutral
solution. It is logarithmic, so each denomination is equal to the power of 10, with
the sign reversed. Example - Pure Water has a H+ concentration of 10-7 mol/dm3
so its pH is 7.

Acids - Range from 0-6 on the pH scale.

Bases - Range from 8-14 on the pH scale.

Neutral Solution - 7 on the pH scale.

3. State the formula of common acids and bases.

Common Acids

Type of Acid Name Formula

Monoprotic Hydrochloric Acid HCl

Ethanoic Acid (Acetic Acid) CH3COOH

Nitric Acid HNO3

Diprotic Sulfuric Acid H2SO4

Carbonic Acid H2CO3

Chromic Acid H2CrO4

Triprotic Phosphoric Acid H3PO4

Base
s
Name Formula

Sodium Bicarbonate NaHCO3

Ammonia NH3

Calcium Hydroxide Ca(OH)2

Lithium Hydroxide LiOH

Potassium Hydroxide KOH

Sodium Hydroxide NaOH

4. Describe strong and weak acids and bases in terms of the extent of ionization.
a. When an acid dissolves in water, it donates a hydrogen ion or a proton to
produce a hydronium ion and a negative ion. These are often reversible.
b. Sometimes the acid donates a large amount of its Hydrogen ions, so much so that
it can be said that very little of the reverse reaction takes place, therefore It can be
said that the acid is virtually
 100% ionized.

c. If at any one time, virtually 100% of the hydrogen ions of the acid have formed
hydronium ions, it can be said that the acid is a strong acid.

d. Weak acids are acids that don’t fully dissociate when in water. The acid does still
react with water to form a salt and hydronium ion, however the reverse reaction
easily takes place and is more common than the dissociation reaction. The ions
react very easily to form the acid and water, so only a small part of the solution is
ionized. If at any one time, if virtually 1% of the hydrogen ions of the acid have
formed hydronium ions, it can be said that the acid is a weak acid.

e. When a base dissolves in water, it donates a Hydroxide ion. These are often
reversible. Sometimes the alkali donates a large amount of its Hydroxide ions, so
much so that it can be said that very little of the reverse reaction takes place,
therefore It can be said that the alkali is virtually 100% ionized. If at any one time,
virtually 100% of the Hydroxide ions of the alkali have dissociated and forms
Hydroxide ions, it can be said that the alkali is a strong alkali.
f. Weak bases are bases, that don’t fully dissociate when in water. The alkali does
still react with water to dissociate, however the reverse reaction easily takes place
and is more common than the dissociation reaction. The ions react very easily form
the alkali and water, so only a small part of the solution is ionized. If at any one
time, virtually 1% of the hydrogen ions of the acid have formed hydroxide ions, it
can be said that the acid is a strong acid.

Concentration vs Strength.
*same principle applies to Hydroxide ions.

5. Describe that strong acids and bases of equal concentrations have higher
conductivities than weak acids and bases.
a. Any solution's ability to conduct electricity is based on the concentration of
ions. A strong acid has more ions than a weak one, and so it's solution will be a
better electrical conductor than a weak acid. The same can be said for
strong/weak bases.
6. Distinguish between strong and weak acids and bases in terms of the rates of
their reactions with metals, metal oxides, metal hydroxides, metal hydrogen carbonates
and metal carbonates and their electrical conductivities for solutions of equal
concentrations.
a. Strong acids and bases will have a greater rate of reaction with metals, metal
oxides, metal hydroxides, metal hydrogen carbonates and metal carbonates.
b. Even if the concentration of both the strong and weak acid or base was kept
constant, the stronger the acid or base, the greater the rate of reaction because
there are more hydrogen and hydroxide atoms that are dissociated allowing for
a quicker reaction
c. If equal amounts of a substance was reacted with a weak or strong acid or base,
the amount of product formed would be the same for all solutions. However,
strong acids and bases would produce maximum products quicker.
Neutralization
1. Define a neutralization reaction.
a. A neutralization reaction is a chemical reaction that takes place when an acid
reacts with a base to form a salt and water. When reacting with an alkali, the
OH- ions react with the H+ ions to form water.
2. Explain the use of neutralization in everyday life
a. Milk of magnesia - Antacid or base which helps in neutralizing stomach acids
b. Limestone for agriculture
3. Identify reactions as ‘displacement’ or ‘precipitate’ reactions.
a. Double replacement reactions have two ionic compounds that are exchanging
anions or cations. Precipitation reactions and neutralization reactions are two
common types of double replacement reactions. Precipitation reactions produce an
insoluble product from two aqueous reactants, and you can identify a precipitation
reaction using solubility rules. Neutralization reactions occur when the reactants are
an acid and a base, and neutralization reactions are usually favorable as long as the
reaction involves a strong acid and/or a strong base.

Chapter 6: What determines chemical change? (Stoichiometry)

Subtopic Objectives

Moles - Define the term mole

 - Convert between the amount of a substance (moles)
and number of atoms, molecules, ions, electrons and
formula units
- Identify the mole ratio of any two species in a chemical
equation
Moles and Mass - Calculate the mass of one mole of its species from its
formula
- Differentiate between mass number (A), relative atomic
mass (Ar), and relative molecular mass (Mr)
- Solve problems involving the relationship between the
amount of a substance in moles, mass and molar mass
Moles and - Distinguish between the terms solute, solvent,
Concentrati solution and concentration
on - Solve problems involving concentration, amount of
solute and volume of solution
- Define STP and SATP
- Calculation of reacting volumes of gases using
Avogadro’s Law

Practical Applications - Calculate the percentage composition by mass of a

compound from its formula
- Use equations to calculate the masses of reactant and
products
- Calculating the limiting reactants
Skills - Differentiate between qualitative and quantitative
chemistry
- Describe and explain change as either physical or
chemical
- Identify the difference between empirical and molecular
formulae
- Investigate and calculate the empirical formula of a
compound
- Differentiate between subscripts and coefficients in a
chemical equation
- Deduce chemical equations when all reactants and
products are given
- Convert cm3 to dm3
- Develop laboratory techniques relating to titrations

Moles
1. Define the term mole
a. A mole is a unit of measure of the number of atoms and molecules in a substance
b. 1 Mole of any substance has 6.023 x 1023 atoms and molecules
2. Convert between the amount of a substance (moles) and number of atoms,
molecules, ions, electrons and formula units
a. To convert from atoms and molecules to moles
i. Divide by 6.02 x 1023
ii. For example, 8.12 x 1023 molecules = 1.35 Mol
b. To convert from moles to atoms and molecules
i. Multiple by 6.02 x 1023
ii. For example, 1 Mole of O2 = 12.044 x 1023 O atoms
iii. For example, 5 mole of Mg = 3.0115 x 1024 Mg atoms
3. Identify the mole ratio of any two species in a chemical equations
 a. The mole ratio is the number of moles of each substance involved in a chemical
reaction
b. The mole ratio can only be calculated if the chemical equation is balanced
i. H2 + O2 = H2O
ii. 2H2 + O2 = 2H2O
iii. In this equation, the mole ratio of Hydrogen gas (H2) to Oxygen gas (O2) is 2:1
iv. And the ratio of Hydrogen gas (H2) to Water (H2O) is 2:2 or 1:1 when simplified
v. This means that when Oxygen and Hydrogen gas react, 1 mole of O2
reacts with 2 moles of H2 to produce 2 moles of H2O.

Moles and Mass

1. Calculate the mass of one mole of its species from its formula
a. The mass of the mole of a substance is the relative atomic mass of that element
b. For example, H = 1, C = 12, O = 16, Na = 23, Cl = 35.5 (Rounded Off Values)
2. Differentiate between mass number (A), relative atomic mass (Ar), and relative
molecular mass (Mr)
Mass Number Relative Atomic Mass Relative Molecular Mass

The sum of the number of The mass of an atom The sum of relative
protons and neutrons in an compared with a Carbon-12 atomic masses of all
atom of a substance atom. Takes into account the elements in a
mass and abundance of compound.
isotopes as well.
H = 1, O = 16, Na = 23 H = 1.01, O = 15.99, Na = H2O = 18.01, Na2O = 61.97
22.99
3. Solve problems involving the relationship between the amount of a substance in
moles, mass and molar mass
a. To obtain number of moles
i. Mass / Molar Mass
ii. For example, how many moles of oxygen (O) are
there in 64 grams?
iii. 64/16 = 4 Moles
b. To obtain mass
i. Number of Moles x Molar Mass
ii. For example, how much grams of Hydrogen gas is
present in 5 moles ?
iii. 5 x 2 = 10 grams

Moles and Concentration

1. Distinguish between the terms solute, solvent, solution and concentration
a. Solute - A pure substance which would be dissolved in a solvent
i. Example: Salt and sugar
b. Solvent - A substance where the solute is dissolved
i. Example: Water
c. Solution - A substance in which a solute is completely dissolved in a solvent
i. Example: Salt (solute) completely dissolves in water (solvent) to
form salt water (solution)
d. Concentration - The proportion of the amount of solute to the volume
of the solvent (mol/dm3 or g/dm3)
i. Concentration = Moles or Mass / Volume
 ii. Example - 1 mol of salt in 1 litre of water has a concentration of 1 mol/dm3
e. Saturated - A saturated solution is when the maximum amount of a solute
is dissolved in a solvent at a specific temperature
i. Factors affecting Saturation:
1. Temperature - higher the temperature the more kinetic energy
amongst the particles meaning there would be more space
between the particles of the solvent for the solute to dissolve in.
Solubility increases as temperature increases
2. Pressure - it reduces the volume of the solvent compressing
more solute into less solvent.
3. Chemical composition - The nature of the solute and
solvent affects solubility
f. Saturated - A solution where no more of the solute can be dissolved into
the solvent at a specific temperature
g. Saturation - The degree of extent to which solute is dissolved in a solvent
compared to the maximum capacity. The proportion of solute to solvent.
2. Solve problems involving concentration, amount of solute and volume of solution
a. (figure 1) Concentration (c) = Number of moles (n) / Volume (v)
b. If the amount of a substance is given in grams we must first convert that to
moles using the formula
c. (figure 2) Number of moles (n) = Mass (m)/Molar mass(Mr)
d. Refer to Edmodo for more practice questions

n m

cX nX
v Mr

Figure 1 Figure 2

3. Define STP and SATP

a. STP - Standard Temperature and Pressure
i. Standard temperature is 0° celsius
ii. Standard pressure is 1 ATM or 100k pascals
b. SATP - Standard Ambient Temperature and Pressure or RTP (Room
Temperature and Pressure)
i. Standard ambient temperature is 25°C
ii. Standard pressure is 1 ATM or 100k pascals
4. Calculation of reacting volumes of gases using Avogadro’s Law
a. Formulas to calculate for number of moles
i. Solid = Mass / Molar Mass
ii. Liquid = Concentration x Volume
iii. Gas = Volume / Molar Volume (STP or SATP)
b. Avogadro's Law - Equal volumes of all gasses when measured at the same
temperature and pressure contain equal number of particles.
c. Molar Volume - The volume occupied by one mole of gas at a given temperature and
 pressure.
i. At STP, 1 mole of gas (6.023 x 1023 particles) occupies 22.7 dm3 at 0 C° and
100kPa
ii. At SATP, 1 mole of gas (6.023 x 1023 particles) occupies 24 dm3
at 25 C° and 100kPa

Practical Applications
1. Calculate the percentage composition by mass of a compound from its formula
a. % of the mass of an element in a compound =
100 x (Number of atoms of the element x RAM / Relative formula mass of the
compound)
b. Example: Water (H2O)
i. % of mass of oxygen = 100 x (1 x 16 / 18)
= 88.89% of H2O is oxygen
2. Use equations to calculate the masses of reactant and products
a. CaCO3 + 2HCL → CaCl2 + H2O + CO2
b. Calcium Carbonate = 20g
c. Calculate mass of CO2
i. First balance chemical equation
ii. Then convert the mass of calcium carbonate to moles
iii. Mass / Molar Mass = 20 / 40 + 12+ (16 x 3) = 20 / 100 = 0.2 moles
iv. Use mole ratio to compare 1 mole of CaCO3 gives out 1 mole of CO2
v. Since ratio is 1:1
vi. CO2 = 0.2 moles
vii. Mass of CO2 = Moles x Molar Mass
viii. Mass of CO2 = 0.2 x 12 + (2 x 16) = 0.2 x 44 = 8.8g
3. Calculating the limiting reactants
a. Limiting reactants - The limiting reactant determines how much product can be
formed.
b. Yield - The yield from a chemical reaction is the mass of product made.
c. Theoretical Yield - The theoretical yield is the quantity of the product that
can be formed from the complete conversion of the limiting reactant. This
assumes that the reaction is 100% effective, i.e. all of the starting material
(reactants) is converted to the desired product.
d. Actual Yield = The amount of product actually produced is the actual

𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
yield. Not a 100% conversion of reactants to products

𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
e. Percentage x 100

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
yield =

f. To calculate % yield = Make a balanced equation. Work out the relative

formula mass of compounds involved and then use the formula.
g. Example:
i. CaCO3 → CO2 + CaO
ii. If 22 grams of CO2 is produced with the decomposition of one
mole of calcium carbonate, what is the percentage yield of this
experiment?
iii. The theoretical yield assumes that 1 mole of CO2 was produced
because the mole ratio between calcium carbonate and carbon
dioxide is 1:1.
iv. Mass of one mole of CO2 = 12 + (2 x 16) = 12 + 32 = 44 grams
v. Percentage Yield = (Actual / Theoretical) x 100 = (22 / 44) x 100 = 50%
h. Reasons for inefficient reactions and actual yields:
 i. The reaction may be incomplete.
ii. Some product is lost during practical preparation.
 iii. There may be unwanted reactions taking place.
iv. Can be difficult to separate the product from other products
v. The product may be impure.

Skills
1. Differentiate between qualitative and quantitative chemistry
Qualitative Quantitative

Branch of chemistry that concerns with any Branch of chemistry that concerns
non- numerical data, conclusions and numerical data such as calculations and
observations. measurements

2. Describe and explain change as either physical or chemical

Physic Chemica
al l
Physical change is a change in state Chemical change occurs in a chemical
but not in the chemical makeup of the reaction and the substance's chemical
substance. makeup is changed. The process is
either exothermic or endothermic.

Can be reversed using simple Cannot be reversed using simple

means. Eg: heating cooling, means. Eg: cooling, heating,
evaporating, etc.. evaporating etc..
Water → Ice Egg, Flour, Sugar → Cake

3. Identify the difference between empirical and molecular formulae

Empirical Molecular

The formula form of the simplest whole The formula form of the actual numbers
ratio number of atoms in a compound of atoms in a compound

Ex: The simplest form of Glucose would be Ex: The actual formula of Glucose is C6H12O6
CH2O
4. Investigate and calculate the empirical formula of a compound
a. The empirical formula of a compound can be calculated by:
i. Using percentage composition
ii. If the percentage values of elements present in a compound are
given, divide the percentage compositions by the respective molar
mass of each element
iii. For example, 10.8% of Magnesium - 31.8% of Chlorine - 57.4% of Oxygen
10.8
iv. Mg = 24
= 0.45
so, 24
31.8
v. Cl = 35.5 so, = 0.9
35.5
57.4
vi. O = 16 so, = 3.59
vii. 16
The next step is to divide these values by the lowest value obtained
viii. In this case, Magnesium has the lowest value (0.45)
 0.45
ix. Mg = =1
0.45
0.9
x. Cl = =2
0.45
3.59
xi. O= =8
xii. 0.45 that have been obtained are the subscript values for
The values
each element in the compound
xiii. Therefore this compound is MgCl2O8
5. Differentiate between subscripts and coefficients in a chemical equation
a. In a chemical equation there are two numbers:
i. Subscripts; O2 Subscripts notate the number of the specific atom in
the chemical equation. WHEN BALANCING AN EQUATION
SUBSCRIPTS CANNOT BE CHANGED
ii. Coefficients: 2HCl Coefficients notate the number of specific molecules present
6. Deduce chemical equations when all reactants and products are given
a. C + O2 = CO
2C + O2 = 2CO (add a coefficient before the molecule to balance the equation)
b. SO2 + O2 = SO3
2SO2 + O2 =
2SO3
7. Convert cm3 to dm3
cm3 dm3

1 0.001

1000 1

dm3 litre

1 1

1000 1000

ml litre

1 0.001

1000 1
8. Develop laboratory techniques relating to titrations
a. Titration is an experimental technique used to identify the concentration of
a certain volume of a solution using a known solution with a known
concentration value called the titrant
b. The known solution is slowly added to the other solution until the reaction neutralises
c. A universal indicator is then utilised to observe the colour change in the
solution will be used to identify the concentration
d. In order to determine the amount the concentration of the unknown solution,
the formula n = cv can be used.
i. The number of moles is determined using the mole ratio of the chemical
reaction.
 e.
f. Let’s take an example where 50 cm3 of 0.2 mol/dm3 of Sodium Hydroxide is required to
neutralise 25 cm3 of Sulphuric Acid with an unknown concentration.
Identify the concentration of the acid?
i. Write down a balanced equation: 2NaOH + H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + 2H2O
ii.
Identify the number of moles: Moles = Concentration x Volume = (50 / 1000) x
0.2
= 0.05 x 0.2 = 0.01 moles
iii. Identify the number of moles of the acid through the mole ratio: NaOH
to H2SO4 is 2:1 therefore 0.01 / 2 = 0.005 moles of H2SO4
iv.
Calculate the concentration of the acid: Concentration = Moles /
Volume = 0.005 / (25 / 1000) = 0.005 / 0.025 = 0.2 mol/dm3

Chapter 9: How are environmental systems sustained by

their chemistry? (Atmosphere)

Subtopic Objectives

Atmospheric - Outline the current composition of air

Composition - Describe the fractional distillation of air
- Explain how the composition of air has changed over
time
- State the characteristics of different atmospheric
gases
- Describe how to test for different atmospheric gases
Greenhouse Effect - Describe the Greenhouse Effect
- Describe the formation and depletion of
ozone in the stratosphere by natural
processes
- List the main greenhouse gases and their sources
and discuss their relative effects
- Outline how CFC’s have affected the ozone layer
- Evaluate the Carbon Footprint of different
activities and different countries
Nutrient Cycling - Describe how carbon is cycled
- Describe how nitrogen is cycled
- Describe how phosphorus is cycled

Air & Water Pollution - Describe the main sources of air pollutants
(carbon monoxide, nitrous oxides, sulphurous
oxides, particulates, and volatile organic
compounds)
- Outline how the atmosphere interacts with the water
cycle
- Outline the different ways in which pollution is
caused

Atmospheric Composition
1. Outline the current composition of air
a. Oxygen = 21%
b. Nitrogen = 78%
c. Carbon Dioxide = 0.03%
d. Argon and other noble gases = 0.97%
2. Describe the fractional distillation
of air 3 easy steps to remember:
1. Compression of air into the refrigeration unit
2. Filtration to remove solid impurities
3. Distillation column with a temperature gradient
a. Air is first filtered to remove any fine dust
particles, and then is cooled to a
temperature of -200oC
b. At -200oC, the air has liquified
c. Once the air liquefies, the water vapour
contained in the air condenses and is
removed using filters
 d. Carbon, Oxygen, and Nitrogen liquify at different temperatures. Carbon
freezes at -79oC, Oxygen liquifies at -183oC, and Nitrogen liquifies at -196oC.
e. Carbon Dioxide and Ice (deriving from water vapor) are removed using
absorbent filters. The liquid nitrogen and oxygen are separated by
fractional distillation.
f. Like the separation of crude oil, the top of the column is cooler than the
bottom of the column.
3. Explain how the composition of air has changed over time
a. Earth’s new atmosphere has less carbon dioxide, less water vapour and
more oxygen compared to earth’s older atmosphere
i. Less Carbon Dioxide - As oceans formed, carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere dissolved into the water causing a huge decrease in the
amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, but now due to
excessive pollution and the release of greenhouse gases, the CO2
parts per million is increasing.
ii. Less Water vapour - As the earth cooled after its formation , water
vapour in the atmosphere condensed to form liquid rain which
formed the oceans
iii. More oxygen - As the number of plants increased on earth, more
photosynthesis occured allowing for more oxygen to be released
into the atmosphere
4. State the characteristics of different atmospheric gases

Gases Characteristi
cs
Argon - Inert noble gas
- Low melting and boiling point
- Colourless and odourless

Carbo - Colourless and odourless

n - Soluble in water, ethanol and acetone
Dioxid - Low melting and boiling point
e
Oxygen - Low melting and boiling point
- Diatomic element
- Highly reactive
- Colourless and odourless

Nitrogen - Generally inert (unreactive)

- Colourless, odourless and tasteless
- Diatomic element

5. Describe how to test for different atmospheric gases

a. Test for Carbon Dioxide
i. If a gas bubbled through colourless lime water (calcium hydroxide)
turns the limewater milky or cloudy (calcium carbonate), then this
gas is Carbon Dioxide.
ii. Also, if a wooden splint on fire is added into a test tube with CO2,
the fire will extinguish.
b. Test for Chlorine
i. If a gas turns damp litmus paper from blue to red and then bleaches
it, then this gas is Chlorine.
c. Test for Hydrogen
 i. If an ignited (lit) wooden splint makes a squeaky pop sound when it
burns in a gas, this gas is Hydrogen
d. Test for Oxygen
i. If a glowing wooden splint, that was once ignited but blown out,
reignites in a gas, then this gas is Oxygen.
e. Test for Water
 i. If a liquid turns anhydrous copper (II) sulphate crystals from white to
blue, then this liquid is water
ii. If cobalt chloride paper turns from blue to pink, there is water or water vapour
present.

6. How the Miller-Urey experiment shows how life began on Earth:

Their experiment: A mixture of different compounds were exposed to sparks
to stimulate the extensive lightning which may have been present in Early
stages of the Earth’s development.
After a few days, amino acids were found, which are the molecules that build
up proteins. This shows that by stimulating what the Earth’s early atmosphere
as like, it was visible that several organic compounds could be formed
spontaneously.

Greenhouse Effect
1. Describe the Greenhouse Effect
a. The greenhouse effect is used to describe the way the gases in the atmosphere trap
heat
from the sun, creating an ‘insulating blanket’ over the Earth.
b. Briefly, some solar radiation is reflected of the Earth and some absorbed. It is
re-emitted in all directions from the natural greenhouse gases present in the
atmosphere, and is a way of warming up the Earth’s surface and lower
atmosphere.
c. Augmented production of greenhouse gases further enhances the
greenhouse effect, to the point where heat cannot escape the atmosphere
and thus keeps the earth in a period of intense warming.
d. Geothermal heat and energy produced by the Earth as well gets trapped.
2. Describe the formation and depletion of ozone in the stratosphere by natural processes
a. Ozone is an allotrope of oxygen gas, and made naturally in the atmosphere
b. Oxygen gas molecules are bombarded by high energy UV light from the
Sun. This causes the oxygen molecules to break up to form oxygen
radicals.
c. The oxygen radicals react with existing oxygen gas molecules making ozone
d. Ozone gas molecules are hit by UV radiation from the Sun, and they split
into oxygen molecules and radicals. Other ozone molecules then react
with oxygen radicals forming oxygen molecules.
3. List the main greenhouse gases and their sources and discuss their relative effects

Methane

Source ● Agricultural practices (rice agriculture and paddy fields, biomass burning, anaerobic
decomposition in wetlands.
● 40% Energy sources, 31% Agricultural sources, 29% Waste management, 1% Industrial
process.
Solution Eat less red meat, support organic farming practices, support farms which use ‘digesters’.
Anaerobic digesters utilize microorganisms to decompose cattle manure within a container.
The resulting biogas can be collected for producing electricity.
Use cleaner forms of combustible gases. Support farms which use organic farming
processes.
 Sulfurous Oxides

Source ● Combustion of fossil fuels for electricity production (mainly coal, oil and
natural gases) and mechanized transport
● Smelting of metals copper, zinc, lead, and nickel
● Volcanic eruptions
● Burning of wood

Solution Utilizing renewable and alternative fuel sources and modes of energy such as solar, tidal,
geothermal, wind etc.
Wet Scrubbers - A technique used to channel all dirt gases into a chamber that is mixed and
dissolved into liquid that is usually water
Fluidized Bed Consumption: Crushed coal is burned in a bed of Limestone which absorbs the
Sulfur that is released from the coal during Combustion.
Removal of Sulfur from Coal: Coal Cleaning reduces Sulfur content by 40%. Advanced Coal
cleaning methods reduce it even more.

Nitrous
Oxides
Source Use of synthetic fertilizers for agriculture (nitrification and denitrification), fossil fuel
combustions, livestock and manure, biomass burning

Solution Use less nitrogen fertilizer, use minimum tillage for cropping (this minimises organic matter
breakdown and the release of nitrous oxides), prevent waterlogging, use more public
transport

Carbon
Monoxide
Source Incomplete combustion of fuels,

Solution Have your heating system, water heater and any other gas, oil, or coal burning
appliances serviced by a qualified technician every year. Use catalytic converters and
unleaded fuel in cars to control gas output and combustion rate.

Carbon
Dioxide
Source Deforestation (9% of total production) as well as the burning of fossil fuels such as coal, oil
and natural gas (87% of total production) and industrial processes (4% of total production).

Solution Stop deforestation and advocate for the conservation of plant life, plant trees to sequester
carbon. Use industrial processes which may be less effective but rely less on fossil fuels and
rely more on cleaner forms of energy etc.

4. Outline how CFC’s have affected the ozone layer

a. Sunlight breaks up the CFCs, with the Chlorine radicals reacting with the
Ozone molecules. The reaction turns Ozone molecules into Oxygen
molecules without absorbing any UV lights, causing ozone layer depletion.
 5. Evaluate the Carbon Footprint of different activities and different countries

Nutrient Cycling
1. Describe how carbon is cycled
 2. Describe how nitrogen is cycled

3. Describe how phosphorus is cycled

Air & Water Pollution

1. Describe the main sources of air pollutants (carbon monoxide, nitrous
oxides, sulphurous oxides, particulates, and volatile organic compounds)
a. Carbon Monoxide
i. Petrol vehicles without catalytic converter
ii. Power stations and waste incinerators
iii. Cigarette smoking
 b. Nitrous Oxides
i. Decomposition of nitrogen compounds by bacteria
ii. High temperature combustion in vehicles
c. Sulphurous Oxides
i. Volcanic activity and the decay of organic matter
ii. Combustion of coal in the presence of sulphur
iii. Sulphuric acid plants
d. Volatile Organic Compounds
i. Paint and furniture polish and finish products
ii. Detergents and aerosols
iii. Smoke and cigarettes
2. Outline how the atmosphere interacts with the water cycle
3. Outline the different ways in which pollution is caused.
a. Burning of fossil fuels for electricity production and in mechanized
vehicles emitting carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide
b. Decomposition of waste material releasing methane and nitrous oxides

Chapter 10: How can our energy resources be accessed

fairly? (Enthalpy)
Subtopic Objectives

Combustion - Define the terms flash point; ignition temperature

- Explain incomplete & complete combustion
- State word & balanced chemical equations for
incomplete & complete combustion
- Link combustion equations to exothermic equations

1. Link combustion equations to exothermic equations

a. All combustion reactions are considered to be exothermic as the end
product are usually heat and light. This corresponds with exothermic
reactions as there is heat given off as a product similar to combustions.
Therefore, it can be said that combustion equations are exothermic as they
release heat energy to the the surroundings.
Chapter 11: How can we shift the balance of a reaction?
Subtopic Objectives

States of Matter & - State the properties of matter (s, l and g)

Kinetic Theory - Describe the kinetic theory in terms of the
movement of particles whose average energy is
proportional to temperature

Collision Theory - Describe the collision theory

- Explain collision theory taking into account the
qualitative effects of particles whose average
energy is proportional to temperature

Equilibrium - Define the thermal dissociation, reversible

reaction and thermal decomposition
- Outline the characteristics of chemical and physical
systems in a state of equilibrium
- State and explain the effect of a catalyst on an
equilibrium reaction
- Apply Le Chatelier's principle to predict the
qualitative effects of changes of temperature,
pressure and concentration on the positions of
equilibrium
- Apply the concepts if equilibrium to the Haber
processes and use le Chatelier to create the
maximum yield of Ammonia
Rate of Reaction - Define the term rate of reaction
- Describe suitable experimental procedures for
measuring rates of reaction
- Analyse data from rates experiments
- Explain factors which affect reaction rate: effects of
particle size, temperature, concentration and
pressure and presence of a catalyst
- List and describe the limitations of each rate of
reaction experiment

Catalysts - Define the term activation energy (Ea)

-
Describe the effect of a catalyst on a chemical
reaction

States of Matter & Kinetic Theory

1. State the properties of matter (s, l and g)
a. The three states of matter (excl. Plasma and Bose Einstein Condensate) are
solids, liquids and gases
b. Solids are denoted by ‘s’
c. Liquids are denoted by ‘l’
d. Gases are denoted by ‘g’
e. Refer to Chapter 1 for properties of each states of matter
 2. Describe the kinetic theory in terms of the movement of particles whose
average energy is proportional to temperature
a. All matter is composed of particles constantly in motion. The movement
of particles is proportional to the amount of energy they possess
i. Particles with high energy move quicker
ii. Particles with low energy move slower
b. Energy is directly proportional to the temperature of the particles
i. The greater the temperature, the greater the energy and the
quicker the movement
ii. The lower the temperature, the lesser the energy and the slower the movement

Collision Theory
1. Describe the collision theory
a. The collision theory is a theory that explains the rate of chemical reactions in
the gas phase based on the kinetic energy of particles
b. The collision theory also involves the geometry of collision and how it
determines whether a reaction takes place or not.
2. Explain collision theory taking into account the qualitative effects of particles
whose average energy is proportional to temperature
a. The collision theory revolves around the amount of energy particles
possess that are needed to break and make bonds for a reaction to take
place
b. For reactions to take place, particles require a minimum amount of energy
that will overcome the forces between molecules and break bonds. This
minimum energy required is known as activation energy.
c. If particles of the reactants have a high temperature, they possess greater
kinetic energy and move quicker
d. Particles with greater kinetic energy display more motion. As these particles
move more, the probability of them successfully colliding with sufficient
energy increases. When these particles collide with sufficient amount of
energy that is equal to or greater than the activation energy, the particles
react and products are formed.
e. This theory also involves the geometry of collisions between particles.
i. If this collision geometry is correct, particles react with each
other and the products are formed.
ii. If the collision geometry is incorrect, the particles bounce off each
other and no product is formed.
Equilibrium
1. Define the thermal dissociation, reversible reaction and thermal decomposition
a. Thermal dissociation is an easily reversible thermal decomposition
reaction in which usually a single bond is broken, when the temperature
is increased.
b. Reversible reactions are those in which the reactants react to form the
products and the products can react together to form the reactants.
c. Thermal decomposition is the chemical decomposition of a substance into
many smaller substances at high temperatures. This process involves the
breaking and rearrangement of many bonds and is therefore not so easily
reversible.
2. Outline the characteristics of chemical and physical systems in a state of equilibrium
a. Physical System
i. If water is being heated, the water molecules gain enough energy
and escape the liquid state to become water vapour by evaporation.
ii. At the same time, these gas molecules lose energy condense back
to form liquid water molecules.
iii. When the rate of evaporation is equal to the rate of condensation
then the system has reached equilibrium.
b. Chemical System
i. In a chemical reaction, there are two reactions taking place; the
forward reaction between the reactants to form the products and the
backward reaction between the products to form the reactants.
ii. When the rate of the forward reaction is equal to the rate of the
backward reaction then the system has reached equilibrium.
c. A system that is in a state of equilibrium will have a fixed ratio between the
concentration of products and reactants.
d. A system in dynamic equilibrium takes place when the rate of the forward
reaction is equal to the rate of the backward reaction in a closed system.
e. At equilibrium there are no changes to the macroscopic or observable
properties of the products and reactants after the reaction. For example: the
colour and density observed of the reactant and products will remain the
same after the experiment is completed.
3. State and explain the effect of a catalyst on an equilibrium reaction
a. The presence of a catalyst does not affect the position of equilibrium.
However, a catalyst increases the rates of both forward and backward
reactions and thus brings a closed system to equilibrium more rapidly.

4. Apply Le Chatelier's principle to predict the qualitative effects of changes of

temperature, pressure and concentration on the positions of equilibrium
a. Le Chatelier’s principle is a set of rules that investigate how physical changes to a
system in
dynamic equilibrium will shift the position of equilibrium to counteract the physical
 changes in order to maintain equilibrium.
b. In simple words, if a dynamic equilibrium is disturbed by changing the
conditions, the position of equilibrium moves to counteract the change.
c. This principle shows that a change in the position of equilibrium of a reaction
will affect the concentration of the reactants and products when dynamic
equilibrium is achieved again.
d. For instance, if the position of equilibrium of a reaction shift to the reactants
then the concentration of reactants will increase and the concentration of
products will reduce and the concentration ratio will differ to the original
reaction.

Factor Effect Illustration

Concentration If the concentration of

element A increases then
the position of equilibrium
will shift to the reaction
which produces less of
element A.
If the concentration of
element A decreases then
the position of equilibrium
will shift to the reaction
which produces more of
element A.
Pressure If the pressure of a
Pressure is the number of reaction is increased
gas molecules present then the position of
amongst the reactants and equilibrium will shift to
products. In the case of the the reaction which has
illustration provided, there lesser pressure (gas
are 3 gas molecules of produced).
reactants and 2 gas If the pressure of a
molecules of products. reaction is decreased
Thus, the reactants have then the position of
greater pressure than the equilibrium will shift to
products. the reaction which has
greater pressure (gas
produced).
Temperature If the temperature of a
In the case of the reaction increases then
illustration, the forward the position of equilibrium
reaction is exothermic and will shift to the reaction
gives out heat energy. The that is endothermic.
backward reaction is If the temperature of the
endothermic and absorbs reaction decreases then
heat energy. the position of equilibrium
will shift to the the reaction
that is exothermic

5. Apply the concepts of equilibrium to the Haber processes and use le Chatelier
to create the maximum yield of Ammonia
a. The Haber Process is chemical process that is utilised by
industrialists to produce ammonia by reacting nitrogen and hydrogen

b. N2 + 3H2 ⇆ 2NH3 △H = -92 kJ mol-1

at specific conditions

c. Temperature:
i. The reaction takes place at a compromise temperature of 400-450º C
ii. This temperature is comparatively high and increased from standard
temperature which would shift the position of the equilibrium to the
reverse reaction. This is because the forward reaction is exothermic
and the reverse reaction is endothermic. This produces more
reactants and decreases the concentration ratio of products to
reactant.
iii. However, if the temperature was reduced then the reaction would
take years for it to complete. Thus, a compromise temperature is set
to ensure that the reaction takes place quick enough to produce a
reasonably high proportion of ammonia (15%).
d. Pressure:
i. The reaction takes place at a compromise pressure of 200 ATM
ii. This pressure is higher than standard pressure which would shift the
position of equilibrium to the forward reaction. This is because the
reactants have 4 molecules of gas as compared to 2 gas molecules of
products. This produces more products and increases the
concentration ratio of products to reactants.
iii. Keeping the pressure at this value would also ensure the rate
of reaction is increased and reasonably quick.
iv. An extremely high pressure value is not used in this scenario as it is
highly expensive to produce and utilise high pressure as the cost of
equipment and maintenance would exceed the potential revenue
gained from the production of more ammonia.
e. Catalyst
i. Catalysts do not have an effect on the position of equilibrium.
ii. Finely powdered iron catalysts are solely utilised to increase the rate of reaction.
iii. In the absence of a catalyst, the reaction is so slow that virtually
no reaction happens in any sensible time and no or limited
ammonia would be produced.

Rate of Reaction
1. Define the term rate of reaction
a. The speed of a complete reaction that tests the time taken for a complete
reaction to take place.

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡
b. The formula for rate of reaction is:

𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
ROR =

2. Describe suitable experimental procedures for measuring rates of reaction

a. Surface Area - To use marble (calcium carbonate) stones with different surface areas
and
 react that with hydrochloric acid to observe the amount of carbon dioxide
collected after a certain period of time.
b. Temperature - To react sodium thiosulphate at different temperatures with
hydrochloric acid to observe the time taken for a thick, white solution to
form over a cross on a sheet of paper.
c. Concentration - To react a fixed mass of magnesium ribbon with different
concentrations of hydrochloric acid to observe the amount of hydrogen gas
produced in a certain amount of time.

3. Analyse data from rates experiments

a. Temperature - As temperature of the reaction
increases the rate of reaction increases as well.
The graph to the right displays a positive
exponential curve which indicates that the rate of
reaction is exponentially increasing as temperature
increases.

b. Surface Area (Particle Size) - As the surface area

of the reactants increases the rate of the
reaction increases as well. The graph displays
two negative exponential curves; one that
indicates the use of reactants with a high surface
area and the other with low surface area. The
graph shows that the curve of greater surface
area stabilises at an earlier point than the curve
of smaller surface area. Additionally, it can be
noted that the gradient of the greater surface
area curve is higher than that of the smaller
surface area curve.

c. Concentration - As the concentration of the

reactants increases the rate of the reaction
increases as well. The graph displays a positive
exponential curve which indicates that the rate of
reaction is exponentially increasing as
concentration increases.

d. Pressure - As the pressure of the reaction increases

the rate of the reaction increases as well. The
graph displays two negative exponential curves;
one that indicates a reaction performed at a high
pressure and the other with low
pressure. The graph shows that the curve of high pressure
stabilises at an earlier point than the curve of low pressure.
Additionally, it can be noted that the gradient of the high
pressure curve is higher than that of the low pressure
curve.

e. Catalyst - As the presence of a catalyst increases the rate

of reaction increases. The graph displays three negative
exponential curves which indicate the use of more, less
and no catalyst in the reaction. The graph shows that the
curve of more catalyst stabilises at an earlier point than
the curve of less catalyst by producing the highest
amount of oxygen gas. The no catalyst curve produces limited amount of oxygen and
 would take far more time to reach the same level as the other curves.

4. Explain factors which affect reaction rate: effects of

particle size, temperature, concentration and
pressure and presence of a catalyst
a. Particle Size (Surface Area) - Particles with a
greater size or surface area increase the rate
of reaction. This is because the greater surface
area of the particles are exposed to other
particles resulting in a greater probability of
successful collisions and a quicker reaction. This
is only applicable for solid reactants.
b. Temperature - Reactions conducted at higher temperatures increase the
rate of reaction. This is because the greater the temperature, the greater
the thermal energy the particles possess which cause them to vibrate and
move quickly and collide with each other with greater energy and more
frequently thus increasing the probability of successful collisions
leading to a quicker reaction.
c. Pressure - Reactions conducted at higher pressure increase the rate of
reaction. This is because the reactant particles are located closer together
and are in concentrated region increasing the possibility of successful
collisions leading to a quicker reaction. This is only applicable for gas
reactants.
d. Catalyst - Catalysts provide an alternative pathway where not as much energy
is required for the reaction thus occurs much faster. It reduces the activation
energy needed to overcome the intermolecular forces, which makes it
easier to get the reaction going.
5. List and describe the limitations of each rate of reaction experiment

Common Limitations for all

Experiments
Limitation How does it affect the data? How will it be improved

Range of IVs A larger range of An experiment with more

(independent variable) than 5 IVs (or how many
would decrease the used in your context) for
chances of outliers making example 7 IVs such as (0.2,
the data collected more 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1, 1.2, 1.4
reliable. Too small a range mol/dm^3) A greater range
means a reliable trend of IV would allow for a more
would not be able to reliable trend to be
identified identified
Number of Trials (5) Though 5 trials is Increase number of trials
sufficient enough to from 5 to 10 leading to
identify a trend, an more accurate and reliable
increase in the number of results
trials would allow for
outliers to be discounted
making the data more
reliable and accurate
 Effect of Temperature on
ROR
Limitation How does it affect the data? How will it be improved?

Determining the When various individuals are To assign a specific person to

end of the reaction assigned towards judging the monitor and assess whether a
completion of a reaction, their reaction is complete or not
evaluation may differ from one which would maintain
another due to bias causing consistency is results obtained.
imprecise results.
Uncertainty of The analog thermometer had a A digital data logger could be
Thermometer high uncertainty of ±0.5℃ used as this digitally records
and as it is based on each the temperature of the solution
person’s interpretation of to a desired degree of accuracy
the reading. This leads to over a certain period of
imprecise and inaccurate
time.This has a smaller
results overall.
uncertainty than the
thermometer hence will provide
more precise and accurate
data.

Effect of Surface Area on

ROR
Limitation How does it affect the data? How will it be improved?

Size of Marble Since surface area has an effect This will be improved by using a
Chips on ROR, the same sized marble file to shape the marble chips to
chips should be used per trial a fixed size and length allowing
meaning, a chip with a bigger for individuals to identify links of
surface area shouldn't be specific surface area values to
dropped in the trial testing the rate of reaction
smaller surface area as it would
make the data unreliable and
inaccurate
Temperature Since the reaction is exothermic, This can be controlled by
of Reaction heat is released during the placing the conical flask in a
reaction of the chips and the water bath of constant
acid, this means all the trials will temperature at 25 degrees
occur at different temperatures celsius and recycling the water
and since temperature affects the after every experiment and
rate of reaction the data obtained making sure the water is at 25
would be imprecise. degrees after every recycle
using a thermometer
Size of the The size of the measuring To utilise a larger measuring
Measuring cylinder used to collect the cylinder of 300 Cm3 that collects
Cylinder amount of carbon dioxide formed the complete amount of carbon
was insufficient leading to the dioxide produced allowing for
collection of invalid and the collection of valid results..
incomplete results.
 Effect of Concentration on
ROR
Limitation How does it affect the data? How will it be improved?

Water Bath The water bath was not recycled This will be improved by
after each experiment which recycling the water bath after
lead to varying initial each experiment using water
temperature of the solutions as from the same source t and by
the experiment is exothermic. using a thermometer to ensure
This would have caused the that the initial is kept constant.
rates of reaction to increase for
the later experiment leading to
imprecise results.
Contaminated The boiling tube that was utilised To thoroughly rinse and clean
Equipment to store the solution was not the boiling tube with distilled
rinsed and cleaned after each water after each experiment to
experiment which would have ensure that the concentration of
affected the concentration of the the solutions are controlled.
solution leadings to unreliable
results.
Time allowed for The time allowed for the To increase the time allowed
reaction to take reaction to take place can be for the reaction to take place
place described as insufficient as to 40 seconds allowing
some reactions did not fully reactions to be completed.
complete which would have
lead to the collection of
inaccurate results.
Concentrations of The concentration of the To utilise more accurate
the Solutions solutions were measured using a measuring equipment such as a
measuring cylinder which would burette to measure the volume
have yielded inaccurate of acid and water for the
measurements. Due to this, solution.
inaccurate results would have
been obtained.

Catalysts
1. Define the term activation energy (Ea)
a. The minimum amount of energy required for a reaction to take place.
b. The activation energy is unique and different to every reaction based on
the reactants involved.
c. The activation energy of a reaction is the difference between the energy
value of the highest point on the energy curve and the energy value of
the reactants.

2.
Describe the effect of a catalyst on a chemical reaction
a. Catalysts are substances that are employed to change the rate of a reaction
without being used up.
 b. They provide an alternate path for reaction to take place.
c. When catalysts are used in chemical reactions, they reduce the activation
energy thereby reducing the time taken for the reaction.
d. This is because the alternate reaction pathway provided has a lower
activation energy than the original, uncatalysed reaction

Frequently Asked Exam Style Questions (FAEQ)

Diffusion
1. When 5g of zinc carbonate is placed on the right of a evaporating basin filled with
10 cm3 distilled water and 5 g of lithium fluoride is added to the left, a white
precipitate (zinc fluoride) will form. On which side of the basin will the precipitate
form? (Usually 2-3 marks). This question may in the form of writing a hypothesis.
a. Calculate the molar mass of both compounds
i. Zinc Carbonate = 125 g/mol
ii. Lithium Fluoride = 25 g/mol
b. Using this information and knowledge on the rate of diffusion, you can
say that Zinc Fluoride is formed to the right side, where zinc carbonate
was added.
c. If equal masses (5g) of zinc carbonate and lithium fluoride were added to
distilled water then the zinc carbonate precipitate will form closer to the
side where the zinc carbonate was added. This is because the molar mass
of the lithium fluoride (25g/mol) particles is smaller which means that
these particles move and diffuse quicker and more easily than zin
carbonate.

Separation Techniques
1. Evaluate the use of distillation as a water purifying method
a. Describe the process of distillation with context to water purification
b. List and explain 2 general advantages and disadvantages and then link
these to a factor (economic and environmental are usually two good
factors)
i. Economic - Opens up job opportunities and provides an essential good
and service to citizens of a country. Allows people to work and benefits
the economy. However, process is extremely expensive and not
economically sustainably in poorer and lesser economically developed
countries.
ii. Environmental - Industrial distillation filters and cleans out water for
drinking and tap usage. While waste products are safely dumped.
However, when done on large scale, usually lots of energy is required
to boil water which leads to the burning of fossil fuels, releasing
greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide which increase the global
temperature.
c. Provide a further advantage or disadvantage depending whether you are for
or against the use of distillations as a method of water purification
i. Advantages - Distillation is a simple and easy process that
 provides many job opportunities for the local public.
ii. Disadvantages - Distillation does not always yield 100% pure or
distilled water and may not be very efficient and is costly.
 d. Summarise all your points into an appraisal where you conclude whether
distillation is good or bad based on your identified points. Ensure that if
you are for then you should have 3 advantages and if you are against
you should have 3 disadvantages.
2. Labelling chromatography apparatus
- Chromatogram
- Ink Dyes
- Pencil (For Pencil Line)
- Beaker

Common Lab Apparatus

Apparatus Image Notes

Round Bottomed Flask They are used to uniformly

heat or boil the contents of
the flask. They have a
curved bottom, which
means that no substances
can get stuck or accumulate
in one area, hence the word
uniform. Can be used to
measure only 250 cm3 of
liquid. Denoted by a ring
along the neck.
Flat Bottomed Flask Same purpose as the round
bottomed flask. The key
difference is that they can
stand on their own and not
have to be clamped, unlike
round bottomed flask.
Conical Flask Conical flasks are
commonly used in
reactions in which the flask
may need to be closed with
a rubber bung in order to
prevent any product from
escaping or to measure the
volume of gas produced.
They are also used when
the flask has to be swirled,
as the edges prevent
spilling. They consist of
measurements with regular
intervals. Used in titrations.
Measuring Cylinder/ They are used for
Graduated Cylinder measuring the volume of
liquids accurately and
quickly. More accurate than
flasks and beakers.
Normally used to dispense
a known amount of liquid.
They are not as precise as
pipettes/ volumetric flasks
in terms of measuring the
volume of a liquid.
Volumetric Flask They are used for
measuring a known
quantity of liquid. Similar to
the flat bottomed and
round bottom flask, they
contain a ring which
denotes how the volume of
liquid present.

Beaker A beaker is a container

used for mixing, stirring or
heating up liquids. They
have spouts for pouring.
Pipette A pipette is used to transfer
a small amount of liquid.

Burette Burettes are also used for

measuring the volume of a
liquid. They are commonly
used in titrations, and the
main distinction is the fact
that you can control the
volume of the liquid with
the tap.

Evaporating Basin An evaporating dish is

used for the evaporation
of solutions.

Distillation Flask A distillation flask is

used in simple
distillation.

Liebig Condenser Used in distillation. Cold

water flows through the
outer part of the
condenser, cooling the
inner tube. This allows for
the gas that is collected in
this tube to condense and
form a liquid.