INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS 2167/2

THE FIRST WORLD WAR 1914-1918

The First World War broke out in 1914. It started as a European war but by
1917 it became purely a world war as it involved United States of
America,Asia,Canada, Australia,Brazil, China,the Caribbean Islands and most
ofAfrica.The cataclysm came as a disturbing calamity to the relative peace
and tranquillity which the people of Europe had enjoyed since the end of the
Napoleonic wars.Everyone had expected to enjoy the fruits of industrialisation
and scientific developments that had started in Europe but this was however
,rendered null and void by this great war of 1914.The war was fought on land
and above land[air],on seas and under the seas.The war was fought by
Germany and Austria-Hungary and their allies[Central powers] against Britain
andFranceand their allies [Allied powers].

Allied powers during World War One

-Canada -United States of America
-Romania -Italy
-South Africa -Greece
-Georgia -New Zealand
-Japan -China
-Portugal -Spain
-Serbia -Belgium
-Montenegro -Armenia
-Australia -Britain
-France -Russia

Central powers during World War One

-Germany -Austria-Hungary
-Turkey -Bulgaria
-Jordan

Methods of fighting used during World War One

-Air strikes -Submarine warfare
-Use of tanks -Trench warfare
-Use of poisonous gas

Seas where World War One was fought

-North Sea -English Channel
-Pacific -Atlantic
-Red sea
 Weapons used during World War One
-Tanks -Hydrophone
-Howitzers -Rifles
-Battle cruisers -Aeroplanes[zeppelin]
-Destroyers -Poisonous gas
-Torpedoes -Cruisers
-Light cruisers -Machine guns
-Depth charge -Bombs[grenades]
-Submarines[U-boats] -Cannons
-Dreadnoughts [battle ships]

Types of ships used during World War One

-Dreadnoughts -Light cruisers
-Cruisers -Battle cruisers
-Submarines[U-boats] -Destroyers

European countries that had colonial interests in North Africa in early 1900s
-Britain -France
-Germany -Italy
-Turkey -Spain

European countries that had interests in the Balkan region before World War
One
-Britain -Russia
-Germany -Austria–Hungary
-Turkey

CAUSES OF WORLD WAR ONE

Long Term Causesof World War One

-The system of alliances initiated by Bismarck caused the First World War.
-The colonial clashes or conflicts by European powers caused the 1914 war.
-The naval race especially between Britain and Germany increased tension in
Europe.
-Arms race by European powers increased enmity among European powers.
-Militarism in Europe also caused the 1914 war.
-Nationalism was another cause of world war one.
-The first Moroccan crisis[1905] and the second Moroccan crisis [1911] also
contributed.
-German Weltipolitik [a policy aimed at dominating Europe] also caused this
war.
-War plans such as the Schlieffen plan by Germany caused the 1914 war.
-Kaiser’s utterances or tactless public statements by the Kaiser provoked
other countries.

Short term causes/Balkan Instability/Balkan crisis [1908-1914]

-The Bosnian crisis [1908] caused the war.
-The first Balkan war [1912] and the second Balkan war [1913] caused the
1914 war.
-The Sarajevo assassination [1914] sparked the war.

Causes of World War One [in detail]

1]The Alliance System

The system of alliances was initiated by Otto von Bismarck who was the
Chancellor of Germany from 1871 to 1890.Following the defeat of France by
Germany in the 1870-71 Franco-Prussian war. Bismarck was determined to
prevent any attempts by the French to regain the mineral rich provinces of
Alsace-Lorraine or to find allies in Europe who would be prepared to assist her
in a war of revenge. Generally Bismarck’s foreign policy was geared towards
isolating France who was seen as the greatest danger to the newly created
German Reich. Alsace-Lorraine had been absorbed into the newly created
German Empire.

a] TheDreikaiserbund Treaty/ The League of the Three Emperors[1872]

It was signed by Kaiser William I of Germany, Tsar Alexander II of Russia and

Emperor Francis Joseph of Austria-Hungary. By clever diplomacy, Bismarck
managed to secure the friendship of both Austria-Hungry and Russia in spite
of the conflicting ambitions of these two countries. By this treaty Bismarck
hoped that monarchicalfriendship would form a common bond against
republican France [which was one reason why he wanted France to remain a
republic]. Bismarck was able to isolate France by befriending Austria Hungary
and Russiawhom France could get into friendship with.

Terms of this Treaty

-The league members agreed to cooperate in the suppression of subversive
activities in their countries.
-They agreed to consult each other if other powers threatened European
peace.
-The three monarchs agreed to consult each other about events in the
Balkans.
-The three agreed to assist each other in case of an attack of any member by
two or more powers.
-In case of an attack by one country, others were to remain neutral[not to
intervene].

b]The Dual Alliance[1879]

It was signed by Germany and Austria-Hungary

Terms of this treaty

-The two countries promised mutual aid if one of them was attacked by
Russia.
-The two promised mutual aid if one of them was attacked by any power
assisted by Russia.
-They promised each other aid if either of them were attacked by two or more
powers.
-They promised each other neutrality in the case of an attack by any other
country, for example, France.
-The treaty clearly promised support to Germany in the event of a joint attack
by France and Russia.

c]The Renewed Dreikaiserbund Treaty[1881]

Bismarck feared that France might come into an agreement with Russia[He
wanted to keep France isolated].As a result Bismarck persuaded Russia and
Austria-Hungary to renew the old Dreikaiserbund.Tsar Alexander II had died
and Bismarck renewed the League of the Three Emperors with Austria-
Hungary and Russia .Thus the possibility of a Franco-Russian alliance was
banished.
Terms of this Treaty

-The three powers agreed to consult each other in matters of the Balkans.
-They promised each other neutrality if one of them was attacked by a fourth
power [single] power.
-Austria –Hungary was allowed to annex Bosnia and Herzegovina.
-There was to be creation of a Big Bulgaria [the union of Bulgaria and Eastern
Roumelia] under Russian influence.
-The alliance was to be renewed after every three years.

d]The Triple Alliance [1882]

It was signed by Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy.It was an enlargement of

the 1879 Dual Alliance to include Italy.Italy joined because she resented
French expansion in North Africa.Bismarck secretly encouraged French
ambitions in North Africa, mainly to divert her from scheming to recover
Alsace –Lorraine and to bring France into collision with Italy, who had
ambitions and some 20 000 settlers in Tunis area.In 1881 the French
reluctant to see an Italian colony established on the borders of French Algeria,
took Bismarck’s hint and occupied Tunis.This threw Italy into the arms of
Germany and the following year [1882] Italy joined the two powers of the 1879
Dual Alliance to form the Triple Alliance.

Terms of this Treaty

-Germany and Austria-Hungaryagreed to help Italy if she were attacked by
France.
-Italy agreed to help Germany if she were attacked by France.
-Each of these powers agreed to help if either of the powers were attacked by
any two or more powers.
-Germany and Austria-Hungary agreed that they would help each other against
a Russian attack of either of them.
-In case of any war that involved Britain, Italy was to remain neutral.
-Each of these powers agreed to remain neutral if either of them was attacked
by a single.
-the alliance was joined in the following year [1883] by Romania and later on
by Turkey.

e] The Re-insurance Treaty[1887]

It was signed by Germany and Russia.The Dreikaiserbund was supposed to be

renewed in 1887 but failed, owing to Austro-Russian antagonism over the
Balkan affairs.At that time the Russian press was actively anti-German and
articles were advocating a Franco-Russian alliance.This was a threat to
Germany’s policy of keeping France isolated. To improve the Russo-German
relations, Bismarck secretly signed the Re-insurance treaty with Russia.It was
signed without the knowledge of Italy and Austria-Hungary.

Terms of this Treaty

-Both promised to remain neutral if either of them was at war with a third
[single] power.
-If Russia attacked Austria-Hungary or if Germany attacked France they were
to remain neutral.
-They were also to try and localise the conflict.
-Germany was to support Russian claims to influence Bulgarian affairs.

f] The Franco-Russian Agreement/ Dual Alliance 1894

It was signed by Russia and France.France was without an ally but by 1890
she felt she needed one, partly because of her weakness in relation to
Germany and partly because she was increasingly coming into conflict with
Great Britain and Italy over colonial matters.Russia had a tradition of alliance
with Germany but she had come to realise that whenever Austrian and
Russian interests clashed in the Balkans, Germany was likely to support
Austria.Therefore in 1890 when her existing treaty with Germany lapsed, she
did not renew it.The dismissal of Bismarck in 1890 marked a turning point in
the relations of European countries.French isolation died a natural death as a
result of Kaiser’s policies.When the Re-insurance treaty needed to be renewed
in 1890, Kaiser William ignored.Russia signed the Dual Alliance with France
because since 1888 Russia was being given French loans, which greatly
helped her to finance her industrial progress.

Terms of this Treaty

-If France was attacked by Germany alone or by Germany and Italy, Russia
would help her.
-If Russia was attacked by Germany alone or by Germany and Austria-Hungary,
France would help her.
-The alliance was to continue as long as the triple alliance was in force[a clear
indication that they were geared towards a war].
-If the members of the triple alliance mobilised, France and Russia were to
mobilise immediately.
g]The Anglo- Japanese Alliance [1902]

It was signed by Britain and Japan.Britain approached Japan in 1902 because

she wanted an ally who could check Russian and German expansionist
ambitions in the Far East especially China.The alliance was meant to guard
against the movement of Russia in the Far East, that is, in Manchuria and
Korea.Japan also wanted an ally who could help her plan for a war against
Russia[Russo-Japanese war 1904].This alliance was the first step which
Britain took to end her isolation.

Terms of this Treaty

-Britain was to support Japan in the Far East if Japan was in a war with two
other powers.
-If either of them was to wage war against two powers, her ally was bound to
join her.
-If either power went to war to maintain the Far Eastern status quo, the other
promised to remain neutral.
-If Japan was at war with a third power [single power] Britain was to remain
neutral.
-If Britain was at war with a third power [single power] Japan was to remain
neutral.
-Britain recognised Japan’s interests in Korea.

Why Britain abandoned the policy of splendid isolation/Why Britain looked

 for allies

-She wanted an ally who could check Russian and Germany expansionist
ambitions in the Far East especially China.
-All the major powers had aligned themselves, for example, the dual alliance
of 1879,the Franco-Russian alliance of 1893-4 and the Triple alliance and so
on.
-Britain had the desire to control Russian expansion in the Balkans.
-Arms race with Germany and other powers.
-German gunboat diplomacy
-Division of Europe into two hostile camps hinted the vulnerability of Britain.
-The Fashoda incident of 1898
-The congratulatory message of Kaiser William to Paul Krugger in 1896 after
the Jameson raid failure.
-The Anglo-Boer war of 1899-1902.In this war the Kaiser gave the Boers food
supplies.
-The Kaiser’s proclaimed Weltipolitik threatened British supremacy
-Britain’s naval superiority was being challenged by USA, Japan and Germany
-Germany looked for colonies next to British ones

h] The Entente Cordiale/Anglo-French-Entente/ Anglo-French agreement

[1904]
It was signed by Britain and France. An entente is an agreement to settle
areas of dispute.This agreement was mainly concerned with colonial
matters.It was not directed against specific enemies.It was not a military
alliance.It was aimed at fostering co-operation between Britain and France,
especially in settling disputes concerning overseas territories.Britain and
France abandoned their traditional differences.The two were drawn together
by the common fear of Germany’s intentions.To Kaiser William and the rest of
the world, it showed that Britain preferred France to Germany.This alliance
made France to work hard to draw her two friends [Russia and Britain]
together.

Terms of this Treaty

-Britain agreed not to oppose French aims in Morocco.
-Britain promised France a free hand in Morocco whilst Britain’s occupation of
Egypt was not to be opposed.
-Thus they recognised each other’s interests in Africa.
-The two agreed to work together in the event of a conflict.

i]Anglo-Russian Agreement [1907]

It was signed by Britain and Russia.It was signed in St Petersburg in Russia.It
was also known as the Anglo-Russian agreement.The fear of a Franco-
Russian drive against India forced Britain to oppose the extension of Russian
influence.Even the downfall of Napoleon III did not make the British feel
secure in their possession of India.At the end of the nineteenth century
Russia’s position was growing progressively stronger than Britain.Russia
conquered most of Central Asia and extended her influence to Manchuria and
Korea, posing a threat to British interests in China.It was not a military alliance
and not necessarily anti German.The agreement led to the formation of the
triple entente.

Terms of this Treaty

-Britain and Russia settled their colonial disputes in Persia, Afghanistan and
Tibet.
-The two also settled their differences over India.
-Tibet which was of interest to both was declared to be neutral.
-They agreed that neither of them would interfere in Tibet’s internal affairs.
-The treaty recognised Britain’s influence over Afghanistan.
-Russia gained control over Northern Persia.
-Britain gained control of South East and the Persian Gulf.

j]The Triple Entente [1907]

It was signed by Britain, France and Russia.France brought her two friends
together.Britain and Russia ironed out their differences.The support given by
Russia to France and Britain at Algeciras Conference in 1906 drew them
together.This alliance was described as the anti-German club of Britain,
Russia and France. This alliance was meant to counter the triple alliance
.
Terms of this Treaty
-They agreed to divide Persia [Iran] into three spheres of influence.
-The Northern sphere including Tehran was to be under Russian influence.
-The Southern sphere was to be under British influence.
-Tibet which was of interest to both was declared to be neutral.
-They agreed that neither of them would interfere in Tibet’s internal affairs.
-China’s sovereignty was to be recognised.
-A complete balance of power was struck
.

Contribution of the Alliance System to the outbreak of World War

One

-It called for the inconvenience of many countries because of the feeling of
insecurity.
-Bismarck’s alliances helped to increase the fears of other nations especially
France, which began a frantic search forallies to counter the triple alliance.
-It led to the division of Europe into two armed and equally opposing camps,
that is, triple alliance and triple entente.
-The two camps increased strength year after year.
-The relations between the two camps worsened.
-The alliances operated to convert a local quarrel into a general war.
-These two camps were the ones that fought the war of 1914.
-The armies ready for war on the continent were the largest ever formed in
Europe in time of peace.

Other Factors which led to the outbreak of World War One

-Naval race which increased tension between Britain and Germany

-Colonial clashes which increased enmity among European powers
-The Sarajevo assassination which brought the fatal clash between allied and
central powers

European powers involved in the System of Alliances

-Germany -Austria-Hungary
-Russia -Britain
-Turkey -Italy
-France -Bulgaria

2] Colonial clashes/conflicts/rivalry
They also helped to produce the cataclysm of 1914.Misunderstandings which
took place among European nations as they competed to control African
territories caused the war.These imperial conflicts strained relations between
major powers.Almost all European countries rushed to control African land
and this resulted in disputes over control of some territories, for example the
clash between Italy and France over Tunisia, the Fashoda incident and so
on.In 1905 and 1911, France and Germany conflicted over Morocco.Morocco
was taken as a threat by the members of the Entente Cordiale of 1904 and
therefore they cemented their relationship against Germany.

3] Naval race
-It was the competition for building warships especially, between Britain and
Germany.
-In 1870 Germany passed naval laws aimed at the construction of big
warships.
-Britain who considered herself as the mistress of the sea felt threatened.
-In 1889 Britain vowed to make her navy twice stronger than any two
European countries combined.
-After 1890 Germany challenged this view and began competing with Britain
and passed naval laws aimed at speeding up ship production.
-Between 1898 and 1900 Germany doubled her warships from 31 to 62.
-Britain felt threatened and went on to introduce new type of ship known as
dreadnought.
-This type of ship dominated the seas during world war one.
-This put Germany at a disadvantage because the dreadnought was
comparably more powerful than any other battleship in existence at that time.
-It was faster and stronger than any other ship.
-This rendered other ships virtually useless.

-Germany not wanting to be outcompeted made her own dreadnought in 1909.

-Between 1909 and 1912 Germany built 9 dreadnoughts while Britain
consequently laid down 18 to maintain her supremacy.
-The naval race reached its peak in 1906 with the launching of the
dreadnought by Britain, which stimulated German naval rivalry.
-By 1914 Britain had built 32 dreadnoughts while Germany had 20.
-Naval race increased tension between Britain and Germany.
-Together with militarism, naval race cemented the system of alliances which
had brought Europe nearer to war than to peace.

Types of ships involved in naval race

-Dreadnoughts -Battle cruisers
-Light cruisers -Cruisers
-Submarines -Destroyers

4] Arms race
-It was the competition in the production of armaments.
-During the period after 1870 Germany had the finest military machine yet she
continued to arm.
-France and Russia looked upon Germany’s own might army with fear and
began to arm.
-They increased arms to counter Germany’s military machine.
-Almost all European countries embarked on making weapons in order to fully
equip their armies.
-Ammunition firms mushroomed all over Europe.
-Attempts to limit armaments had failed at the Hague Conference of 1899.
-Tsar Nicholas II had suggested a 5 year halt in arms increases but no positive
proposal of that kind was accepted.
-The lead in the rejection came from Germany.
-As a result the mood of militarism pervaded Europe by 1914.
-Each announcement of increased armaments expenditure by a European
power was viewed as a threat by its perceived rival and this created an
atmosphere of mutual fear and suspicion which played a major part in
creating the mood for war in 1914.
-Once started it was difficult impossible to slow down arms race.
-On each side there was a complete lack of trust in the intentions.
-European powers piled and piled arms and once armaments were produced
what was left was an opportunity to pull the trigger.
-Arms race increased insecurity among nations.

5] Militarism`
-It was an increase in soldiers by European powers.
-From the end of the nineteenth century most European powers had been
increasing their armies.
-Most European countries began to introduce compulsory military service.
-Able bodied men were forced to join the army.
-France,for example, went on to increase military service from 2 to3 years.
-Russia increased military service from three to three and half years.
-Germany increased her soldiers up to 5 million.
-Various war plans were drawn, for example, Schlieffen plan.
-Railway lines were constructed to reach possible battle fields.
-These armies were not to remain idle. A chance to put their training into use
was inevitable.

6] Nationalism
-It is the wish of people with a common origin to be united or to form an
independent country.
-The Balkan people, for example, were struggling to win their national
independence from Turkey and Austria-Hungary.
-They were anxious to win all people of the same race under their national
flags and they were anxious to establish themselves in the world so that they
would be at par [same level] with other great powers.
-Some nations, for instance, in the Balkans were anxious to extend their rule
over people of the same nationality.
-Serbia, for example, had freed many of her fellow countrymen from the rule of
Turkey.
-She was therefore anxious to complete the task.
-Serbia wanted to wrest [take] from Austria-Hungary the territory on the
Adriatic coast which was inhabited by Slavic people [Slavs].
-This explains why Serbia and Austria-Hungary were at loggerheads up to
1914.
-Thus world war one grew out of a clash between Slav nationalism and the
multi- ethnic Austro-Hungarian Empire.
-Austria-Hungary had incorporated the Slav people into her empire.
-This led straight to the Sarajevo assassination.

7] Germany Weltipolitik
After the resignation of Bismarck in 1890, Germany adopted a policy of
Weltipolitik, a policy aimed at leadership and even dominating the whole
world.Britain was not prepared to let anyone country dominate Europe. She
had fought Napoleon I for this reason and was now prepared to fight Germany.

8]Kaiser’s utterances /Tactless public statements by the Kaiser

Kaiser’s public statements caused the 1914 war.For instance, the Kaiser
congratulated Paul Krugger after the Jameson raid failure.This provoked
Britain

9] The Schlieffen plan

It also caused the 1914 general war.It was a German war plan devised by
General Alfred von Schlieffen in 1905.According to this plan Germany wanted
to invade France via Belgium yet Britain and Germany had agreed not to
violate Belgian neutrality [1839 London treaty].It was the violation of Belgian
neutrality which brought Britain into the war.

10] The Moroccan Crisis

a] First Moroccan Crisis of 1905 / The Tangier Crisis [1905]

-Germany learnt about the secret agreement [Entente Cordial] between France
and Britain.
-On this agreement French claims on Morocco were recognised by Britain
while France accepted British control over Egypt.
-Morocco had been regarded by Europe as officially independent and under
joint supervision by all powers since 1900.
-The Entente Cordiale meant France would ignore the independence of
Morocco.
-The cordiale was also meant to exclude German interests in Morocco.
-Germany which had economic and trading interests in Morocco could, in no
way, accept the takeover of Morocco by France.
-The Germany Kaiser felt that Germany’s interests had been sidelined since
Germany had been left out of the negotiations over the fate [destiny] of
Morocco.
-In 1905 the Kaiser and his chancellor Bulow, visited Tangier, a coastal city in
Morocco, in an attempt to teach France a lesson that she cannot depend on
Britain alone.
-The Kaiser was keen to show that Germany was now an important power in
the area.
-The Kaiser also wanted to test the strength of the Anglo-French entente
[Entente cordial of 1904].
-By that time Russia was too weak to be a reliable ally as she had been
defeated by Japan in the Russo-Japanese war of 1904.
-In a speech the Kaiser supported the Sultans [Moroccans] in their struggle
against the French. He made a bold speech trying to convince the Sultans that
Germany would support the independence of Morocco.
-Both Britain and France were angered by this behaviour of the Kaiser and
threatened war.
-Germany went on to demand a conference to settle the dispute and this
conference was held at Algeciras in Spain in 1906.

The Algeciras Conference of 1906

-This conference was held in Spain.
-It was attended by Britain, France, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Spain, Russia
and Italy.
-At this conference it became clear that British backing for France was real.
-At this conference the Kaiser was humiliated. He had wanted to appear as a
major power in Africa.
-Instead, his views were rejected.
-He was particularly bitter about the way he was treated, as if he had no right
to speak on such matters.
-Only Austria-Hungary supported her, the rest supported French control of
Morocco.
-It was agreed that Morocco should remain independent, but French and
Spanish police forces were to keep order there.
-The Kaiser who felt humiliated vowed to reverse the decision when
Germany’s navy was powerful enough.

b] The Second Moroccan Crisis/ Panther Crisis/ Agadir Crisis of

1911

-The Kaiser William II had been disappointed by the outcome of the Algeciras
conference in 1906.
-In 1908, the French secured the election of a new Sultan of, Morocco
because the previous one was against the French policy in Morocco.
-In 1911, a rising occurred against this new Sultan and in order to suppress it
the French forces occupied the Moroccan capital, Fez.
-The French claimed that the French citizens were in danger.
-The Kaiser sensing danger of total control of Morocco by France sent a
German gunboat called the Panther, to the west coast port of Morocco at
Agadir claiming to protect Germans who lived there but there were none.
-The real reasons were [a] to frighten France into giving her some colonial
territory in compensation for the likely occupation of the whole of Morocco by
France. [b] Germany also wanted to test the strength of the Anglo-French
Entente of 1904.
-The Germany action excited British opinion as Agadir was close to Gibraltar,
a British territory in the Mediterranean.
-The British and French suspected that the Kaiser wanted to establish a naval
base at Agadir which would threaten Britain’s trade routes.
-They also suspected that Germany wanted to destroy the Anglo-French
Entente or the Triple Entente.
-This resulted in the British standing firmly behind France and it was indicated
that Britain would not accept German bullying.
-The British fleet was prepared for action.
-For some weeks tension was high and there was the danger of an armed
collision.
-The three countries [Britain, France and Germany] made preparation for war.
-Tension was only eased when France decided to give part of French Congo
[100 000 square miles] to Germany.
-However Germany had demanded the whole of French Congo.
-In return Germany recognised the French occupation of Morocco and
withdrew the Panther.
-The crisis ended without a war.

Contribution of the Moroccan Crisis to the outbreak of World War One

-It made Germany to speed up her war preparations.
-Although war was averted it was only a matter of postponement.
-French hopes of a better relationship with Germany were wrecked.
-It led to further division of Europe into twohostile camps.
-The relationship between Britain and France was further strengthened. Britain
and France signed a naval agreement in 1912.
-The British and French realised that they had to take a firm stand against the
Kaiser’s bullying tactics.
-It increased opposition against Germany in Europe.

11] The Bosnian Crisis of 1908

-After the Congress of Berlin in 1878, Austria-Hungary was given the mandate
to govern Bosnia and Herzegovina.
-On the other hand Serbia wanted to control them since the inhabitants of the
two provinces were Serbs/ Slavs.
-In 1908, a revolution to receive the Turkish emperor, Abdul Hamid was
organised by the Young Turks.
-The Young Turks’ central aim was to revitalise the weakening Turkish /
Ottoman Empire and then maintain the autocracy.
-The revolution shocked the major powers of Europe, especially Russia and
Austria-Hungary since a strong Turkey would disturb their interests.
-Such a strong Turkish government could make Austria-Hungary lose her
control over Bosnia and Herzegovina.
-Therefore, before the government of the Young Turks could be established,
Austria-Hungary met Russia and agreed that Austria-Hungary should annex
Bosnia and Herzegovina.
-Russia was allowed to move her warships through the Dardanelles and
Bosphorus to the Mediterranean.
-In October 1908, Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina,
confident of support from Germany.
-This was a blow to Serbia who wanted to acquire the two provinces which
had 3000000Serbs.
-Serbia wanted to create a South Slav state, that is, Yugoslavia [a union of
Serbia with Bosnia and Herzegovina].She wanted to create a union of all
Southern Slav states under the Serbian crown.
-Russia felt cheated by Austria-Hungary since she failed to get international
support of her plans for the straits.
-The annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina blocked Serbian path to the
Adriatic Sea.
-The Serbian government prepared to mobilise her army.
-Serbia appealed for help from fellow Slavs.
-Russia called for a European Conference and expected support from Britain
and France.
-However, Russia did not get support from Britain and France.
-Russia alone could not fight Austria-Hungary because she had not fully
recovered from the defeat by Japan in the 1904 Russo-Japanese war and she
was weakened by the 1905 revolution.
-German threatened to give maximum support to Austria-Hungary. Russia and
Serbia gave in.
-Although Britain and France did not recognise the annexation of Bosnia and
Herzegovina by Austria-Hungary, they were not prepared to help Russia or
Serbia.
-Neither Russia nor Serbia was prepared to risk war with Germany over the
issue.
-Austria-Hungary kept Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Contribution of the Bosnian Crisis to the outbreak of World War One

-It encouraged Russia to increase her army further.
-It worsened relations between Germany and Russia.
-The enmity between Russia and Austria-Hungary was increased.
-It increased tension between Serbia and Austria-Hungary that at any given
time the two countries would fight over Bosnia and Herzegovina.
-It led to the formation of the Black Hand.
 12] The Balkan Wars

a] First Balkan War of 1912

-On 12 October 1912 the First Balkan League which comprised of Greece,
Serbia, Montenegro and Bulgaria declared war on Turkey.
-They gained a swift victory.
-They drove Turks out of most of the European territory of the Balkans.
-The Turkish government attempted to introduce a common law, a national
language and so on.
-In addition, real power in Turkey rested with a few ambitious army officers
who suppressed the subject peoples.
-The renewed Turkish persecution forced the Balkan states to cast their rivalry
and jealousies.
-All these caused resentment to the minorities against Turkey.
-The Balkan League wanted to drive Turkey out of all her European territories.
-Each member of the Balkan League hoped to obtain a portion of the territory
still under Turkish rule.
-The Balkan states witnessed the weaknesses of Turkey when it fought with
Italy in 1911 in Libya.
-The Italians had declared war on Turkey in 1911 and attacked the Turkish
province and very quickly defeated the Turkish forces.
-When the Serbians and Bulgarians captured Adrianople, Turkey was forced to
make peace.
-Austria-Hungary and Germany had stood aside expecting that the Turks
would defeat the Balkan League, but both had gravely miscalculated.
-Turkey was defeated in roughly 6 weeks.
-The great powers were shocked by this remarkable success of the Balkan
states.
-They immediately called for a meeting in London to decide the future of the
Balkan affairs

The Treaty of London [1913]

-By this treaty Turkey lost nearly the whole of her territory in Europe to the
Balkan states.
-Greece was to get Thrace and Salonika.
-Serbia was to get a larger part of Macedonia.
-The Geek government felt cheated as it did not gain a larger territory in
Macedonia.
-Bulgaria was dissatisfied by this treaty and was determined to revise this
treaty.
-Each government felt it gained little.
-As a result, the First Balkan League [coalition] soon fell apart.
-Austria-Hungary was concentrating on the setting up of a small state, Albania
in the Eastern part of Serbia to block Serbia from possessing a port in the
Adriatic Sea.
-This angered Serbia as it was its key territorial objective since it was a
landlocked country.
Balkan States involved in the First Balkan War
-Greece -Serbia
-Montenegro -Bulgaria

Balkan States before World War One

-Albania -Macedonia
-Bulgaria -Serbia
-Greece -Bosnia
-Herzegovina -Montenegro
-Romania -Thrace
-Crete -Salonika

b] The Second Balkan War of 1913

-This war was fought over how to distribute the spoils of victory of the First
Balkan War.
-Bulgaria was angry with the settlement [Treaty of London] of 1913.
-She was not satisfied by her spoils of the war.
-She felt other countries gained at her expense.
-Bulgaria greatly resented the Greeks getting Salonika.
-Bulgaria was not happy about Serbia being given part of Macedonia because
these areas were supposed to have been part of Bulgaria’s share of the spoils.
-Bulgaria claimed part of Macedonia which Serbia refused to give up.
-The war broke out in June 1913 when Bulgaria attacked Serbia.
-This forced Greece, Romania and Turkey to declare war on Bulgaria.
-Serbia, Greece and Romania had formed the Second Balkan League.
-The Turks joined the war because they had seen in this dispute an
opportunity of regaining some of their lost European territory.
-In less than a month Bulgaria had been quite easily defeated.

The Treaty of Bucharest [1913]

-This treaty was signed after the Second Balkan War.
-Bucharest was the capital city of Romania.
-By this treaty, Serbia and Greece kept those parts of Macedonia, but under
the Austro-Hungarian and Germany pressure.
-For its part, Turkey regained Adrianople. Bulgaria was forced to give up
Adrianople.
-The Serbs were once again denied the Adriatic port.
-Romania got part of Bulgarian Dobruga.
-Austria-Hungary was again determined to keep Serbia landlocked.

Balkan States which took part in the Second Balkan War

-Serbia -Greece
-Romania -Montenegro
-Bulgaria

Contribution of the Balkan Wars to the outbreak of World War One

-The wars intensified bad relations between Serbia and Austria-Hungary.
-Austria-Hungary with German support was determined to suppress or to
destroy Serbia.
-Serbia emerged from the war victorious, stronger, more confident and
aggressive than ever.
-Austria-Hungary frustrated Serbian national aims when after the Balkan wars
she insisted on the formation of Albania as an independent state on the
Adriatic. This move deterred Serbian expansion to the Adriatic coastline. This
means Austria-Hungary was determined to keep Serbia a landlocked country.
-The Serbs were now confident that the Austrians wanted to gain a
continuous territory across the Peninsula from the Adriatic to the Aegean Sea
and for this purpose Serbia which stood directly in theirpath would have to be
removed from the map as an independent state.
-The wars made the Franco-Russian and the Austro-German commitments
tighter.
-The Kaiser assured the Austrians of his support if they fought a war with
Serbia [the so called blank cheque].
-Turkey of course would be relied upon to support such a move.
-Serbia began to encourage Pan-Slavism in Austria-Hungary while Austria-
Hungary was determined to crush Slav nationalism in her country.
-Thus after the two Balkan wars, Austria-Hungary was prepared to wage a
preventive war while Serbia was prepared to wage a war of liberation.

Balkan States that had become independent from Turkey by 1912

-Montenegro -Romania
-Bulgaria -Serbia
-Greece -Albania
-Macedonia -Thrace
-Salonika -Crete
Ethnic Groups in the Balkan States
-Albanians -Serbs
-Bulgarians / Bulgars -Greeks
-Macedonians -Croats
-Bosnians -Montenegrins
-Romani / Romanians

13] The Sarajevo Assassination [28 June 1914] / Sarajevo

incident

-On 28 June 1914, the Archduke Francis Ferdinand [an Austrian crown Prince],
the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne and his wife were driving through the
streets of Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia.
-They were murdered by a 19 year old terrorist, Gavrillo Princip, a local Serb.
-Princip was an ardent supporter of the Pan-Slav movement called Black Hand
[which was sponsored by Serbia].
-The murderer had come straight from a meeting of an anti-Austrian society
[Black Hand] in the Serbian capital, Belgrade.
-Gavrillo Princip was allegedly said to have been sponsored by the Serbian
Black Hand.
-The gun which Princip used was supplied by the Serbian Black Hand.
-Princip was given the task of assassinating the Archduke and he shot him.
-Serbia was bitter about the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria-
Hungary as this thwarted her dream of the formation of a Yugoslav nation.
-This is why Serbia encouraged Pan-Slavism in Austria–Hungary.
-There were several organisations which were formed and Black Hand was
one of them.
-Betchtold, the Austrian Chancellor, welcoming an excuse for war,claimed that
the Serbian government had planned the assassination.
-There was no evidence to show involvement of the Serbian government.
-Austria-Hungary consulted Germany and was given a ‘blank cheque’ full of
military support.
-The spark had now been lit by the assassination, which was shortly to turn
the whole of Europe into a furnace.
-On 23 July 1914, Austria-Hungary sent an ultimatum to Serbia whose
demands were framed in such a way that refusal was bound to be the answer.
A satisfactory answer was demanded within 48 hours.
-The three demands in the ultimatum were [a] That Serbia was to suppress all
societies organising anti-Austrian propaganda. [b] That Serbia was to dismiss
all officials to whom Austria-Hungary objected. [c] That Austrian police and
officials were to enter Serbia to ensure that these two demands were carried
out.
-Of these demands Serbia accepted the first two, but refused the third.
-The terms of the ultimatum, especially the third term, werean impractical
possibility to be undertakenas they meant loss of sovereignty.
-Serbia suggested that the third demand should be submitted to arbitration by
the international court of justice at Hague.
-The Austrian government refused to consider this course and on 28 July
1914 Austria-Hungarydeclared war on Serbia and within a week the whole of
Europe was ablaze.
-Britain, France and Russia had been warned by Germany not to interfere.
-Russia was not willing to see a fellow Slav country [Serbia] crushed by a
stronger opponent while Germany held the ring.
-Russia too had Balkan ambitions of her own and here was a chance to
pursue them.
-Accordingly on 30 July 1914 Nicholas II ordered the general mobilisation of
Russian armies, in order to protect Serbia. This was a threat to Germany
which sent two ultimatums .One demanded that Russia should stop her
mobilisation. The other insisted that France should give clear guarantees of
her neutrality.
-After receiving a refusal, Germany declared war first on Russia [1 August
1914] and secondly on France [3 August 1914].
-By the treaty of London of 1839, Britain and Prussia had promised to
guarantee Belgian neutrality.
-But on their way to France, German troops entered Belgium.
-On 4 August 1914, Britain declared war on Germany.
-This was because German militarists had violated the sanctity of the London
Treaty.
-Germany thought Britain would not intervene to protect the Belgian neutrality
since it was a ‘scrap of paper’.
-On 4 August 1914 Austria–Hungary declared war on Russia.
-Thus one after another, honouring commitments made in treaties with allies,
the major powers of Europe were engaged in the most costly war the world
had yet witnessed.

Contribution of the Sarajevo Assassination to the outbreak of World War

One
-It increased enmity between Austria-Hungary and Serbia.
-It became the match stick that lit the bone fire.
-The incident showed the extent of German support for Austria-Hungary and
Russian support for Serbia.
-The event brought the clash between the Triple alliance and the Triple
entente.
-The incident heightened Slav nationalism and the desire for self
determination.
-It was important in that it started the war.
-There were many long term causes of the 1914 war but this incident came as
an immediate cause.

Powers involved in the Balkan Crisis between 1908 and 1914

-Bulgaria -Romania
-Greece -Serbia
-Albania -Montenegro
-Germany -Turkey
-Austria-Hungary -Russia
-Britain

Who was to blame for the outbreak of World War One? / Contribution or part
played by European powers in the outbreak of World War One?

a] Germany
-Bismarck’s alliance system which was an attempt to isolate France led to the
division of the world into two hostile camps. This made it difficult to localise
the war.
-The German Schlieffen plan [war plan] was an indication that she was
anticipating war.
-Germany took part in arms race which caused the war.
-German naval race with Britain caused the war.
-Kaiser’s utterances provoked Britain, for example, he congratulated Paul
Krugger after the Jameson raid failure.
-The colonial clash between Germany and France over Morocco in 1905 and
1911 caused tension.
-After the Sarajevo incident Germany gave Austria-Hungary a blank cheque to
attack Serbia.
-Germany violated the neutrality of Belgium which brought Britain into the war.
-Germany supported Austria-Hungary in the Bosnian crisis.
-She fully backed Austria-Hungary’s aggressiveness over Serbia thinking that
Britain would not intervene.
-German’s Weltipolitik since 1890 was a threat to world peace.
-She declared war on France
-She declared war on Russia.

b] Austria-Hungary
-Austria-Hungary is blamed for declaring war on Serbia.
-She pursued a careless foreign policy towards the Balkans.
-She failed to respect the sovereignty of the Balkan states by annexing Bosnia
and Herzegovina which angered Russia and Serbia breeding hatred and
grudge.
-She wanted to destroy Serbia once and for all.
-She made unreasonable demands meant to punish Serbia for the death of
Archduke Francis Ferdinand.
-She supported the creation of an independent Albania at the treaty of London
[1913] which created enmity with Serbia.
-Austria-Hungary made an agreement with Russia to partition the Balkans
which angered Serbia.
-She opposed the creation of a Russian backed Slav nation in Serbia.
-This would attract the support of the Slavs inside Austria-Hungary.
-She was involved in the system of alliances.
-She involved herself in the Balkans to make up for the losses in Italy and
Germany [which became unified in 1870 and 1871 respectively].

c] France
-She refused to remain neutral when Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia
and this forced Germany to declare war on France.
-She took part in arms race.
-She took part in militarism.
-She took part in the alliance system.
-France had a war plan called plan 17.

d] Russia
-She gave unrestricted support to Serbia making Serbia more reckless.
-She refused to remain neutral [and mobilised against Austria-Hungary]when
Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia and this forced Germany to declare
war on her.
-She took part in arms race and militarism.
-It was opposed to Austrian and German influence in the Balkans.
-She was involved in the system of alliances.
-It protected other Slav peoples as it was the largest of Slav nations.
-It was hostile to Germany which ruled Polish Slavs.
-She made an agreement with Austria-Hungary that Austria-Hungary should
take Bosnia and Herzegovina.
-She influenced the formation of the Balkan League.
-She supported Pan Slavism.
e] Britain
-She should be blamed for arms race.
-She took part in naval race.
-She supported France against Germany over Morocco in 1905 and 1911.
-She declared war on Germany on 4 August 1914.

f] Serbia
-She engineered the Sarajevo assassination which led to the outbreak of the
1914 general war.
-She sponsored anti-Austrian propaganda and terrorist activities in Austria-
Hungary.

COURSE OF WORLD WAR ONE[1914-1918]

Battle Fronts during World War One

a]The Western Front
b] The Eastern Front
c] The Balkan Front
d] The Turkish Front
e] The Austro-Italian Front

a] The Western Front

-This refers to the areas /states where the war was fought situated to the
West of Germany.-
-Countries which fought on this front included Germany, France, Britain,
Belgium and United States of America.
-The Franco-German border and Belgium was the first area to be affected by
the First World War.
-Thus the war broke exactly in accordance with to the Schlieffen plan.
-The Schlieffen Plan was a German war plan which was devised by General
Alfred Count von Schlieffen in 1905.
-Schlieffen was the chief of the General Staff in Germany.
-The plan was based on the assumption that Germany was to fight war on two
fronts against France and against Russia simultaneously.
-It was based on the use of railways to move troops.
-According to this plan Germany would invade France via Belgium / Holland
and Luxembourg.
-The Germans were to march through Belgium within two weeks.
-The plan aimed at swift victory against France in the West.
-France was to be defeated within six weeks.
-France was to be defeated before Russia mobilised her troops.
-The Germans also aimed at capturing Paris and encirclement of French
armies as well as attacking Alsace-Lorraine before Russian mobilisation was
complete.
-After defeating France, German soldiers were to be transferred to the East to
fight Russia.
-This was meant to avoid fighting war on two fronts at the same time.
-The Germans were to defeat Russia within six months.
-The German forces were to occupy the Channel ports in order to prevent the
landing of British reinforcements.
-When war broke out in 1914, Germany moved quickly to implement the
Schlieffen plan.
-Troops moved swiftly through Belgium.
-The Germans however met resistance from the Belgians and the British
Expeditionary Forces [BEF].
-The Germans were held for 3 weeks in Belgium.
-This delayed the German strike against France.
-The British came in to strengthen French defences a little earlier than
Germans anticipated.
-As a result some German forces withdrew to fight the Russians in the East.
-The Germans were temporarily stopped by allied counter attacks thereby
disturbing the speed and timetable.
-The French army was sent to deal with German invasion instead of invading
Alsace-Lorraine.
-Germany thus made changes to the plan.
-Germany sent forces through a shorter route East of Paris instead of West.
-The French and British checked German troops at the River Marne and were
pushed back to river Aisne.
-The end result was that Germans were not able to penetrate into the West of
Paris and the Schlieffen plan collapsed. The German High Command lost
contact with the operation.
-Germans retreated 60km and dug trenches.

Aims of the Schlieffen plan

-The Germans wanted to fight war against France and Russia on one front at a
time.
-The Germans were to rely on the speedy movement of German forces
through Belgium.
-The Germans were to march through Belgium within two weeks.
-The Germans aimed at defeating France within six weeks.
-They were to conquer France before Russia mobilised.
-When France was defeated they were to attack Russia.
-Russia was to be defeated within 6 months.
-They were to allocate the bulk of the German soldiers on the Western front.
-They were to hold the French in Alsace-Lorraine.
They were to occupy the Channel ports in order to prevent the landing of the
British reinforcements.
Successes of the Schlieffen plan
-It motivated German declaration of war on Russia and France.
-War broke out in accordance with the Schlieffen plan.
-Germans were able to enter Belgium although they later met Belgian and
British resistance.
-Although altered a little the plan allowed the Germans to avoid fighting war
on two fronts for a short while.
Failures of the Schlieffen plan
-The plan failed to anticipate that Britain might enter the war to defend
Belgium.
-The quick mobilisation of France and Russia forced Germans to alter the
movement of their troops.
-Resistance by the Belgians and the BEF forced Germans to fight with many
powers at the same time.
-Paris could not be encircled as originally intended.

Events or factors which led to the failure of the Schlieffen Plan

-The Belgians offered stiff resistance.
-The plan failed to anticipate that Britain might enter into the war to defend
Belgium.
-The British Expeditionary Forces [BEF] landed in France holding up the
German advance at Mons.
-France mobilised earlier than the Germans anticipated.
-Russians mobilised earlier than the Germans anticipated.
-This forced Germans to divide her forces and resources.
-Germany forces in Belgium were weakened when some forces were
withdrawn to go and fight the Russians.
-British rifle fire was so rapid that the Germans thought the troops had
machine guns.
-British resistance at Mons slowed German advance and gave the French
more time to prepare.
-Von Kluck the German commander in France realised that he could not keep
to the Schlieffen plan.
-He changed the plan to attack and instead of going round Paris he turned to
the East of Paris.
-This left the Channel ports along the coast free from attack and enabled the
British to reinforce to get to France.
-The French and British checked the Germans at the river Marne.
-Germans were forced to retreat to 60 km and dug defensive trenches.
-At Ypres the British troops under Sir Douglas Haig checked German forces.
-British naval blockade starved Germans of supplies.
-Fighting war on many fronts led to the failure of the Schlieffen plan.
-German allies were too weak to supply materials.

How important was the role played by Belgium in the failure of the Schlieffen
plan?
-The Belgians resisted and slowed down the German army.
-After the Belgian attack Britain sent the BEF of 90000 soldiers.
-Germany exhausted her resources in Belgium.
-At Mons inside the Belgian border the German progress was stopped.
-This affected their plan of a swift knockout blow to France through neutral
Holland, Luxemburg and Belgium.
-It affected their plan of attacking Paris because they were delayed in Belgium.

Other factors which led to the failure of the Schlieffen plan

-British entry into the war on the side of the Belgians.
-British fire power proved too much for the Germans.
-The French mobilised too quickly for the Germans.
-The Russians mobilised much earlier than was anticipated.
-British naval blockade
-Fighting war on many fronts.
-The Battle of Marne and Ypres forced the Germans to reconsider the
Schlieffen plan.

The Battle of Marne [September 6-10 1914]

This battle was fought between Germany and France.France was invaded by
Germany.On 6 September 1914, the French commander made a counter
attack.Troops were rushed from Paris in every form of transport available.The
battle of Marne involved 1300000 French soldiers.The French managed to
push the Germans 48km but at a heavy loss of 600000French soldiers.The
French could not make a follow up and take advantage of the victory because
of heavy human and material losses.

Impact of the battle of Marne

-The defeat by France was a setback for the Central powers as human and
material resources were lost.
-French victorymeant that Germany had to re-strategise and fight on two war
fronts, especially after the failure of the Schlieffen plan.

The Battle of Ypres

It was between Germany and Britain.It was fought in Belgium in October and
November 1914.Poisonous gas was used for the first time with the
Germans.The German Zeppelin [air ship] was used.The French and British
defenders managed to maintain control of the Channel ports and war became
bogged down in trenches.By the end of 1914 there was a deadlock on the
Western front.

The Trench Warfare

-The trench warfare was the brainchild of the German soldiers.
-One of the German soldiers was defeated at Marne and forced to retreat
beyond river Aisne.
-The Germans could have surrendered at Marne and the war would have
ended within two months.
-Instead of surrendering the Germans retreated some 48km to river Aisne.
-There they began to dig trenches.
-The French and British forces also adopted the idea of trench warfare.
-They began to live and fight in trenches.
-Trenches protected them from machine gun fire and the explosions of
artillery shells.
-Trenches were heavily fortified with barbed wire.
-The trenches were extended into elaborate systems of defence and
communication.
-It was the first of its kind.
-There were millions of soldiers on each side.
-The soldiers confronted each other below ground level.
-In between the soldiers lay the no man’s land.
-Those who tried to advance to the no man’s land were killed by machine guns.
They were sure to die a cruel death.
-Heavy artillery was used to pound down defences.
-Poisonous gases were used.
-There was loss of morale as soldiers spent too much time in trenches.
-Diseases affected them in trenches.
-Soldiers also experienced starvation and drowning.
-There was also use of tanks in this war.
-The trench warfare resulted in a deadlock and this prolonged the war.
-This meant that from December 1914 to November 1918 the Western front
was a scene of stalemate.
*In October 1915, Bulgaria joined the war on the side of Germany while
Romania joined the Entente powers in August 1916 but was quickly over ran
by Germans and Austrians in November 1916.

The Battle of Verdun [February 1916]

This was between France and Germany.The German army commander
devised a plan to frustrate the allied forces on the Western front.According to
this commander [Falkenhayn], Britain was the iron pillar of the allied forces;
however, it could easily be removed out of allied war by a serious submarine
action.Falkenhayn viewed that France was the main German objective.Verdun
was a very important French fortress and the hub [central point of activity] of
the French defensive system which threatened the German lines of
communication.By pulling the French manpower into the defence of the
Verdun, Falkenhayn hoped to destroy the forces, capture Verdun and knock
France out of war.On 21 February 1916, the Germans opened the barrage.A
concentrated German infantry caused the French to retreat.The fall of Verdun
was imminent with high casualties.The British, Russians and the Italians came
to help France.The British under the commander Haig took control of the
French Arras sector.Britain and her allies raised the offensive which
compelled Falkenhayn to withdraw.The French strengthened their resistance
and under the command of Marshal Petain, they put off the Germans.The
Germans retreated to their trenches having failed to capture
Verdun.Hindenburg and Ludendorff replaced Falkenhayn as the new German
commanders.The French lost 350000men while the Germans lost 330000 but
Verdun did not fall to the Germans

Contribution of the Battle of Verdun to the defeat of Germany

-Germany lost heavily in [in terms of manpower and resources]
-German advance to capture Verdun was checked by Petain who defended the
fortress stubbornly.
-The allied powers poured in reinforcements.
-German onslaught was held.
-Huge offensive against Germans at Somme by the allies.
-Russian offensive under the General Brussilov in Galicia against German ally
Austria-Hungary.

The Battle of Somme [July 1916]

The British launched an attack on Somme.The aim was to reduce / relieve
pressure on the French at Verdun.This battle was initiated by Haig.He aimed
to break the German defence forces and capture German fortress at Cambria
and Bapaume.The battle was a series of attacks commencing / starting on 1
July lasting through to November 1916.On both sides, many soldiers
died.Germany lost morale and failed to capture Verdun though, the French and
the British failed to defeat German.France changed its General Joffre, with a
younger General Neville.The British Haig was replaced by other more active
generals to work with Neville to put off German attacks.It was at the battle of
Somme that Britain used for the first time the tanks which they had invented
against Germany.It was this Somme battle that discredited Douglas Haig, the
commander in chief of the Western front and that led to the resignation of the
British Prime Minister, Asquith who was replaced by Lloyd George.When the
allied forces finally abandoned the attack, losses on both sides were quite
high.At Somme, the Germans lost over 500000 men, Britain lost over 200000
and France lost about 400000 but neither side won a decisive victory.Japan
also fought on the side of Britain.

The Battle of Jutland [31 May 1916]

It was fought between Germany and France. The British suffered heavy losses
but they remained in command of the seas.

The Battle of Passchendaele [July 1917]

It was fought between Germany and Britain.They fought in the mud.The
British won.

b] The Eastern Front

On this battle front Russia fought Germany and Austria-Hungary.On this front
the war had opened with a Russian invasion of East Prussia.This resulted in
the dispatching of some German forces by Moltke of Germany from the
Western front.When war broke out Russia mobilised her forces swiftly than
the Germans had anticipated.Germany was thus forced to divert much of her
forces to the Eastern front.Germany thus began fighting war on two
fronts.The German forces on the Eastern front were commanded by
Hindenburg.Hindenburg retreated and was replaced by Ludendorff who
defeated the two main Russian armies at Tannenberg [August1914] and
Masurian Lakes.This achievement was facilitated by the failure of Russian
commanders to co-operate.

The Battle of Tannenberg [August 1914]

This battle was between Germany and Russia.Russia was defeated. The
Russian disaster in the North was partly compensated for by important
successes against the Austrians in Galicia. The Russian were forced to
retreat.Germany diverted much of her forces away from the Western front in
1915 to give assistance to the Austro-Hungarians.In September 1915, the
Russians were driven to the Bukovina and Carpathians.They were also driven
out of the Austro-Hungarian territory.Turkey entered the war on the side of
Germany and this resulted in the closure of the straits [a strait is a narrow
stretch of water connecting two seas].It therefore became difficult for France
and Britain to supply their Eastern ally with her war needs.Russia suffered not
only from shortage of weapons and ammunition, but also of food.The
devastating defeats of Russian troops made them to refuse to fight and
streamed homewards from the war front in increasing numbers.By the end of
1916, strikes and food riots were rampant and in March 1917 a revolution
broke out in Russia and Tsar was overthrown.

c] The Austro-Italian Front

Italy, Austria-Hungary and Germany fought on this front.Italy who was a
member of the Triple Alliance declared war on Austria-Hungary [in May 1915],
which was also a member of the Triple Alliance. She had signed a secret
treaty of London with the Entente [Allied] powerswhich promised her Istria, the
city of Trieste, Trentino, Southern Tyrol and some Dalmatian Islands. Italy thus
changed her mind and fought on the side of the allied powers. Italy fought the
Austrians at Isonzo, North of Trieste. A series of inconclusive battles [11
battles] were fought here in 1916. In October 1917, combined Germany and
Austro-Hungarian forces defeated the Italians at the battle of Caporetto. Italy
lost 600000 men. Despite such a blow, Italy remained in the war and was
counted among the victors after world war one.

d] The Turkish Front

In November 1914, Turkey entered into the war on the side of Germany and
Austria-Hungary. The Western allies, who had supplied Russia with her war
time needs through the straits and the Black Sea, could no longer continue to
do so. This starved Russia of weapons, ammunition and food. This helped to
force her out of the war in 1917.

The Gallipoli Campaign/ Battle of Gallipoli

This campaign was inspired by Winston Churchill, the British Prime
Minister.The aim of this campaign was to knock Turkey out of the war.The
Western allies, who had supplied Russia with her war time needs through the
straits and the Black Sea, could no longer continue to do so.This starved
Russia of weapons, ammunition and food as well as other war
necessities.The allies thus wanted to open up direct contact with Russia
through the straits and the Black Sea.They also wanted to win Bulgaria over to
the allied side.The first attempt was to enter through the straits and Sea of
Marmora.They tried to bombard Constantinople and cause the collapse of the
Turkish government.The naval attempt failed as the strong forts at the narrow
waters of the Straits were defended.A second attempt was made when a
combined force of British, Australian and New Zealand troops landed on the
Gallipoli peninsula.They destroyed the forts to clear the way for ships to try
again to enter.The Turks were helped by the Germans under Liman Von
Sanders.The allied troops were defeated and they withdrew in December
1915.There was loss of morale among the allied powers.

To what extent did the outcome of the Gallipoli campaign benefit the Central
powers?
-Bulgaria joined the central powers after the victory of the central powers.
-The defeat of the allies made it difficult for the allies to assist Russia via the
straits.
-It boosted the morale of the Central powers.
-The straits remained closed for the allied powers.
-This starved Russia of ammunitions, weapons, food and other war
necessities which forced her out of the war.
*However, fighting on the Western front continued.
-USA entered into the war on the side of the allied powers.
-Austria continued to lose battles.

e] The Balkan Front

In this front, several countries were involved in the war. Romania, Serbia
Albania, Montenegro, Russia, Greece, Britain, and France fought Bulgaria,
Turkey and Austria-Hungary.
The Entrance of United States of America [USA] into the First World War
/The German Submarine warfare /The German U-boat campaign during
World War One
-In 1917 United States of America ended her so called isolation and entered
the First World War on the side of the allied powers against the central powers.
-In December 1916 Woodrow Wilson [United States President] had tried to
mediate between the allied powers and the central powers but this was a
failure.
-Neither side was willing to give up war for peace.
-The British had imposed a strict naval blockade, designed to starve the
enemy [Germany] of vital products like rubber, cotton, crude oil and many
other commodities vital for the war.
-The Germans responded with submarine warfare or the U-boat campaign
which was meant to destroy British shipping. The Germans aimed at starving
Britain by cutting off British supply lines by sinking her merchant ships.
-This was thus a characteristic of war at sea.
-The Germans declared all the waters around the British Isles [Islands] a war
zone and this threatened ships of neutral countries doing regular trading
business.
-This German U-boat campaign was initiated by Admiral Scheer of Germany in
1915.
-The raiding of British merchant ships by Germans caused havoc in Britain.
-Germany wanted to control the Seas.
-In May 1915 the Germans sunk without warning the British ship, the Lusitania.
-1200 people were drowned including 118 Americans.
-This angered the United States President, Woodrow Wilson who sent a
warning to the Germans that a repeat of such an action would result in
serious consequences.
-USA thus protested against German barbarism.
-Germany temporarily stopped the U-boat attacks.
-The major reason for temporarily stopping the U-boat campaign was the
realisation by Germany that they lacked sufficient U-boats to risk American
intervention.
-In 1916 Germany resumed the unrestricted U-boat campaign / submarine
warfare.
-They attacked both neutral and enemy ships /vessels alike.
-It was a successful blockade on German supply lineswhich forced the
German High Command to accept Admiral Scheer’s demand for a renewal of
unrestricted U-boat warfare.
-The Germans also resumed the U-boat warfare after realising that they now
had sufficient U-boats [300] to win war before the United States of America
intervened.
-In March 1916, Germans sunk another British ship, the Sussex, again with
some Americans.
-The unrestricted submarine warfare created food shortages in Britain.
-The U-boat campaign initially proved very successful with several British
ships being destroyed.
-By April 1917 about 450 ships had been lost and many people died.
-To reduce the losses in the Sea the British admiralty introducedthe radar and
the convoy system.
-Warships were also assisted by newly developed Depth Charge and
Hydrophones.
-On 6 April, the USA responded to German submarine warfare by declaring war
on Germany and her allies.
-Japan also gave naval assistance to the allied powers.
-The Germans had wrongly calculated that America would take time to
mobilise her forces.
-The Germans also sent a telegram to Mexico and the German intention was
to ally with Mexico in an attempt to recover for Mexico, the states of Texas,
New Mexico and Arizona which the United States had conquered in 1848.
-Thus this is another factor which brought USA into the war.
-By the beginning of 1918, American industries were manufacturing
armaments for both the American forces and allied forces.
-Weapons, loans, food and ammunition poured into Europe in unlimited
quantities.
-Fresh American troops also reinforced the exhausted British and French
forces.
-The US navy helped to effect naval the blockade on Germany.
-The entrance of USA into the war boosted the morale of the allied powers.
-The Americans arrived on the Western front [in France] and they did swig the
balance of power against Germany.
-Italy gained new life and started to deliver effective blows against Austria-
Hungary in the South.
-Italy had been defeated by Germany and Austria-Hungary at Caporetto.
-The Austro-Hungarian Empire disintegrated in October 1917 and Germany
was fighting literally single handed.
-Although the Germans fought courageously they lacked the necessary
reserves of men yet the American forces were still pouring in.
-Tanks were brought into operation and Germans had no effective reply to
them.
-It was thus impossible for Germans to escape defeat.
-At 11:00 AM, on 11 November 1918, Germany surrendered and the world war
one came to an end.
Contribution of the entrance of USA to the defeat of Germany
-USA joined the war later when others were weak and tired of fighting.
-USA had a powerful navy, fresh and many soldiers to aid the allies.
-More tanks were made available by USA.
-USA aided the allies with food, funds, weapons and ammunition in loan to
ensure that Germany and her allies were defeated.
-The entrance of USA was very timely.
Other factors which led to the defeat of Germany
-Germany had weak allies
-Germany fought on many fronts
-Central powers were outnumbered by allied powers

Contribution of the US Navy to the defeat of Germany

-US navy increased the scope of the war.
-German troops were demoralised by the entry of USA.
-There were fresh marines from USA.
-US navy brought a steady supply of war materials for the allies.
-The US navy helped to effect naval blockade on Germany.

The War at Sea during the First World War

-Initially the battle between Britain and Germany was signalled by the sinking
of a smaller British squadron off the coast of Chile in 1914 by the German
Pacific fleet.
-The British Royal Navy fleet responded by having a blockade around Germany
which continued until the end of the war.
-The most significant naval battle was the Battle of Jutland, in 1916 the Royal
Navy recorded considerable loss to the Germans.
-Although German surface ships made poor showing their submarine
campaign was the most effective and almost brought Britain to defeat in 1917.
-Germany crippled the British supply lines by sinking a majority of her
merchant ships.
-Britain remained with only six weeks of supply of food.
-The unrestricted use of the U-boat, in 1915 led to the sinking of the British
ship, the Lusitania in which 1200 lives were lost.
-Among these were 118 Americans.
-This was followed by the sinking of another British ship, the Sussex by the
Germans in 1916.
-Again there were also some Americans in this ship.
-Thus it was this German submarine warfare which brought USA into the First
World War.
-The entrance of USA demoralised the German soldiers.
-Some mutinied [rebelled] and the allies took control of the seas, thus
contributing to a larger extent to the defeat of Germany.

Battles fought during the First World War

-Battle of Somme -Battle of Verdun
-Battle of Dardanelles -Battle of Gallipoli
-Battle of Jutland -Battle of Marne
-Battle of Ypres -Battle of Passchendaele
-Battle of Heligoland -Battle of Arras
-Battle of Caporetto -Battle of Tannenberg
-Battle of Masurian Lakes -Battle of Folk lands Islands
-Battle of Cambria -Battle of Amiens

Why Germany and her allies [Central Powers] were defeated during the First
World War?

Weaknesses of the Central Powers

-Austria-Hungary and Turkey were weakened by nationalist movements at

home and could not give maximum help to Germany.
-Germany fought war on many fronts. This divided her resources.
-The German revolt at home by the socialists led to its defeat.
-The failure of the Schlieffen Plan also led to the defeat of Central powers.
-The Germans under estimated the duration of the war.
-The Central powers had poor food supplies.
-The failure of the U-boat campaign also contributed to the defeat of Central
powers. The German war ships failed to overpower those of the allied powers.
-There was poor communication among the German soldiers.
-Germany had some inexperienced soldiers and commanders.
-Germany had weak allies, that is, Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria. The
fought half- heartedly.
-Germany and her allies had a restricted number of soldiers yet almost the
whole of Europe was against Germany and her few allies.
-The Central powers were few and were outnumbered by the Allied powers.
-The disintegration of Austria-Hungary in 1918 led to the defeat of Central
powers.

Strengths of the Allied Powers

-The Allied leaders were competent.

-The allied blockade brought about starvation of the Central powers in both
food and raw materials.
-Italy joined the war on the side of the allied powers.
-Belgian resistance also contributed to the defeat of central powers.
-The allied powers gave a high joint command.
-The inexhaustible wealth of the British Empire also contributed.
-The capture of German scientists by allied powers led to the defeat of central
powers.
-The allied powers outnumbered the central powers.
-Britain’s superiority at sea which Germany failed to break led to her defeat.
-The entrance of USA into the First World War on the side of allied powers led
to the defeat of central powers.

RESULTS / EFFECTS OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR

Political Results / Effects of world war one

-The Central powers were defeated.
-Self determination was given to some minorities.
-There was rise of dictators like Mussolini and Hitler in Europe.
-Franchise [voting] was introduced for women in countries like USA, Britain
and France.
-Four empires collapsed, that is, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Russia.
-There was creation of new states like Poland, Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia
and Latvia.
-There was signing of peace treaties with the defeated powers.
-There was rise of extremist parties such as Nazi part in Germany, Fascistpart
in Italy and Communist part in Russia.
-There was development of new ideologies such as Communism in Russia.
-There was creation of the League of Nations.
-There was rise of banditry [robbery], especially by demoralised soldiers.
-There was establishment of democratic governments in Germany and Austria,
thus there was fall of monarchism.
-There was abdication of the Kaiser in Germany.
-A legacy of hatred, bitterness and suspicion was left among nations which
helped to bring world war two.
-New methods of warfare were introduced, for instance, trench warfare.
-There was introduction of new weapons of mass destruction, for instance,
tanks, bombs, aeroplanes, machine guns and gas.
-The map of Europe was redrawn.
-There was a shift in balance of power, for instance. Germany was left a
weaker state.

Social Results /Effects of world war one

-Many children were orphaned.
-Many women became widows.
-Unemployment was rampant [widespread].
-There was erosion of class and sex barriers as men of all classes had shared
the same hardships in the trenches and had been forced into conduct.
-Prostitution was rampant.
-There was emergence of incurable diseases like influenza.
-There was great loss of human lives, for example, Germany lost 1900000
soldiers.
-Homeless societies were created.
-There was widespread poverty and destitution.
-There was widespread starvation and hunger.
-There was an improvement in communication, for example, radios,
televisions and the code language were introduced.
-There was equality of men and women as women worked in ammunition
factories together with men.
-There were poor living and sanitary conditions.

Economic Results / Effects of world war one

-War gave great commercial advantage to industrialised nations outside
Europe, for example, USA and Japan.
-America got a large share of world trade and became the greatest creditor
nation.
-Europe became relatively poor and the people of Europe were heavily taxed to
pay off the war debts.
-Countries like India now began to build industries of their own instead of
depending on European countries.
-There was increased production.
-There was availability of cheaper goods.
-Workers earned low wages.
-There was land degradation.
-Inflation was high.
-Unemployment was widespread.
-There was an economic depression [not of 1929].
-There was closure of factories.
-There was destruction of infrastructure.
-British and French industries were concentrating on war materials and could
no longer supply customers with the day to day goods.
-Europe lost its lead in industrial development and its people became poorer.
-Some countries lost raw materials to newly formed states.
-There was technological advancement, for example, washing machines,
gramophones, radios; vacuum cleaners and so on were introduced.
-Many countries were left with war debts.
-There was payment of reparations, especially by defeated Central powers.
-There was bankruptcy in Europe.
-There were strikes, lockouts and demonstrations in Europe.

To what extent did women benefit from the results of the First World War?

Benefits
-War situation created jobs for several women who would otherwise have
spent much of their time at home.
-Women took up tasks usually the preserve of men, for example, in industries,
the military and so on, proving wrong the notion that they were of a weaker
and inferior orientation.
-Franchise [voting] was opened to women in some countries like USA, France
and Britain.
-Women were freer than before, for example, in USA they could now drive cars,
smoke, discuss sex openly and move freely without accompaniment by men.
Non Benefits
-Some women were left widows and took up roles of bread winners.
-Not all women were given franchise.
-The return of men from war meant that some women lost their jobs.

To what extent did the minority groups benefit from the effects of the First
World War?

Benefits
-Women were made free than before, for example, they had the right to vote,
move freely without male accompaniment.
-Minorities like Slavs and Czechs had states created for them.
-There was recreation of states like Poland swallowed by Germany and Russia.

Non Benefits
-The Jews were scattered all over the world due to the war.
-The return of men from war meant loss of jobs by some women.

To what extent did the people of Europe benefit from the results of the First
World War?
Benefits
-People benefited from technological developments that occurred in
production of goods during the war.
-Greater benefits only came when their countries had introduced tariffs
against American goods.
-Railways were built.
-Hydro-electric power plants were incepted.
-There was an improvement in communication, for example, radios,
televisions and code language.
-Equality of men and women came about as women worked in ammunition
factories.

Non Benefits
-Europe lost its lead in industrial development and the people became poorer.
-The people of Europe were heavily taxed to make up for war debts.
-Unemployment was widespread.
-There was destruction of industries.

To what extent did United States of America [USA] benefit economically

from the First World War?

Benefits
-War gave great commercial advantage to the USA.
-She exported cars and chemicals to Europe.
-USA loaned money to the fighting countries.
-USA overtook Europe to become an economic giant.
Non Benefits
-The war also brought some economic disadvantages.
-Overproduction later led to the Great Depression.
-After the war some European countries introduced tariffs on America.
-Some countries failed to pay back the American loans.

New States created in Europe after the First World War

-Poland -Czechoslovakia
-Austria -Hungary
-Yugoslavia -Finland
-Lithuania -Latvia
-Estonia
 THE PARIS PEACE SETTLEMENT / CONFERENCE

After the First World War, many treaties were signed from 1919 to 1923
between the victorious and the defeated powers. The collective name for all
these treaties was Paris Peace Settlement. The specific treaties were---
a] Treaty of Versailles signed with Germany [1919]
b] Treaty of St Germain signed with Austria [1919]
c] Treaty of Neuilly signed with Bulgaria [1919]
d] Treaty of Trianon signed with Hungary [1920]
e] Treaty of Sevres signed with Turkey [1920]
f] Treaty of Lausanne signed with Turkey [1923]

The Turkish government had refused to ratify [approve and make official by
signing] the treaty of Sevres and signed another one [Lausanne]. Lausanne
was the only one which negotiated while all others were dictated
[imposed].The names of the treaties were determined by the venues the
negotiations were held. The leading states at the negotiations at Paris were
the Big Three which are-
a] USA-represented by Woodrow Wilson
b] Britain-represented by Lloyd George
c] France-represented by Georges Clemenceau
The peace settlement was in accordance with Woodrow Wilson’s 14 points
which were accepted as the basis for making peace. All the defeated powers
were not represented

The defeated powers not represented at Paris Peace Settlement

-Germany -Austria
-Hungary -Bulgaria
-Turkey

The victorious powers represented at Paris Peace Settlement

a] USA represented by Woodrow Wilson
b] Britain represented by Lloyd George
c] France represented by Georges Clemenceau
d] Italy represented by Vittorio Emmanuel Orlando
e] Japan represented by Ikhali
f] Greece represented by Venizolos
g] South Africa represented by Jan Smuts
Jan Christian Smuts was the only one who signed both peace settlements,
that is, after World War One and after World War Two. He was born in 1870
and died in 1950. He was the Prime Minister of South Africa from 1939 to
1948.

Woodrow Wilson’s 14 points

1] There was to be an end of secret diplomacy and secret treaties.
2] There was to be freedom of navigation on seas.
3] There was to be removal of economic barriers to trade.
4] There was to be reduction of armaments to a level consistent with
domestic safety.
5] There was to be settlement of colonial claims with proper regard for the
interests of the inhabitants.
6] German troops were to evacuate [move out of] the Russian territory.
7] There was to be restoration of Belgian sovereignty.
8] Alsace-Lorraine was to be returned to France.
9] Italy was to recover her proper boundaries [frontiers].
10] The subject peoples under Austria-Hungary were to be independent.
11] Romania, Serbia and Montenegro were to be evacuated and Serbia was to
be given access to the sea.
12] The people under Turkish rule were to be autonomous and the
Dardanelles were to be open to ships and commerce of all nations.
13] An independent Poland was to be created and given access to the sea.
14] An international Organisation was to be formed to guarantee the
independence of all states, both great and small.

QN: To what extent were Woodrow Wilson’s 14 points followed?

Points followed
-Points number 7, 8, 10, 11 and12 were accepted
-Belgian sovereignty was restored [7]
-Alsace-Lorraine were returned to France [8]
-The subject peoples under Austria-Hungary were made independent [10]
-Romania, Serbia and Montenegro were evacuated and Serbia was given
access to the Sea [11]
-The people under Turkish rule were given autonomy [12].

Points not followed

-The Allied powers met in secret [1].
-Britain refused to give up its right to search ships trading with an enemy
during war time [2].
-Tariff barriers were retained and increased [3].
-There was no real attempt at disarmament [4].
-Britain and France increased their colonial holdings [5].
-The allies sent troops to attack the Bolsheviks [6].
-The boundary of Italy was not settled [9].
-Post war Poland contained millions of Germans [13].
-The League of Nations never works as Wilson had hoped [14].

The Aims [Views] of the Big Three at Paris Peace Settlement /

Conference of 1919

a] David Lloyd George of Britain

-He wanted an end of the German threat to the British navy and empire.
-To make Germany a non aggressive country without colonies.
-To prevent Germany from becoming economically weak so that a revival of
European industry and trade is not hindered.
-To prevent Germany from becoming very poor such that the Germans won’t
turn to communism.
-To avoid humiliating Germans so that they have no reason to seek revenge.
-To help secure France against Germany but prevent France from becoming
too powerful.
-To create a balance of power so that no one European country can threaten
others.
-To hang the Kaiser
-To make Germany pay for war damages.

b] Georges Clemenceau of France

-To have revenge on Germany for France’s suffering.
-To make Germany pay for the cost of damage.
-To punish Germany for the humiliation she had inflicted on France after
defeating her in the 1870-71 Franco Prussian war.
-To ensure that Germany would never be able to attack France again.
-To take away German lands.
-To weaken German industries.
-To reduce her armed forces.
-To weaken Germany militarily and economically.
-To have Germany divided into small state.
-To hang the Kaiser.
-The return of Alsace-Lorraine to France.
-Prevention of Union of Germany and Austria.
-Return of French flags taken by Germany.
-Germany was to accept the responsibility of causing the war
c] Woodrow Wilson of USA
-To establish peace without humiliating defeated powers.
-To reduce armaments.
-To prevent Germany from becoming aggressive again.
-To establish lasting peace.
-To have a fair settlement.
-To establish an international association of nations.
-To base the peace treaties on the 14 points.
-To create a world made of safe democracy.
-To punish Germany for her aggression.
-To avoid forcing Germany to pay heavy damages.
-He wanted self determination and to give nations democratic governments of
their choice.
*NB Anyone of Woodrow Wilson’s 14 points is accepted.

To what extent were the aims of Wilson fulfilled?

Aims fulfilled
-Alsace-Lorraine was given to France.
-An international organisation [League of Nations] was formed.
-Self determination was given to minorities.

Aims not fulfilled

-Reparations were too high.
-The defeated powers were excluded from the Conference.
-Disarmament was applied only to the defeated powers.
-Self determination was denied to Germans, for example, post war Poland
contained millions of Germans.
-The terms of the treaties were too harsh.

To what extent were the aims of Gorges Clemenceau fulfilled in the treaty of
Versailles?

Aims fulfilled
-Germany was weakened which Clemenceau wanted.
-Alsace-Lorraine went back to France.
-Germany was made to pay reparations.
-The Saar and Ruhr coal fields were to be managed by France who would take
profits as compensation for war damages.
-German military strength was weakened as her air force was disbanded.
-The Rhineland was demilitarised.
-Germany was forced to sign the war guilty clause.
Aims not fulfilled
-Germany sought revenge which the French did not want because of the loss
of her territory.
-Germany never paid the reparations in full because they were too harsh.
-British and American views were also considered.
-Germany was not divided into smaller states as Clemenceau wanted.
To what extent were the aims of Lloyd George fulfilled?

Aims fulfilled
-Germany was made to pay reparations.
-Germany lost colonies which Lloyd George wanted.
-The Rhineland was demilitarised so as to make France secure.
-German army was reduced so as to make her a non aggressive state.

Aims not fulfilled

-Germany never paid the reparations in full.
-French and American views were also considered.
-Germany sought revenge because of her loss of territory.

THE SPECIFIC TREATIES

1] Treaty of Versailles
It was signed with Germany at Versailles in France. It was signed exactly five
years after the Sarajevo assassination. The German delegates were never
directly involved in the negotiations. They were invited only to endorse [sign]
the treaty. Thus it was a diktat settlement.

The Territorial Terms of the Treaty of Versailles

-Germany lost Alsace-Lorraine to France.
-The Saar was to be administered by the League of Nations for 15 years.
-Eupen, Malmedy and Moresnet went to Belgium.
-North Schleswig was given to Denmark.
-The Port of Memel and surrounding land was placed under international
control.
-The Rhineland remained part of Germany but it was demilitarised
permanently.
-Poland was made independent.
-The Polish Corridor and Posen were given to Poland.
-The Port of Danzig, a predominantly German area, was made an independent
city under the League of Nations. But in practise it fell under Polish control as
this was to allow Poland direct access to the Sea though the creation of the
Polish Corridor which led to Danzig.
-The coal and rich iron of Upper Silesia was again given to Poland.
-The union of Germany and Austria [Anschluss] was forbidden yet Austria was
a German state.
-The Kiel Canal was opened to the shipping of all nations.
-The Baltic states of Lithuania, Estonia and Latvia were granted independence
from Germany.
-Finland was made an independent state.
-Strasbourg and Metz were given to France.
-All German Islands in the Pacific Ocean were divided amongst Australia, New
Zealand and Japan.
-South East Asia [Samoa Islands] went to New Zealand.
-Caroline Islands were given to Japan.
-New Guinea was given to Australia.
-Tanganyika [German East Africa] was given to Britain.
-Germany lost Namibia [South West Africa] to South Africa.
-Rwanda and Burundi went to Britain.
-Cameroon and Togo were given to Britain and France who governed them
jointly.

Territories lost by Germany in Europe at the Treaty of Versailles

-Alsace-Lorraine -Eupen
-Malmedy -Upper Silesia
-Danzig -Memel
-Northern Schleswig -Saar Basin
-Moresnet -Strasbourg
-Rhineland -Posen
-East Prussia -Estonia
-Lithuania -Latvia

Territories lost by Germany in Africa at the Treaty of Versailles

-New Guinea -Burundi
-Namibia -Tanganyika
-Rwanda -Cameroon
-Togoland

QN: Were the Territorial Terms of the Treaty of Versailles fair to the Germans?

Unfairness of the treaty of Versailles

-The terms were dictated to Germany
-Germany was greatly reduced in size.
-Germany lost colonies which were a source of raw materials.
-Germany was not allowed to have colonies yet other countries were allowed
to.
-Germans found themselves as minorities in newly created states.
-Germany was forbidden to unite with Austria which was a German state.

Fairness of the treaty of Versailles

-The return of Alsace –Lorraine to France was fair as they belonged to her.
-The return of North Schleswig to Denmark was fair as it belonged. [It was
taken by Germany in 1864].
-Germany had taken one third of Russian territory through the treaty of Brest
Litovsk, so these territories had to gain independence.
-Germany had caused great destruction to France and Belgium.
-The demilitarised Rhineland was to act as a buffer zone [a barrier] against
French insecurity.

Non Territorial Termsof the Treaty of Versailles

These included the disarmament clause / military clause, the war guilty clause
and the reparations clause.

a] The War Guilty Clause

-Germany wasforced to accept responsibility of causing all the loss and
damage to which the allied and associated powers have been subjected as a
consequence of a war imposed upon them by the aggression of Germany and
her allies.
-Germany was given the entire blame for causingthe war.
-The clause accused Germany of being a war criminal who among other
things violated Belgian neutrality, destroyed occupied territories, bombed
civilians and sunk merchant ships [through the U-boat campaign or submarine
warfare].
-Germany was forced to accept all these and was to suffer a heavy penalty.
-French flags captured in 1871 were to be returned.
-The Kaiser and other officials were to be handed over for trial.

b] The reparations Clause

-Germany was forced to pay compensation for the damages she had caused
to the allied powers.
-The compensation was also to cover the suffering incurred by individual
family members.
-Germany was to pay 6,6million pounds [132 million gold marks] to the allied
powers.
-The payment was to be done in 30 years.
-France was to get 52% of the total amount, Britain 22%, Italy 10%, Belgium 8
% and the rest of the allies were to share 8%.
-Part of the reparations was to be paid in form of warships which were to be
builtby Germany for Britain for the next 5 years.
-France was to be paid with minerals like coal from Germany.
-Belgium was to be paid with cattle.
-Germany was to surrender part of her fishing fleet to the allies.
-Germany was to surrender the Saar coal fields to France for 15 years.
-German railway engines and wagons were to be handed over to the allies.

c] Disarmament Clause / The military Clause

-German army was reduced to 100000 men [it was reduced to the size of the
army of Greece].
-Conscription was forbidden. Thus soldiers were to be recruited voluntarily.
-German soldiers were to serve for a period of less than 12 years.
-The German General Staff of 1914 to 1918 was dissolved and was not to be
reformed.
-Germany was not allowed to have warships or submarines.
-Germany was allowed to have only 6 battleships.
-Germany was not allowed to have tanks.
-Germany was not allowed to have an air force.
-Germany was allowed to have 6 cruisers [vessels].
-Germany was to have 12 destroyers.
-Germany was to have 12 torpedo boats.
-Germany navy was reduced to 15000 men.
-German naval base at Heligoland was demolished.
-Germany was banned from manufacturing heavy artillery and heavy guns.
-Germany was not allowed to have armoured cars.
-Germany was demilitarised on the Rhineland.

QN: To what extent did the allied powers weaken German military power?
-Germany army was left weak. She was left with a small sized army and
prohibited to conscript.
-She was left without an air force.
-She was forbidden from having submarines [U-boats].
-The German High Command was disbanded.

Other side
-Germany retained the capacity to rearm because of its industrial capacity.
-The demoralised soldiers were disgruntled and wanted to revenge.

QN: Were the Non Territorial Terms of the Treaty of Versailles fair to the
Germans?

Unfairness of the non territorial terms of the treaty of Versailles

-Germany did not cause the war alone.
-Reduction of army and navy posed a threat to German security,
-The terms were dictated on Germany,
-The reparations were too high for German’s ability to pay.
-Germany was forced to surrender the Saar coal fields yet she was to pay coal
as reparations.
-She had to build warships for allies yet Germany’s warships were destroyed.
-Germany was forbidden to have an air force yet other countries possessed
some.
-Germany was not allowed rearm yet other countries were allowed to do so.
-The treaty punished innocent people of Germany instead of rulers.

Fairness of the non territorial terms of the treaty of Versailles

-Germany was largely responsible for causing the war.
-She had an aggressive foreign policy.
-She had a war plan showing her aggressive intentions.
-Germany’s army was to be reduced to prevent her from starting another war.
-German militarism needed to be checked hence the need for disarmament.
-France and Belgium needed compensation for destruction.
-Demilitarisation of the Rhineland was meant to give France security and
safety.
-The banning of conscription in Germany would ensure security and safety of
France and Belgium.
-It was Germany which had for years prepared for war through arms and naval
race.
-If the Germans wanted a fair treaty they should have shown this by treating
Russia fairly at the treaty of Brest-Litovsk in 1917.
-Payment of reparations was a European phenomenon, for example, France
was asked to pay reparations by Germany in the treaty of Frankfurt after the
Franco-Prussian war.

2] Treaty of St Germain [September 1919]

It was signed by Austria and allied powers.

Terms of the treaty of St Germain

-The union of Germany and Austria [Anschluss] was forbidden.
-Austria and Hungary were to be separated.
-She lost Bohemia, part of Silesia, the lower part of Austria and Moravia to
Czechoslovakia.
-Bosnia and Herzegovina were given to Serbia.
-Bukovina was given to Romania.
-Galicia was given to Poland.
-South Tyrol, Trentino, Istria, Trieste and Dalmatia were given to Italy.
-Austria was made a republic [Monarch was banned].
-Her army was reduced to 30000 men.
-Austria was to pay reparations.
-Conscription was banned in Austria.
-Austria was made a landlocked country and had to make a 100km journey
across Italy to reach the coast.
-Up to 80% of her industries were now under foreign control and mainly under
Czech control.
-The best of her agricultural land was placed under Hungary.
-Her population was reduced from about 30 million to 6, 5 million.

QN: Were the terms of the treaty of St Germain fair to Austria?

Unfairness of the terms of the treaty of St Germain

-The union of Austria and Germany [Anschluss] was forbidden yet the
Austrians were Germany in origin.
-Her territories with strong German population were taken away.
-Austria was made a landlocked country.
-80% of her industries were now in Czechoslovakia.
-Her best agricultural land was now in Hungary.
-Her population was reduced from 30million to 6, 5million.

Fairness of the treaty of St Germain

-Austria had been too ambitious in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
-Her ultimatum to Serbia was calculated to cause war.
-Payment of reparations was a European Phenomenon.

QN: How far were the terms of this treaty influenced by Woodrow Wilson’s
14 points?

-Creation of new states like Poland and Czechoslovakia sympathised with the
principle of self determination.
-The breakup of the Austrian Empire was in line with Wilson’s 14 points.
-The restoration of Italian frontiers [boundaries] was part of the 14 points.
-The covenant of the League was part of the 14 points.

Other factors
-The desire to punish the defeated powers and to weaken them was also a
strong point.
-The restoration of Italian frontiers had to be matched with later settlements.

3] The Treaty of Neuilly [November 1919]

It was signed by Bulgaria and the allied powers.

Terms of the Treaty of Neuilly

-Bulgaria lost Western Thrace to Greece.
-Bulgaria lost some border areas to Yugoslavia.
-Bulgaria lost access to the Mediterranean Sea.
-Bulgaria lost some of her Aegean coastline.
-Her army was reduced to 20000 men.
-She had to pay reparations to the allies.
-Bulgaria had played a relatively small part in the war and was treated les
harshly than its allies.

Unfairness of the terms of the treaty of Neuilly

-Million Bulgars were under foreign rule.
-Reduction of her army left the country insecure.
-Her population was reduced.
-She lost her resources to other states.

Fairness of the terms of the treaty of Neuilly

-Payment of reparations was a European phenomenon.
-She had been part of the losing side.

4] The Treaty of Trianon [June 1920]

It was signed by Hungary and the allied powers.

Terms of the treaty of Trianon

-Hungary became independent from Austria.
-She lost Bosnia, Croatia, Slovenia and part of Banet to Yugoslavia.
-She lost Trentino to Italy.
-Burgenland was passed to Austria.
-Transylvania was given to Romania.
-She lost Ruthenia and Slovakia to Czechoslovakia.
-She was to accept and recognise the newly formed states.
-She lost nearly 66% of her pre-war territory to new states.
-Her population was reduced from 22million to 8 million.
-Conscription was banned in Hungary.
-She was to pay a war indemnity [reparations].
-Her army was reduced to 35000 men.
-She was to observe the covenant of the League of Nations.

Unfairness of the treaty of Trianon

-New frontiers [boundaries] left a number of Magyars under foreign rule, for
example, Romania, Czechoslovakia and the like.
-Reduction of the army left the country insecure.
-She lost resources to newly created states.
-Her population was reduced
Fairness of the treaty of Trianon
-Hungary was made an independent state.
-Hungary could freely determine its own affairs outside Austrian influence.
-She had failed to recognise the sovereignty of the Balkan states.
-Payment of reparations was a European phenomenon.

5] The Treaty of Sevres [August 1920]

It was signed by Turkey and the victors.

Terms of the Treaty of Sevres

-Turkey lost Western Thrace and part of Aegean Islands to Greece.
-She lost Syria and Lebanon to France.
-She lost Transjordan and Iraq to Britain.
-Armenia became independent.
-Adalia and Rhodes Islands were given to Italy.
-The States of Arabian peninsula [Saudi Arabia] became independent.
-Palestine was given to Britain.
-Turkish straits were put under the League of Nations. She lost control of the
Black Sea.
-The covenant of the League of Nations was to be accepted.
-Anatolia [Smyrna] was given to Greece.
-Her army was reduced.
-She was to pay reparations to the allies.
Turks were outraged by this treaty. The treaty of Sevres was never ratified and
in 1923 it was replaced by the treaty of Lausanne. The treaty of Sevres
became a dead letter when a nationalist revolution led by Mustafar Kemal
broke out against Turkey and received military assistance from Soviet Union.
Turkey declared war on Greeks and drove them out of Smyrna [Anatolia]. The
allies made a new treaty of Lausanne.

Unfairness of the treaty of Sevres

-She lost too many territories.
-The allies ignored Turkish national feeling.
-Occupation by foreign troops was unfair.
-The treaty was imposed on her.
-Reduction of her army left her insecure.

Fairness of the treaty of Sevres

-Payment of reparations was a European phenomenon.
-She had been part of the losing side.
-It was fair as it resulted in the opening of the straits.
-Non Turkish territories were made independent.
-Turkey had aided Germany during the war.
6] The Treaty of Lausanne [1923]
-It was signed by Turkey and the victors. It was a revision of the treaty of
Sevres.

Terms of the Treaty of Lausanne

-Turkey recovered Anatolia / Smyrna from Greece.
-Eastern Thrace was returned to Turkey.
-The Straits and the Greco-Turkish frontiers were demilitarised.
-Italy kept Dodecanese Islands.
-Britain’s possession of Cyprus was confirmed.
-Rhodes Islands were given to Italy.
-Adalia was given to Italy.
-Turkey was to pay reparations to the allies.
-Her army was reduced.

Countries which Italy wanted at Paris Peace Conference in 1919

-South Tyrol -Trentino
-Istria -Dalmatia
-Trieste -Fiume
-Adalia -Rhodes
-Albania

Weaknesses of the peace treaties signed after world war one

-The treaties were just imposed / dictated upon countries.
-The treaties created a group of discontented revisionists like Hitler and
Mussolini.
-Russia took no part at Paris peace settlement so it was not bound by it.
The treaties created many weak unstable governments.

THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS

It was set up in 1920, in Geneva, in Switzerland. It was the brainchild of

Woodrow Wilson’s 14th point.Woodrow Wilson had argued that Europe was
exhausted with war. However USA did not belong to the League of Nations.
Leaders involved in the formation of the League of Nations
-Woodrow Wilson of USA
-Lloyd George of Britain
-Georges Clemenceau of France
-Vittorio Emmanuel Orlando of Italy
-Jan Smuts of South Africa
-Ikhali of Japan
-Venizolos of Greece

Members of the League of Nations

-Britain -France
-Japan -South Africa
-Greece -Australia
-Canada -Holland
-Serbia -Belgium
-Italy -China
-Spain -Ethiopia
-Brazil -Germany
-Russia

Members of the League of Nations to 1934

-Britain -Italy
-Holland -Japan
-France -Belgium
-China -Spain
-Ethiopia -Brazil
-South Africa -Greece

Permanent members of the Council of the League of Nations before 1930

-Britain -France
-Italy -Japan
-Germany
Aims of the League of Nations
-To maintain world peace and security.
-To encourage international cooperation in solving social and economic
problems.
-To guarantee frontiers.
-To protect member states from aggression.
-To solve disputes by peaceful means.
-To reduce armaments to the level consistent with domestic safety.
-To supervise mandated territories.
-To prevent secret diplomacy and secret treaties.
-To safeguard the rights of minorities and refugees.
-To assist needy countries economically.
-Respect and preservation of territorial integrity.
-To impose economic sanctions on aggressors.
-To help refugees.
-To control drug trafficking.
-To promote the health of mankind.
-To improve living and working conditions of people in all parts of the world.
-To fight against the spread of diseases.
-To stop the selling of girls as prostitutes.

The Structure / Organs / Organisation of the League of Nations

Main Organs
1] The General Assembly
-It was the main body of the League of Nations in which all states had
representatives.
-In 1920 it had 42 members. In 1924 it had 55 members.
-It was the League’s debating Chamber.
-It met once a year.
-Each member had one vote.
-Each member had equal representation [3 delegates from each].
-All nations in this body were working on basis of equality.
-It discussed any matters relating to the peace or welfare of the world and
decided on appropriate course of action.
-All decisions had to be unanimous.
-It prepared the League budget.
-It elected non permanent members of the Council.
-It admitted new members and expelled members.
-It was the League’s parliament.
-It elected the Secretary General.
-It proposed revision of peace treaties.

QN: How successful was the League Assembly in carrying out the work of
the League of Nations?

Successes
-It was successful in preparing the League budget.
-It admitted new members into the League, for example, Germany in 1926 and
Russia in 1934.
-It succeeded in appointing the Secretary General.
-It debated issues concerning the world peace.

Failures
-Since it met once a year, it failed to debate matters fully thus referring issues
to the council.
-It failed to stop the withdrawal of members from the League, for example,
Germany, Italy and Japan.
-It failed to stop Germany from withdrawing from the Disarmament
Conference organised by the League.

2] The Council
-It was the smaller body of four permanent members which became five after
the admission of Germany in 1926.
-The permanent members included Britain, France, Italy, Japan and Germany.
Russia joined the League in 1934 and became a permanent member to 1939.
-It also had non- permanent members, raised to 6 in 1926, to 9 in 1929 and to
11 in 1936.
-Each of the permanent members of the council had a veto. This meant one
permanent member can stop the council from acting even if all other
members agreed.
-It met more often, at least 3 times a year or whenever it was necessary.
-Decisions were to be unanimous just like in the Assembly to prevent great
powers from imposing their will on smaller states.
-It dealt with problems when the Assembly was not in session.
-It organised sanctions against aggressors.
-It raised peace keeping forces.
-It mediated between conflicting members.
-It enforced decisions of the Assembly.

QN: How successful was the Council in maintaining peace up to 1939?

Successes
-It solved the problem of Vilna.
-It settled the dispute between Greece and Bulgaria.
-It settled a dispute between Peru and Columbia.
-It settled a dispute between Turkey and Iraq.
-It settled a dispute between Sweden and Finland.
-It settled a dispute between Germany and Poland.
-It settled a dispute between Serbia and Albania.

Failures
-It failed to stop Japanese invasion of Manchuria.
-It failed to stop Hitler’s acts of aggression, that is, over Austria, Switzerland,
Czechoslovakia and Poland.
-It failed to stop Italian invasion Abyssinia [Ethiopia.
-It failed to prevent the outbreak of another world war [world war two].

3] The Secretariat
-The League was serviced by a permanent Secretariat that worked at the
League’s headquarters in Geneva, in Switzerland.
-It was a sort of a civil service. It was made up of civil servants from member
states.
-It dispatched information or reports to member states.
-It was a permanent body of officials drawn from all member states and
elected by the Secretary General.
-The first Secretary General was an Englishman, Sir Eric Drummond.
-It implemented the decisions from the council.
-It did most of the work of the League.
-It looked after all paper work of the League.
-It carried out all administrative functions.
-It wrote down resolutions of the League.
-It prepared reports for the Council and Assembly.
-It kept records of league meetings and debates.
-It wrote down minutes during meetings.
-it carried out day to day activities of the league.
-It prepared the league agendas.
-It had specialist sections covering areas such as health, disarmament and
economic matters.
-It translated languages [it organised translators].
-It collected information.

4] International Court of Justice [CIJ]

-This body was meant to be a key part of the League’ job of settling disputes
between countries peacefully.
-It comprised of 15 Judges from different countries at Hague in Holland
[Netherlands] who were to decide all disputes submitted to them.
-It originally had four Judges and eleven deputies who were chosen from
various nations.
-The judges were appointed by the council and assembly.
-It dealt with cases referred to it.
-It had no way of making sure that countries follow its rulings.
-It advised the assembly and country if asked.
-In practise only 32 cases were heard in 22 years as governments were not
willing to have judgements against them.

5] International Labour Organisation [ILO]

-This body came into being in 1919.
-It distributed information on working conditions.
-Its aim was to improve working conditions of people throughout the world.
-It collected statistics and information about working conditions and it tried to
persuade member countries to adopt its suggestions.
-Each member was to send 4 representatives to its Annual Conference [2
from government, 1 employer and 1 worker].
-Its purpose was to deal with workers’ plight, for example, living conditions,
working hours and compensation.
-It regulated working hours.
-It dealt with industrial and economic problems of the workers of the world.
-Its major task was to frame and apply international rules that governed
conditions of labour.
-It was concerned with such issues as child labour, women labour and rights
of agricultural labourers.
-It discussed wages and work in different parts of the world.
-Where the conditions were bad the ILO urged the nations concerned to pass
laws to improve them but could apply no pressure if the government
concerned refused.
-It was to create international labour standards.
-It also aimed at enhancing employment opportunities for workers.
-It discouraged forced labour and monitored the situation.
-It helped to bring cooperation between employers and employees.

How successful was the ILO in improving the working conditions among
member states?

Successes
-It was successful in bringing about cooperation between workers and
employers across frontiers.
-It created the 8 hour working day.
-Conditions of women increased [It brought maternity protection for women].
-There was abolition of child labour and many countries stopped it.
-It helped in adoption of equal pay and benefit for work of equal value.
-It helped in crafting safety laws at the work place.
-It called for the introduction of minimum wages.
-Most member countries increased wages of workers.
-It recommended a system of international standards in all work related
matters.

Failures
-Use of child labour continued in some countries.
-Wages continued to be low for most workers.
-Some employees were still not allowed to form trade unions.
-It had no mechanism to force desire for change on government and
employers.

Commissions / Subsidiary Organs / Committees of the League of Nations /

Agencies of the League of Nations
6] Mandates Commission 7] Minorities
Commission
8] Drugs Commission 9] Refugees
Commission
10] Disarmament Commission 11] Health Commission
12] Women Rights Commission 13] Slavery
Commission
14] Undeveloped Nations Commission 15] Political Asylumists
16] Military Affairs Commission 17] Transport &
communication
18] Labour Commission 10]
Disarmament Commission