Food Engineering

Topic: Fluid Flow in Food Processing

I. Flow of Fluids

Why to study Fluid Mechanics:

Units and Dimensions
5.Vapour pressure is a measure of the tendency of a material to change into the gaseous or
vapour state, and it increases with temperature. The temperature at which the vapour
pressure at the surface of a liquid becomes equal to the pressure exerted by the surroundings
is called the boiling point of the liquid.
Examples:
II. Static pressure of liquids: Hydraulic pressure, absolute and gauge pressure

Fluid has property that it exerts force on all the sides, top and bottom. Pressure exerted by fluid is
given as force per unit area.
✓ 760 mm of mercury column

✓ 10.3 m of water column

✓ 101.3 kN/m2

✓ 101.3 kPa

✓ 1 bar

Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure due to the weight of a fluid.

Hydrostatic pressure in a liquid can be calculated as
p=ρgh
Hydrostatic Law
Pressure in a continuously distributed uniform static fluid varies only with vertical distance and is
independent of the shape of the container. The pressure is the same at all points on a given horizontal
plane in the fluid. The pressure increases with depth in the fluid.
Calculate the pressure at 5 m, 10 m and 15 m in a tank filled with water.

Gauge Pressure and Absolute Pressure

Gauge Pressure: It is convenient to measure pressure in terms of taking atmospheric pressure as
reference datum. Pressure measured above atmospheric pressure is known as gauge pressure. The
atmospheric pressure on the scale is marked as zero.
Absolute Pressure: Since, atmospheric pressure changes with atmospheric condition, a perfect
vacuum is taken as an absolute standard of pressure. Pressure measured above perfect vacuum are
called absolute pressure. The figure 2.3 explains the concept of gauge and absolute pressure. Absolute
pressure = atmospheric pressure + gauge pressure
Pabs = Patm + Pgauge

III. Flow behavior of viscous foods; Compressible and non- compressible

fluids; Surface tension, capillarity
Compressible and Non-Compressible Fluids
1. Compressible fluids: The fluids which undergoes a change in volume or density when
subjected to external forces.
Eg: Real Fluids are compressible. (Air)

2. Incompressible fluids: The fluid which does not show a change in volume or density when
subjected to external forces.
Eg: Ideal Fluids are incompressible.

Compressibility
It is the property of the liquid or fluid due to which there will be a change in volume/density
when the fluid is subjected to an external force and is represented by Bulk Modulus of Elasticity (k).
Compressibility is the reciprocal of Bulk Modulus of Elasticity.
IV. Pressure measuring devices: Simple, differential, micro-, inclined manometer,
mechanical gauges, piezometer
 V. Fluid flow

In Fluid Mechanics, the knowledge of flow behavior is important as the analysis and calculations
depends on the flow conditions.

Types of flow:

Steady flow
In steady flow fluid parameters such as velocity, density, pressure, acceleration etc. at a point do not
change with time.

Where v: velocity; P: Pressure; ρ: Density; a: acceleration; t: time

Unsteady flow
In unsteady flow fluid parameters such as velocity, density, pressure, acceleration etc. at a point
changes with time.

Uniform flow
In uniform flow if the velocity at a given instant of time is same in both magnitude and direction at
all points in the flow, the flow is said to be uniform flow.

Non-uniform flow
When the velocity changes from point to point in a flow at any given instant of time, the flow is
described as non-uniform flow.

Compressible flow
The flow in which density of the fluid varies during the flow is called compressible fluid flow. (i.
e. ρ ≠ constant ). This is applicable in gas flow.

Incompressible flow
In case of in compressible fluid flow, the density of the fluid remains constant during the flow. (i.
e. . ρ = constant ). Practically, all liquids are treated as incompressible.

Pressurized flow
Flow under pressure. e..g. liquid flowing in pipes with pressure.

Gravity flow
Flow of fluid due to gravity.

One, two and three dimensional flow

1. One Dimensional: When the flow properties (e.g. velocity, density pressure etc) vary only in
one direction.
2. Two Dimensional flows: When the flow properties (e.g. velocity, density pressure etc) vary
in only two directions.
3. Three Dimensional flows: When the flow properties (e.g. velocity, density pressure etc) vary
in all the three directions.
Rotational and irrotational flows:
1. Rotational flow: The fluid particles while flowing also rotate about their own axis.
2. Irrotational flow: The fluid particles while flowing do not rotate about their own axis.

Laminar flow
In this type of fluid flow, particles move along well defied paths or steam lines. The fluid layers moves
smoothly over the adjacent layer. The fluid particles move in a definite path and their paths do not cross
each other.

Turbulent fluid flow

In turbulent fluid flow, fluid particles move in a random and zigzag way. Turbulence is characterized
by the formation of eddies.

The type of flow is determined by Reynold’s Number.

Reynold’s Number
It is defined as the ratio of inertia force of the flowing fluid to the viscosity force of the fluid. In case
of pipe flow, it is determined by using the following equation.
 Examples:

Q.1 Predict whether the flow would be laminar or turbulent in a pipe of diameter 5 cm. Consider
density of liquid to be 950 kg/m3, viscosity 0.2 Ns/m2 and flow velocity 20 m/s.

Q.2 Calculate the Reynlod’s number if pipe diameter is 4 cm, liquid density 900 kg/cm3, viscosity
0.5 Ns/m2 and flow velocity 10 m/s.

\
Dimensionless Numbers
In dimensional analysis, a dimensionless quantity is a quantity without an associated physical
dimension. Dimensionless quantities are often defined as products or ratios of quantities that are not
dimensionless, but whose dimensions cancel out when their powers are multiplied. This is the case,
for instance, with the engineering strain, a measure of deformation. It is defined as change in length
over initial length but, since these quantities both have dimensions L (length), the result is a
dimensionless quantity.

Importance of Dimensionless Numbers

1. The use of dimensionless numbers in engineering and physics allows the important task of data
reduction of similar problems. This means that a lot of experimental runs are avoided if data is
correlated using appropriate dimensionless parameters.
2. Dimensionless numbers often correlate with some performance parameter and greatly aid
engineering analysis and design.
3. The value of the dimensionless numbers often reflects certain properties. For example, a flow
problem with a low Reynolds Number will be laminar, while a larger value will imply turbulent
behaviour.
4. The number of dimensionless numbers determines the dimensionality of the space of solutions.
For example, if a problem has two dimensionless numbers, then by varying both numbers, all
the different behaviours in the problem can be accounted for.
5. A dimensionless number can be used in the analysis of prototype models, to predict behaviour
in similar full-scale systems. Dimensionless numbers help to compare two systems that are vastly
different by combining the parameters of interest. For example, the Reynolds number, Re =
velocity * length / kinematic viscosity. If an airfoil has to be tested with a particular Re, and
simulation is conducted on a scaled-down model (length is smaller), one could increase fluid
velocity or lower kinematic viscosity (change fluids) or both to establish the same Re and ensure
working under comparable circumstances.
In the flow situations where the viscous forces plays an important, Reynolds number is taken as the
criterion of dynamic similarity. Examples are as follows:
1 Incompressible flow through small diameter pipes,
2 Objects moving completely under water,
3 Air movement under low velocity around airplanes and automobiles
4 Open channel flow.

1/2
Froude’s number (Fr) = Fr

Fr = (Ꝭ l2V2/ Ꝭ l3g) 1/2 = V/ (lg)1/2

In flow situations where gravitational force is more important, Froude number governs the dynamic
similarity. Other forces are comparatively small and negligible. Examples are:
1. Flow through open channels
2. Flow of liquid jets from orifices
3. Flow over notches and weirs
4. Flow over the spillway of a dam
 1/2
Weber number (W) = W

W = (Ꝭ l2V2/ σ l) 1/2 = V/ (σ/ Ꝭ l)1/2

Application of Weber number:
1 Flow in Capillary tubes
2 Thin sheet flow
3 Liquid atomization
 FROUDE NUMBER, REYNOLDS NUMBER, WEBER NUMBER
List of few dimensionless numbers

VI. Turbines and pumps: classification, centrifugal pumps, submersible pumps,

reciprocating pumps, positive displacement pump; Centrifugal pumps: Pumps in series
and parallel, basic equations applied to centrifugal pump, loss of head due to changed
discharge, static head, total head, manometric head, manometer efficiency,

CLASSIFICATION OF PUMPS
Introduction
Pumps are used to transfer and distribute liquids in various industries. Pumps convert
mechanical energy into hydraulic energy. Electrical energy is generally used to operate the various
types of pumps.

Pumps have two main purposes.

1. Transfer of liquid from one place to another place (e.g. water from an underground into a
water storage tank).
2. Circulate liquid around a system (e.g. cooling water or lubricants through machines and
equipment).

Components of a Pumping System

1. Pump casing and impellers
2. Prime movers: electric motors, diesel engines or air system
3. Piping used to carry the fluid
4. Valves, used to control the flow in the system
5. Other fittings, controls and instrumentation
6. End-use equipment, which have different requirements (e.g. pressure, flow) and therefore
determine the pumping system components and configuration. Examples include heat
exchangers, tanks and hydraulic machines.

Classification
There exist a wide variety of pumps that are designed for various specific applications.
However, most of them can be broadly classified into two categories as mentioned below.
1. Positive Displacement
2. Dynamic Pressure Pumps
Classification of Pumps

DYNAMIC PRESSURE PUMPS

In dynamic pressure pump, during pumping action, tangential force is imparted which
accelerates the fluid normally by rotation of impeller. Some systems which contain dynamic pump
may require positive displacement pump for priming. They are normally used for moderate to high
discharge rate. The pressure differential range for this type of pumps is in a range of low to moderate.
They are popularly used in a system where low viscosity fluids are used.

1. Centrifugal pumps
They use a rotating impeller to increase the pressure of a fluid. Centrifugal pumps are
commonly used to move liquids through a piping system. The fluid enters the pump impeller along or
near to the rotating axis and is accelerated by the impeller, flowing radially outward into a diffuser or
volute chamber (casing), from where it exits into the downstream piping system. Centrifugal pumps
are used for large discharge through smaller heads. These types of pumps are used for supply of water
and handling of milk in dairy plants.
2. Propeller pump
A propeller pump is a high flow, low lift impeller type device featuring a linear flow path. The
propeller pump may be installed in a vertical, horizontal, or angled orientation and typically has its
motor situated above the water level with the impeller below water. These pumps function by drawing
water up an outer casing and out of a discharge outlet via a propeller bladed impeller head.

3. Turbine pump
Turbine pumps are centrifugal pumps that use pressure and flow in combination with a rotary
mechanism to transfer fluid. They typically employ blade geometry, which causes fluid circulation
around the vanes to add pressure from inlet to outlet. Turbine pumps operate using kinetic energy to
move fluid utilizing an impeller. The centrifugal force drives the liquid to the housing wall in close
proximity to the vanes of the impeller or propeller. The cyclical movement of the impeller produces
pressure in the pumping bowl. The shape of turbine pumps also contributes to suction and discharge
rates.
RECIPROCATING PUMPS

Introduction
Reciprocating pumps create and displace a volume of liquid by the action of a reciprocating
element. The pump consists of cylinder, piston or plunger and drive arrangement for to and fro motion
of the piston. These pumps are called positive displacement pump as they delivers volume of the fluid
filled in the cylinder irrespective of the delivery head and develops higher pressure as compared to
centrifugal pumps. However, liquid discharge pressure is limited only by strength of structural parts.
A pressure relief valve and a discharge check valve are normally required for reciprocating pumps.
Reciprocating pump is used in milk homogenizer in dairy industry in order to develop high pressure.
Reciprocating pumps can be further classified into two types, as given below.
i) Piston Pumps
ii) Diaphragm Pumps

Piston Pump
Hand pump is a simplest form of piston pump used in villages for lifting water from the tube
well. Though, these pumps are replaced by sub-mersible electrically operated pumps even in villages.
The piston pump is one of the most common reciprocating pumps for a broad range of applications
prior to the development of high speed centrifugal pumps. Reciprocating pumps are used in low flow
rate applications with very high pressure.
Working of reciprocating pump
A single acting reciprocating pump having piston which moves forwards and backwards in a
close fitting cylinder. The movement of piston in the cylinder is obtained by connecting the piston rod
to crank by means of connecting rod. The crank is rotated by means of an electric motor. The suction
and delivery valves are suitably placed which are one way valves.
As the crank rotates from A to C (θ = 0° to θ = 180°), the piston moves towards right in the
cylinder. This creates partial vacuum in the cylinder. As the pressure on the water surface is higher,
the liquid enters the cylinder through suction valve. The movement of piston from C to A (θ = 180° to
θ = 360°), closes the suction valve and opens delivery valve and the liquid is forced in the delivery
pipe.

The reciprocating pumps are further classified as single acting and double acting. In case of
single acting pump as shown in Fig. 30.2, the pump delivers one effective discharge stoke per one
revolution of the crank (i.e. one suction stoke and one delivery stroke). Double acting reciprocating
pump has suction valve and delivery valve on both the sides of the piston
The single acting pump discharges water only on its forward stroke while the double acting
pump discharges on its return stroke as well.

Capacity of reciprocating pump

The capacity (Q) of a single acting piston or plunger pump is proportional to its displacement
per unit time. The displacement is the calculated capacity of the pump, assuming 100% hydraulic
efficiency, and is proportional to the cross sectional area of the piston (A), the length of its stroke (L),
the number of cylinders (n), and the speed (N) of the pump (r.p.m. of the crank).

It is obvious that the rate of discharge will be double neglecting the volume of piston rod in
case of double acting pump. The actual discharge under field conditions will be less as compared to
theoretical discharge. The difference between actual discharge and theoretical discharge of the pump
is called slip of a pump. It is expressed as % slip which is given by:

The major component of slip is the leakage of fluid back through the discharge or suction valve
as it is closing (or seated). It can reduce calculated displacement from 2 to 10% depending upon valve
design and condition. Another important factor that affects a capacity of reciprocating pump is called
volumetric efficiency (VE). VE is expressed as a percentage and is proportional to the ratio of the total
discharge volume to the piston or plunger displacement.
The ratio (r) is shown to be (c+d)/d where d is the volume displaced by the piston or plunger
and c is the additional volume between the discharge and suction valves. The smaller is this ratio, the
better the volumetric efficiency. Expressed mathematically as:
VE = 1 - (P * b * r) – S
 Where, P is pressure, b is the liquid’s compressibility factor, r is the volume ratio, and S is slip.
The compressibility factor for water is quite small but at pressures greater than 10,000 PSI it does
become a factor. Although there is no cylinder wall around the plunger at the bottom of its stroke, it
still displaces fluid equal to its own volume. The actual capacity of the pump is given by:
Qact = Qth * VE

Power requirement for reciprocating pump

The work done by reciprocating pump is given as under:
work done/second = (weight of water lifted/second)*(total height through which water is lifted)

Simplex and duplex pumps

A simplex pump, sometimes referred to as a single pump, is a pump having a single liquid
(pump) cylinder. A duplex pump is the equivalent of two simplex pumps placed side by side on the
same foundation. The driving of the pistons of a duplex pump is arranged in such a manner that when
one piston is on its upstroke the other piston is on its downstroke, and vice versa. This arrangement
doubles the capacity of the duplex pump compared to a simplex pump of comparable design.

Triplex pump
A positive-displacement reciprocating pump that is configured with three plungers. Generally
milk homogenizer are of triplex type.

Diaphragm Pumps
Diaphragm pumps are reciprocating positive displacement pumps that employ a flexible
membrane instead of a piston or plunger to displace the pumped fluid. They are truly self priming (can
prime dry) and can run dry without damage. They operate via the same volumetric displacement
principle described earlier.
 Were its operation any simpler, it would compete with gravity. The upper portion of the figure shows
the suction stroke. The handle lifts the diaphragm creating a partial vacuum which closes the discharge
valve while allowing liquid to enter the pump chamber via the suction valve. During the discharge
stroke the diaphragm is pushed downward and the process is reversed.
You will note that, unlike pistons and plungers, diaphragms do not require a sealing system and
therefore operate leak free. This feature does, however, preclude the possibility of a double acting
design. If nearly continuous flow is required, a double-diaphragm or duplex pump is usually employed.
The figure below is a cross section of an air operated, double diaphragm pump.
The double diaphragm pump utilizes a common suction and discharge manifold teamed with
two diaphragms rigidly connected by a shaft. The pumped liquid resides in the outside chamber of
each while compressed air is routed to and from their inner chambers. In the figure, the right hand
chamber has just completed its suction stroke and, simultaneously, the left chamber completed its
discharge stroke. As would be expected, the suction check is open so that liquid can flow into the right
chamber and the discharge check of the left chamber is open so that liquid can flow out.
Except for the double chamber configuration, its operation is just like the double acting piston
pump seen earlier. The difference, of course, resides within the inner chambers and the method in
which the reciprocating motion is maintained. This is accomplished by an air distribution valve that
introduces compressed air to one diaphragm chamber while exhausting it from the other. Upon
completion of the stroke the valve rotates 90 degrees and reciprocation occurs.

Positive Displacement Pumps

The term positive displacement pump is quite descriptive, because such pumps are designed to
displace a more or less fixed volume of fluid during each cycle of operation. The volumetric flow rate
is determined by the displacement per cycle of the moving member (either rotating or reciprocating)
times the cycle rate (e.g. rpm). The flow capacity is thus fixed by the design, size, and operating speed
of the pump. The pressure (or head) that the pump develops depends upon the flow resistance of the
system in which the pump is installed and is limited only by the size of the driving motor and the
strength of the parts. Consequently, the discharge line from the pump should never be closed off
without allowing for recycle around the pump or damage to the pump could result. They can be further
classified as:

Types of Positive Displacement Pumps

Reciprocating pumps
Pumping takes place by to and fro motion of the piston or diaphragm in the cylinder. It is often
used where relatively small quantity of liquid is to be handled and where delivery pressure is quite
large.
1. Piston pump: A piston pump is a type of positive displacement pump where the high- pressure
seal reciprocates with the piston. The pump has a piston cylinder arrangement. As the piston,
goes away after the delivery stoke, low pressure is created in the cylinder which opens the
suction valve. On forward stoke, the fluid filled inside the cylinder is compressed which intern
opens the delivery valve for the delivery of liquid.
 2. Diaphragm pump: uses a combination of the reciprocating action of a rubber, thermoplastic
or Teflon diaphragm and suitable non-return check valves to pump a fluid. Sometimes this type
of pump is also called a membrane pump.

Rotary pumps
In rotary pumps, relative movement between rotating elements and the stationary element of
the pump cause the pumping action. The operation is different from reciprocating pumps, where valves
and a piston are integral to the pump. They also differ from centrifugal pumps, where high velocity is
turned into pressure. Rotary pumps are designed so that a continuous seal is maintained between inlet
and outlet ports by the action and position of the pumping elements and close running clearances of
the pump. Therefore, rotary pumps do not require valve arrangements similar to reciprocating pumps.

1. Gear pumps: uses the meshing of gears to pump fluid by displacement. They are one of the
most common types of pumps for hydraulic fluid power applications. The rigid design of the
gears and houses allow for very high pressures and the ability to pump highly viscous fluids.

2. Lobe pump: Lobe pumps are similar to external gear pumps in operation in that fluid flows
around the interior of the casing. As the lobes come out of mesh, they create expanding volume
on the inlet side of the pump. Liquid flows into the cavity and is trapped by the lobes as they
rotate. Liquid travels around the interior of the casing in the pockets between the
 lobes and the casing. Finally, the meshing of the lobes forces liquid through the outlet port
under pressure.

3. Screw Pump: These pumps are rotary, positive displacement pumps that can have one or more
screws to transfer high or low viscosity fluids along an axis. Although progressive cavity pumps
can be referred to as a single screw pumps, typically screw pumps have two or more
intermeshing screws rotating axially clockwise or counter clockwise. Each screw thread is
matched to carry a specific volume of fluid. Screw pumps provide a specific volume with each
cycle and can be dependable in metering applications.

4. Vane pump: A rotary vane pump is a positive-displacement pump that consists of vanes
mounted to a rotor that rotates inside of a cavity. In some cases, these vanes can be variable
length and/or tensioned to maintain contact with the walls as the pump rotates.

5. Rotary plunger pump: The pumping action takes place by rotating rotor and reciprocating
plunger. In a rotary plunger rotary pump, the axes of the plungers are perpendicular to the
rotational axis of the rotor or at an angle of not less than 45° to the axis; the rotor is located
eccentrically with respect to the axis of the case.

Suction and forced delivery of the liquid occur with the reciprocating motion of the plungers
as a result of centrifugal forces and spring action. Rotary pumps of this type may have as many as 72
plungers arranged in multiple rows, provide a delivery Q ≤ 400 liters/min, and build up a pumping
pressure ρ ≤ 100 MN/m2.
 CENTRIFUGAL PUMP, PRESSURE VARIATION, WORK DONE, EFFICIENCY

Centrifugal Pump
Centrifugal pump uses a rotating impeller to increase the pressure of a fluid. Centrifugal pumps
are very common in food and dairy processing industry. These pumps deliver large flow rate at low or
medium head and are used for low viscous liquid like water, milk, juices, cream etc.

Construction of a Centrifugal Pump

Different parts of centrifugal pumps

Rotating component
It consists of shaft and impeller. Shaft is coupled with a motor to give drive to the pump. An
impeller is a rotating component of a centrifugal pump, usually made of iron, steel, bronze, brass or
aluminium which transfers energy from the motor that drives the pump to the fluid being pumped by
accelerating the fluid outwards from the center of rotation. Different types of impeller are:

Open type impeller: It consists of vane which accelerates the fluid. The number of vanes can vary
from 2 to 8 or more.
 Semi-closed impeller: It consists of vane attached to plate on one side. Industrial application of such
types of impeller is for pumping liquids containing suspensions.

Closed impeller: The vane is enclosed by two disc or plates. Shrouds or sidewall encloses the vanes.
The liquid moves in between the cavity between the vanes and plates.

It can also be classified as based on major direction of flow in reference to the axis of rotation
1. Radial flow
2. Axial flow
3. Mixed flow

Casing
It is the cover housing the impeller. The rotating impeller increases the kinetic energy of the
liquid. The casing helps to covert this kinetic energy into pressure energy. The main function of casing
is to enclose the impeller at suction and delivery ends and thereby form a pressure vessel.
The pressure at suction end may be as little as one-tenth of atmospheric pressure and at delivery
end may be twenty times the atmospheric pressure in a single-stage pump.
The vanes of the rotating impeller impart a radial and rotary motion to the liquid, forcing it to
the outer periphery of the pump casing where it is collected in the outer part of the pump casing called
the volute. The volute is a region that expands in cross-sectional area as it wraps around the pump
casing. Purpose of the volute is to collect the liquid discharged from the periphery of the impeller at
high velocity and gradually cause a reduction in fluid velocity by increasing the flow area This converts
the velocity head to static pressure. The fluid is then discharged from the centrifugal pump through the
discharge connection.

Types of chamber/casing
Volute casing: This is named from the spiral shape of the casing which is so constructed to act as a
collector for the liquid as it leaves the outer edge of the impeller vanes. In volute pumps area of flow
gradually increases from throat towards the delivery pipe. The increase in area of flow decreases the
exit velocity and hence pressure increases in the casing.
 Vortex: Vortex casing is a casing in which circular chamber is provided between the casing and the
impeller. Vortex casing will increase pump efficiency by reducing eddies formation to a considerable
extent.

Diffuser: In diffuser casing, the fluid passes through a ring of fixed vanes or diffuser after the fluid
has left the impeller, that diffuse the liquid, this provides a more controlled flow and a more efficient
conversion of velocity head into pressure head. Providing fixed diffuser increases the efficiency of the
pump up to 90 percent.

Suction and delivery pipe

A pipe whose one end is connected to the inlet of the pump and other end dips into water in a pump is
known as suction pipe. A foot value is a non- return value fitted at the lower end of the suction pipe
which helps to fill water during priming. The suction pipe is connected to the opening (eye) of the
impeller. Discharge pipe is provided on the pump casing to attach delivery side.

Bearing housing
The bearing housing encloses the bearings mounted on the shaft. The bearings keep the shaft
or rotor in correct alignment with the stationary parts under the action of radial and transverse loads.
The bearing house also includes an oil reservoir for lubrication, constant level of oil, jacket
for cooling by circulating cooling water.

Working Principle of Centrifugal Pumps

The centrifugal pump operates by the transfer of energy (or angular momentum) from a rotating
impeller to the fluid, which is normally inside a casing. The fluid enters at the axis or ‘eye’ of the
impeller (which may be open or closed and usually contains radial curved vanes) and is discharged
from the impeller periphery. On rotation of impeller, partial vacuum is created in the casing which
causes the suction of liquid from the reservoir. The maximum possible suction lift is
10.3 m of water. The kinetic energy and momentum of the fluid are increased by the angular
momentum imparted by the high-speed impeller. This kinetic energy is then converted to pressure
energy (‘head’) in a diverging area (the ‘volute’) between the impeller discharge and the casing before
the fluid exits the pump. The head that these pumps can develop depends upon the pump design and
the size, shape, and speed of the impeller and the flow capacity is determined by the flow resistance of
the system in which the pump is installed.
 Thus, these pumps operate at approximately constant head and variable flow rate within limits.
Centrifugal pumps can be operated in a ‘closed off’ condition (i.e. closed discharge line), because the
liquid can re-circulate within the pump without causing damage. However, such conditions should be
avoided, because energy dissipation within the pump could result in excessive heating of the fluid
and/or the pump or unstable operation, with adverse consequences. Centrifugal pumps are most
appropriate for ‘ordinary’ (i.e. low to moderate viscosity) liquids under a wide variety of flow
conditions and are thus the most common type of pump. The following discussion applies primarily to
centrifugal pumps.

Priming of centrifugal pump

The operation in which the suction pipe, casing of pump and a portion of delivery pipe is filled
by the outside source of liquid before starting the pump. Foot value is necessary at the end of suction
pipe to fill water in the pipe for priming. This process removes air from impeller and casing necessary
for pumping of liquid.

Few Important Terms:

Capacity: It is the water handling capability of a pump commonly expressed as either cubic meter
per minute (m3/min).
Head: is the maximum height that a pump can move fluid against gravity.
An impeller is a rotor that produces a sucking force, and is part of a pump.
Cavitation: It is a phenomenon caused as a result of vapour bubbles imploding. This is the result of
bubble formation at the suction point due to pressure difference.
Discharge Port: It is the point where the discharge hose or pipe is connected to the pump.
Datum: It is used as reference of the horizontal plane for which all the elevations and head are
measured.
Static Discharge Head (hd): It is the vertical distance between the pump centerline and the point of
free discharge or the surface of the liquid in the discharge tank.
Dynamic Discharge Head: It is the static discharge head plus the friction in the discharge line also
referred to as Total Discharge Head.
Static Suction Head (hs): It is the vertical distance between the centre of the impeller to the free
surface of the water from where water is to be pumped. If the liquid level is above pump centerline, h s
is positive. If the liquid level is below pump centerline, hs is negative. Negative hs condition is
commonly denoted as a ‘suction lift’.

Dynamic Suction Head: It is the static suction lift plus the friction in the suction line also referred to
as Total Suction Head.
Friction Head: It is the head required to overcome the resistance to flow in the pipe and fittings. It is
dependent upon the size, condition and type of pipe, number and type of pipe fittings, flow rate, and
nature of the liquid.
Friction Loss: It refers to the reductions in flow due to turbulence as water passes through hoses,
pipes, fittings and elbows.
Priming: Most centrifugal pumps are not self-priming. In other words, the pump casing must be filled
with liquid before the pump is started, otherwise the pump will not function. If the pump casing
becomes filled with vapors or gases, the pump impeller becomes gas-bound and incapable of pumping.
To ensure that a centrifugal pump remains primed and does not become gas-bound, it is necessary to
attach a foot valve at the end of the suction pipeline.
Terminologies Associated to Pumping Systems

Total Suction Head (hs): It is the suction reservoir pressure head (hps) plus the static suction head
(hs) plus the velocity head at the pump suction flange (h vs) minus the friction head in the suction line
(hfs).
HS = hps + hs + hvs + hfs

Total Discharge Head (hd): It is the sum total of discharge reservoir pressure head (h pd), static
discharge head (hd), the velocity head at the pump discharge flange (hvd) and the total friction head in
the discharge line (hfd).
hd = hpd + hd + hvd + hfd

Manometric head: It is defined as the head against which a centrifugal pump has to work.

Where,
hs = Suction head
hd = delivery head
hfs = Frictional head loss in suction pipe
hfd = Frictional head loss in delivery pipe
Vd = Velocity of pipe in delivery pipe

Pump Performance Curve

The main characteristic curves of a centrifugal pump consistes of variation of head (hm),
power (P) and discharge (Q) with respect to speed

Pump Efficiency
Pump efficiency, η (%) is a measure of the efficiency with which the pump uses the input
power to convert the energy into useful output.
η = Pout/Pin
where
η = efficiency (%)
Pin = power input
Pout = power output

Water Horse Power (WHP) and Brake Horse Power (BHP)

The work performed by a pump is a function of the total head and the weight of the liquid
pumped in a given time period. Pump input or brake horsepower (BHP) is the actual horsepower
delivered to the pump shaft. Pump output or hydraulic or water horsepower (WHP) is the liquid
horsepower delivered by the pump. These two terms are defined by the following formulas.
 where:
BHP is the brake horse power required (W)
ρ is the fluid density (kg/m3)
g is the standard acceleration of gravity (9.81 m/s2)
H is the energy Head added to the flow (m)
Q is the flow rate (m3/s)
η is the efficiency of the pump (decimal)

The head added by the pump (H) is a sum of the static lift, the head loss due to friction and any
losses due to valves or pipe bends all expressed in metres of fluid. Power is more commonly expressed
as kilowatts (103 W) or horsepower (multiply kilowatts by 0.746). The value for the pump efficiency
η may be stated for the pump itself or as a combined efficiency of the pump and motor system. The
energy usage is determined by multiplying the power requirement by the length of time the pump is
operating.

Pump selection criteria

Pump is selected on the basis of the following criteria:
1. Nature of liquid
1.1 Type- Water, Beverage, Juice, milk, cream etc
1.2 Density
1.3 Viscosity
1.4 Clear liquid/suspended
2. Capacity (m3/min or m3/h)
3. Suction head (m)
4. Discharge head (m)
5. Total head (m) = suction head + discharge head
6. Pump installation (horizontal or vertical)
7. Power requirement (kW)

EXAMPLES ON PUMPS

1. Calculate the discharge of reciprocating pump (single cutting) if area of cylinder is 0.25 m2, length
of stroke is 0.15 m, number of cylinder =1 and speed of pump is 50 rpm.

A = 0.25 m2
L = 0.15 m
N = 50 rpm
n=1
number of acting =1

= 0.03125 m3 /s
 2. Calculate the power required to drive the single cutting reciprocating pump for water of following
specification.
Solution:
Area of cylinder = 0.85 m2
Length of stroke = 0.35 m
Number of cylinder = 2

Speed of pump = 15 rpm

Suction head = 0.5 m
Discharge head = 1 m

1. Calculate water horse power for centrifugal water pump if flow rate is 4500 liter/h.
Head added to the flow is 10 m.
Sol.
1 m3 = 1000 L

2. Calculate brake horse power for centrifugal water pump if flow rate is 1000 litres/h.
Head added to the flow is 10 m pump efficiency is 86%.
Sol.
1 m3 = 1000 L