CHAPTER-2

PN JUNCTION DIODE
2.1 CARRIER GENERATION AND RECOMBINATION PROCESSES

The carrier generation is the process whereby electrons and holes are created. The
recombination is the process whereby electrons and holes are annihilated.

Carrier Generation
Basically, there are three types of carrier generations. They are
(i) Photo generation
(ii) Phonon generation
(iii) Impact ionization

(i) Photo generation

In photo generation, light of frequency v falls on a semiconductor. Let hv be the
energy of light photon greater than the band gap of the semiconductor.
Figure 4.4 shows the absorption of light energy hv (> Eg).
By absorption of light photon, one electron jumps from valence band to conduction
band generating an electron-hole pair.
For different wavelengths of light with different energies (hv2, hv3) it can take an
electron in higher conduction band states.
(ii) Phonon Generation
Phonon generation occurs when a semiconductor is under thermal excitation. With
increase in temperature of the semiconductor, lattice vibrations increase which give
rise to more phonons.
Due to more lattice vibrations, covalent bonds in the semiconductor break down
and electron-hole pairs are generated. (Fig. 4.5)

(iii) Impact Ionization

In this process, one energetic charge carrier will create another charge carrier.
When a semiconductor is under an electric field, electrons gain energy from the
applied electric field and hit other Si-atoms.
In this process, a bond breaks out generating more carriers. very high electric field,
it results in a avalanche breakdown. (Fig. 4.6)
Recombination
In recombination, a pair of electron and hole gets recombined. When a free
electron in the conduction band falls to valence band and recombines with a hole, it
becomes a bound electron in valence band.

Recombination occurs in three ways:

(a) Radiative Recombination
(b) Shockley-Read-Hall Recombination
(c) Auger Recombination
(a) Radiative Recombination
It occurs for direct band semiconductors (like GaAs). In this process, electrons
from conduction band minimum falls to valence band maximum without changing
the momentum. In this process, one photon of energy hv (=E g) is emitted.
Electrons which are excited to higher energy states in conduction band will come
to the conduction band minimum by releasing energy as heat.

Then, from conduction band minimum it falls to valence band maximum emitting
light of energy hv = Eg. It is also called direct recombination. (Fig. 4.8)
(b) Shockley-Read-Hall Recombination
In this recombination process, electrons from conduction band minimum come to a
defect level intermediate between E c and Ev by radiating energy as photons or
phonons. Then, electron turns from that intermediate level to the valence band.
This type of recombination is basically seen in impure semiconductor which has
defect levels. Generally, the defect level lies in the middle of the forbidden gap.
(Fig. 4.8)
(c) Auger Recombination
In Auger recombination, three carriers are involved. In this process, an electron
and a hole recombine and the energy is given to the third free electron in the
conduction band.co
Then, the third excited electron comes back to the conduction band edge by
emitting energy as heat. Generally, an Auger recombination occurs for heavily
doped material. (Fig. 4.9)

2.2 Poisson equation and continuity equation

In semiconductor physics, the Poisson equation and continuity equation are
fundamental for describing the behavior of charge carriers and electric fields
within a semiconductor device.
The Poisson equation relates the electrostatic potential to the charge distribution,
while the continuity equation describes the conservation of charge carriers
(electrons and holes).
Poisson Equation:
Purpose:
The Poisson equation, derived from Maxwell's equations, links the electrostatic
potential to the charge density within a semiconductor.
Equation:

∇²ψ = -ρ/ε, where: ψ is the electrostatic potential.

ρ is the charge density (including free carriers and ionized dopants).
ε is the permittivity of the semiconductor material.
Significance:
It determines the electric potential distribution within the device based on the
charge distribution, influencing carrier movement and device characteristics.
Continuity Equation:
Purpose:
The continuity equation ensures the conservation of charge carriers by describing
how their density changes over time due to generation, recombination, and current
flow.
Equations (for electrons and holes):

∂n/∂t = (1/q)∇⋅Jn + Gn - Rn

∂p/∂t = -(1/q)∇⋅Jp + Gp - Rp
Where: n and p are the electron and hole concentrations, respectively.
Jn and Jp are the electron and hole current densities, respectively.
Gn and Gp are the generation rates for electrons and holes, respectively.
Rn and Rp are the recombination rates for electrons and holes, respectively.
q is the elementary charge.
Significance:
It governs the dynamic behavior of charge carriers, including how their density
changes due to external factors like voltage or light, and how they respond to the
electric field.
Relationship:
The Poisson equation and continuity equations are interconnected. The charge
density (ρ) in the Poisson equation depends on the carrier concentrations (n and p),
which are governed by the continuity equations. Similarly, the electric field
(related to the potential) influences carrier movement, affecting the current
densities (Jn and Jp) in the continuity equations.
Solving these equations together (often numerically) is crucial for understanding
and simulating the behavior of semiconductor devices like transistors and diodes.
In essence: The Poisson equation provides the electric field based on charge
distribution, while the continuity equation ensures charge conservation as carriers
move and are generated/recombined within the semiconductor.
2.3 P-N Junction Diodes
A P-N junction diode is a fundamental semiconductor device that allows current
to flow in one direction only. It is formed by joining P-type and N-type
semiconductors together, creating a junction with unique electrical properties.

Construction of a P-N Junction Diode

A P-N junction diode is a semiconductor device formed by joining a P-type and an N-type
semiconductor material. The junction formed between these two types of materials is called the
P-N junction. Here's a step-by-step explanation of its construction:

1. Materials Used

 Semiconductor base material: Silicon (Si) or Germanium (Ge)

 Silicon is more commonly used due to its thermal stability and abundance.

2. Formation of P-Type and N-Type Regions

 Start with a high-purity intrinsic (undoped) semiconductor crystal (usually silicon).

 Doping is done to create two different regions:
o P-type region: Doped with trivalent impurities (like Boron, Indium) → creates
holes as majority carriers.
o N-type region: Doped with pentavalent impurities (like Phosphorus, Arsenic)
→ creates electrons as majority carriers.

3. Creating the P-N Junction

 The P-type and N-type regions are formed adjacent to each other on a single
semiconductor crystal.
 This can be done in two ways:
1. Diffusion Process: Impurities are diffused into selected regions of the intrinsic
semiconductor.
2. Epitaxial Growth: A layer of one type is grown on a substrate of the opposite
type.
4. Metal Contacts

 Metal electrodes are attached to both P and N regions to allow external electrical
connection:
o Anode is connected to the P-type region.
o Cathode is connected to the N-type region.

5. Encapsulation

 The entire structure is encapsulated in a plastic or ceramic casing to protect it from

environmental damage.
 A transparent window may be added in optoelectronic diodes (like LEDs or
photodiodes).

Working Principle

1. Unbiased Condition

 No external voltage is applied.

 Electrons and holes near the junction recombine, forming the depletion region.
 An electric field builds up, creating a potential barrier that opposes further carrier
movement.

2. Forward Bias

 Positive terminal of the battery is connected to the P-side, negative to the N-side.
 Reduces the width of the depletion region.
 Current flows easily across the junction as carriers overcome the barrier.
3. Reverse Bias

 Positive terminal is connected to the N-side, negative to the P-side.

 Widens the depletion region.
 No significant current flows (except a tiny leakage current due to minority carriers).

P-N junction characteristics/V-I Characteristics

The I-V (Current-Voltage) characteristics of a P-N junction diode describe how the current
through the diode varies with the voltage applied across it. The behavior is non-linear, meaning
the current does not increase linearly with voltage, especially around the threshold region.

1. Forward Bias Region

 Voltage (V) is applied such that P-side is positive relative to the N-side.
 Threshold/Turn-on Voltage:
o For Silicon: ~0.7V
o For Germanium: ~0.3V
 Below the threshold: current is negligible.
 Above the threshold: current increases exponentially with voltage.

Equation (ideal diode model):

I=Is(e^{{qV}/{nkT}}-1)

Where:
 Is = reverse saturation current
 q = charge of an electron
 V = applied voltage
 n = ideality factor (~1 to 2)
 k = Boltzmann constant
 T = temperature (Kelvin)
2. Reverse Bias Region
 N-side is more positive than P-side.
 The depletion region widens, and very little current flows.
 A tiny reverse saturation current flows due to minority carriers.
 The diode behaves like an open circuit in this region (ideal case).
3. Breakdown Region
 If reverse voltage is increased beyond a certain point, breakdown occurs.
 Zener Breakdown (at low reverse voltages): Due to high electric field causing tunneling.
 Avalanche Breakdown (at higher voltages): Due to impact ionization.
 In breakdown, a large reverse current flows suddenly.

JUNCTIONS BREAKDOWN:
The Avalanche Breakdown and Zener Breakdown are two different mechanisms
by which a PN junction breaks. The Zener and Avalanche breakdown both occur
in diode under reverse bias. The avalanche breakdown occurs because of the
ionization of electrons and hole pairs whereas the Zener diode occurs because of
heavy doping.
AVALANCHE BREAKDOWN: The mechanism of avalanche breakdown occurs
because of the reverse saturation current. The P-type and N-type material together
forms the PN-junction. The depletion region develops at the junction where the P