10/5/2010

sentence

subject verb phrase

noun
phrase

modal aux negative phrasal verb: main verb

DIAGRAMMING SENTENCES noun

WITH MODAL VERBS verb particle

Structure of English
Jack should not show up.

sentence
sentence

subject verb phrase

subject verb phrase

noun phrase verb phrase adverb of time

verb phrase object
noun phrase
prep phrase
Noun phrase
noun modal auxiliary main
aux verb verb noun modal aux main
prep art noun
aux verb verb article noun

Jack might be working at the moment.

Jack might have cancelled the order.

sentence

subject verb phrase

noun phrase verb phrase adverb of manner

noun modal aux main

verb

Jack has to work hard.

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ISTE 509 Structure of English
Dr. John Liang

Modal Auxiliaries

Objectives

At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

- recognize the forms of modals
- understand the functions and meanings of modals in oral and written communication
- explain to students rules that govern the uses of modals
- develop effective lessons and activities teaching the modals

Introduction

Verbs like can and may are called modal auxiliaries, thought they are also often referred to
as modal verbs or modals. They are often used to express permission, advisability, certainty,
politeness, etc.

Syntactic structure of modals

1. Basic modals: can, could, may, might, must, ought to, have to, shall, should, will, and
would.

can cannot can't

could could not couldn’t
I
may may not --
You
might might not mightn’t (BrE)
He
must must not mustn’t
She
+ have to or do(es)not have to or do(es)n’t have to do it.
It
ought to ought not to oughtn’t to (BrE)
We
shall shall not shan’t (BrE)
You
should should not shouldn’t
They
will will not won’t
would would not wouldn’t

2. Basic modals: Historical present and past forms (Celce-Murcia & Larsen-Freeman, 1999,
p. 137)

Historical Present Form Historical Past Form

can could
will would
may might
shall should

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ISTE 509 Structure of English
Dr. John Liang

3. Basic modals and their phrasal counterparts (Celce-Murcia & Larsen-Freeman, 1999, p.
139)

Basic Modals Phrasal Modals

can be able to
will be going to, be about to
must have to, have got to
should, ought to be supposed to
may, might be allowed to, be permitted to
would used to

4. Other modal-like verbs: had better, would rather, would prefer, would sooner, would
like, etc.

I used to study until midnight.

You had better leave now.
He would rather die than apologize to him.
She
+ would sooner
It
We
giving birth at home than at the hospital.
You would prefer
to give birth at home than at the hospital.
They

Functions of modals: An overview

• Degree of certainty – will, should, may, might, could

• Ability – can, could, be able to
• Permission and request – can, could, may, might, will, would
• Advisability to necessity – could, might, should, ought to, had better, need to, have to, must
• Obligation and prohibition – must, have to, have got to
• Repeated action – used to and would
• Preference – I would rather, would sooner

Other functions
• Desire – would like to
• Expectations – be supposed to
• Offer – would you like, would you mind

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ISTE 509 Structure of English
Dr. John Liang

Common Student Errors

Correct errors in the following sentences.

1. He cans do it.

2. I believe she can does it.

3. He must to do it!

4. I can not understand why I am wrong.

5. They don’t can do it.

6. Do you can see it?

7. You are not suppose to go.

8. Am I supposing to know that?

9. We were used to do many things together, but now we are so busy that we can’t find time to
get together.

10. He couldn’t finished his work in time.

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ISTE 509 Structure of English
Dr. John Liang

Functions of Modals: Expressing Certainty

1. Modals of Prediction

The modals of prediction, will, should, will probably, may, might, and could are used to
indicate how likely or possible it is that a future event will happen. The following chart
shows the degree of certainty in making a prediction.

(a) Affirmative prediction:

Certainly (99%) They will get here in an hour.

strong
Likely (90%) They should be able to get here in an hour.
They will probably be here in an hour.

Possibly (less They may get here in an hour.

weak than 50%) could
might

Sample teaching activity 1: Describing weather conditions

(b) Negative prediction:

Certainly not It won’t take long.

strong
Not likely It shouldn’t take long.
It probably won’t take long.

weak Possibly not It may not take long.

might not

Sample teaching activity 2: Finding out the secrets of your classmates

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ISTE 509 Structure of English
Dr. John Liang

2. Modals of Inference

The modals of prediction, must, may, might, and could are used to express different degrees
of certainty about the present. The following chart shows the degree of certainty in making a
prediction.

(a) Affirmative inference:

100% sure It is John. We’ve scheduled a 9 o’clock meeting.

strong
95% sure It must be John. I’ve been expecting him.
has to
has got to

90% sure It should be John.

ought to

Less than 50% It may be John.

weak sure might
could

Sample teaching activity 3: What is it?

(b) Negative inference:

99% sure He can’t be at home. I just met him a while ago.

strong (impossible) couldn't

weak Less than 50% He may not be at home. There is no one there.
sure might not

Sample teaching activity 4: Recognizing the meanings of the modals of certainty, Bland
(1998, pp. 220-221)

Sample teaching activity 5: Grammar Dimension 3, pp. 262-263

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ISTE 509 Structure of English
Dr. John Liang

3. Modals of Inference in Past Time

Perfect modals are used to make inferences about things that happened in the past.

Affirmative: Modals + Have + Past Participle

Modal Present/Future Time Past Time Certainty

must Whose is this? It must be Who left this note? It must
John’s. I saw him wear one of have been John. strong
these before.
should Peter should be here Peter should have been here
somewhere. He said he was already. He left pretty early
coming. this morning.
may Why is Mary crying? Why was Mary crying?
might She may be sad. She may have been sad.
could She might be in a fight with She might have been in a fight
Mike. with Mike.
George could be the reason. George could have been the weak
reason.

Sample teaching activity 6a: Grammar Dimensions 3, p. 265, Exercise 7

Sample teaching activity 6b: Video clips for guessing past possibilities

Negative: Modals + Not + Have + Past Participle

Modal Present/Future Time Past Time Certainty

cannot That can’t be right. One I can’t have lost it! It was in
could not plus one is three? my pocket a moment ago. (BrE) strong
That couldn’t be John. You couldn’t have forgotten
He’s out of town. my name.
must not I’ve looked everywhere. He didn’t know what
She must not be here. happened. He mustn’t have
attended the meeting.
should not They should not be the They shouldn’t have been the
reason why Alice is absent. reason why Alice didn’t come.
may not She may not be here. I She may not have been there.
might not haven’t seen her yet. He didn’t see her.
She might not get invited She might not have gotten the weak
to the party. invitation to the party.

Sample teaching activity 7: Grammar Dimension 3, Exercise 8, pp. 265-266

____________
Adapted from:

Azar, B. S. (1999). Understanding and using English grammar (3rd edition). Prentice Hall Regents.
Bland, S. K. (1996). Intermediate grammar: From form to meaning and use. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Thewlis, S. H. (2000). Grammar dimensions 3: Form, meaning, and use. Heinle & Heinle.

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ISTE 509 Structure of English
Dr. John Liang

Functions of Modals: Expressing Ability

1. Can and be able to

CAN expresses present ability. It also expresses present opportunity or capability/

possibility.

Ability: John can speak English and Chinese.

Inability: John can’t speak English. Nor can he speak Chinese.
Opportunity: We can leave now. It has stopped raining.
Capability: Seatbelts can save lives.
Possibility: You can rent movies here.

CAN cannot express future ability, but BE ABLE TO can. BE ABLE TO can also be used
with MAY, MIGHT, and SHOULD for guessing.

Future ability: John will be able to speak Russian fluently once he goes through one year
of intensive training.
John should be able to…/may be able to…/ might be able to…

Sample teaching activity 8: Video clips for teaching can’t

2. Ability in the past time: Could versus was/were able to

Could and was/were able to can be both used to refer to: (1) the general ability that existed
for a long period of time in the past, or (2) the ability that is related to perception.

Examples: When I was young, I could run ten miles in half an hour.
When I was young, I was able to run ten miles in half an hour.
When I looked out of the window, I could see cows at pasture.
When I looked out of the window, I was able to see cows at pasture.

Could cannot be used to refer to specific ability, or specific events, or specific actions; Was
able to can.

Examples: I was able to get three tickets to the concert for us.
(?) I could get three tickets to the concert for us.

Couldn’t and wasn’t/weren’t able to can be used to refer to general and specific ability.

Examples: When I was young, I couldn’t run ten miles in half an hour.
When I was young, I wasn’t able to run ten miles in half an hour.

Sample teaching activity 9: Bland (1998, p. 208, Exercise 9)

Adapted from Bland, S. K. (1996). Intermediate grammar: From form to meaning and use. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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ISTE 509 Structure of English
Dr. John Liang

Functions of Modals: Making a Request

I. Asking for Permission: Can, Could, May, and Might

1. Making a request

The modals can, could, may, and might are often used to ask for permission. This kind of
requests for permission can be graded on a “formality scale”, ranging from the most blunt
request to the most polite one. For example,

Might I borrow your pen? Most formal and polite; rarely used
May I borrow your pen?
Could I borrow your pen?
Can I borrow your pen? Most informal and least respectful

Notes:

(a) Can and could are used much more often than may.
(b) Can is especially common with friends and family, while could is more neutral.
(c) If not sure of which modal to use, could is always appropriate.

2. Responding to the request

(a) Common responses:

Question: May/Could/Can I borrow your pen?

Affirmative: Yes, you can / may. (Not could / might)
Negative: No, you can’t / may not. (Not couldn’t / might not)

(b) Non-modal responses:

Question: May/Could/Can I borrow your pen?

Affirmative: Sure.
Of course.
Certainly.
Go ahead.
Negative: I’m afraid not. (polite refusal)
I’m afraid you can’t because… (polite refusal)
I’d rather you didn’t. (neutral)
Certainly not. (blunt refusal)

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ISTE 509 Structure of English
Dr. John Liang

(c) Other forms of polite request

In some cases, people would use “if I may ask” or “if might ask” to ask a question
that may be too personal or may cause embarrassment. Please know that the latter is
more tentative and hesitant than the former.

How much do you make a year if I may ask?

How much do they pay you if I might ask?

(d) Still other forms for polite requests

The following forms are also often used to ask for permission. They are all very
polite requests.

Can / Could I possibly

Do you think I could / might use your telephone?
I wonder if I could / might
I was wondering if I could
Might I possibly be allowed to

(e) Still other polite request form: Would you mind if I ….?

Would you mind if I close the door?

Would you mind if I turn off the light?

3. Sample teaching activity 10: Matching, Bland (1996, p. 173)

2. Asking Someone to Do Something for You

1. Making a request

The modals can, could, will, and would are often used to ask someone to do something.
This kind of requests can also be graded on a “formality scale”. For example,

Request Forms Explanation

Would Would and could: More polite and formal; often
used with strangers, people in authority, and older
Could
you please do me a favor? people.
Will Will and can: Less polite and formal; often used
Can among friends.

Notes:

(a) The word please can come after the subject or at the end of the sentence:
(i) Would you please do me a favor?

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ISTE 509 Structure of English
Dr. John Liang

(ii) Would you do me a favor, please?

(b) The modal may cannot be used in requests for help.

(?) May you do me a favor?

2. Other polite request forms: Adding possibly and kindly

Would / Will you kindly do me a favor?

Could / Can you possibly do me a favor?

3. Still other polite request forms: Would you mind …?

Would you mind closing the window?

Excuse me. Would you mind turning off the radio?

4. Responding to the request

Affirmative: OK. / Sure. / Of course.

Negative: I’m afraid I can’t.
I’d be happy to, but I can’t.
I wish I could, but I can’t.

5. Sample teaching activity 11: Short dialogs, adapted from Bland (1996, p. 167)

______________________________
Notes above are gleaned from the following sources:

Alexander, L. G. (1988). Longman English grammar. London: Longman.

Bland, S. K. (1996). Intermediate grammar: From form to meaning and use. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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ISTE 509 Structure of English
Dr. John Liang

Functions of Modals: Expressing Advisability

1. From Advisability to Necessity: Present Time Consideration

The modals could, might, should, ought to, had better, need to, have to, have got to, and
must are often used to make suggestions, give advice, give warnings, and give instructions.
They can be graded on a scale from weaker advice to stronger advice.

- Weaker Making casual A: My back still hurts. What should I do?

- Advisability suggestions, especially B: You could call the doctor now, or you
when there is a choice. could wait until tomorrow.

Making tentative A: I don’t know what to do about my car. I’m

suggestions having a lot of trouble with it.
B: You might want to ask Diane about her
mechanic. I think she just found a good
one.

A: We may as well leave now. What do you

say?
B: Sure. I’ll see you later.

Giving advice A: What should I do? I feel awful.

B: You ought to call the doctor. You
shouldn’t go to work.

Give warnings, A: I’ve been sick for two weeks.

sometimes with a B: You’d better go to the doctor, or your cold
threatening tone. will get much worse.

(Contraction: You’d better call the doctor.)

(Informal: You better call the doctor.)

Strong advice A: I’ve been sick for two weeks.

B: You need to / have to / have got to see the
doctor. Your cough sounds very bad.

Strongest advice, A: I’ve been sick for two weeks.

- Stronger especially when the B: You must see the doctor. Your cough
- Necessity situation is serious. sounds very bad.

Sample teaching activity 12: Biblical teachings on being husbands and wives as well as
parents and children

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ISTE 509 Structure of English
Dr. John Liang

2. From Advisability to Necessity: Past Time Consideration

(a) The Simple Past Tense: had to

Example: I had to study last night, so I didn’t go to the party.

I had to quit smoking since my health was failing.

(b) Past advisability or necessity not acted upon

The modals could and should are also often used to mean that someone was supposed to
do something but he did not do it, or something was supposed to happen but it did not
happen.

Forms: could / should have + past participle

could've / should’ve + past participle (contraction)

Function 1: Making suggestions about things that were supposed to happen but did not
happen

Examples: A: I had a severe headache last night.

B: Did you take aspirin?
A: I could’ve taken aspirin, but I didn’t. I thought the headache would go
away once I fell asleep.
B: Well, you should’ve taken aspirin.

Explanation: Could have: It was a choice, but I didn’t do it.

Should have: It was necessary, but I didn’t do it.

Function 2: Expressing regret about past mistakes

Examples: A: Did you register for your classes yet?

B: No, not yet. I forgot all about it.
A: Ah! You shouldn’t have forgotten about it! Yesterday was the last
day! (Past suggestion)
A: I know. I should’ve registered yesterday. Now all classes are full,
and I have to pay a fine. (I’m sorry I didn’t register.)

Sample teaching activity 13:

(a) What could she have done to avoid the situation? (picture)
(b) What should she have done to avoid the situation? (picture)
(c) Expressing regret (Bland, pp. 231-232, Exercise 28)

______________________________
Adapted from:

Alexander, L. G. (1988). Longman English grammar. London: Longman.

Bland, S. K. (1996). Intermediate grammar: From form to meaning and use. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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ISTE 509 Structure of English
Dr. John Liang

Functions of Modals: Necessity and Prohibition

1. Obligations, Requirements, and Rules

The modals have to, have got to, and must are used to express necessity. However, there are
differences between have (got) to and must.

Explanation Examples
1. When used in the first person, have to (a) I have got to get up early tomorrow. The bus
and have got to can refer to an leaves at 6 AM.
external authority, that is something (b) I have to study tonight. There is a quiz
that the rules or laws impose on the tomorrow.
speaker, whereas must refers to an
internal authority, that is, something (c) I must study tonight. I have lagged far behind.
that the speaker imposes on himself. (d) I must get up early tomorrow. I don’t want to
be late.
2. When used in the second and third (e) You must write a term paper for this course.
person, must expresses stronger (requirement)
necessity, but in spoken or informal (f) You must be quiet in the hospital. (rules)
English have to or have got to are (g) You must be 16 to get a driver’s license. (laws)
more common.
(h) You have to write a term paper to pass this
course.

Sample teaching activity 14: Duties of husbands and wives and those of parents and children
Sample teaching activity 15: Bland (1998, p. 191)

2. Prohibition and Lack of Necessity

The modals have to and must can be used in negative forms. However, the meanings are
different:

Do not have to / don’t have to: It is not necessary for someone to do it.
Must not / mustn’t: Someone is not allowed to do it.

Examples:

(a) Students must not cheat in their exams.

(b) We don’t have to work tomorrow since it is a holiday.

Sample teaching activity 16: Bland (1998, pp. 193-194)

__________
Adapted from:

Alexander, L. G. (1988). Longman English grammar. London: Longman.

Azar, B. S. (1999). Understanding and using English grammar (3rd edition). Prentice Hall Regents.
Bland, S. K. (1996). Intermediate grammar: From form to meaning and use. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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ISTE 509 Structure of English
Dr. John Liang

Functions of Modals: Expressing Past Habits

The modals used to and would are often used to express habits in the past.

Syntactic structure of “Used to”

1. Used to is always in the simple past form; the verb that follows is always in its base form.

John used to stay up all night when he was a student.

Maggie used to make her own dresses.

2. Negative form: He didn’t use to smoke.

3. Yes/no question: Did he use to smoke?

4. Wh-question: What did he use to do?

5. Tag questions: He used to smoke, didn’t he?

Past habit: “Used to” versus “would”

Both “used to” and “would” are used to describe habits in the past, particularly in narratives,
or when people are recalling what happened in the past. However, “used to” is always used
at the beginning of the story to set up the topic, and “would” is then used to supply details.

Examples:

I used to live in Washington, D.C. Every day I would go jogging past all the famous
monuments. No matter how hot or cold it was, I would run around the Tidal Basin and along
the Mall.

When I was a boy we used to spend our holidays on a farm. We’d get up at 5 and we’d help
milk the cows. Then we’d return to the farm kitchen, where we’d eat a huge breakfast.

Sample teaching activity 17: Childhood story – five things you used to do

Sample teaching activity 18: Azar, pp. 195-196

______________________________
Adapted from:

Alexander, L. G. (1988). Longman English grammar. London: Longman.

Azar, B. S. (1999). Understanding and using English grammar (3rd edition). Prentice Hall Regents.

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ISTE 509 Structure of English
Dr. John Liang

Functions of Modals: Expressing Preference

I. Someone’s own personal preference: “Would rather” and “would sooner” (BrE)

Expressing preference in the present Expressing preference in the past

Affirmative would rather + verb in base form would rather + have + past participle
Statement:
A: Would you like to go see a movie tonight? If he had lived in the 15th century, he would
B: No, thanks. I would rather study (than go rather have been a knight than a monk.
see a movie tonight).
Negative would rather + not + verb in base form would rather + not + have + past participle
Statement:
A: Are you coming? If he had lived in the 15th century, he would
B: I would rather not. not rather have been a knight; he would
rather have been a monk.
Yes/No Would + Subject + rather + verb in base form Would + Subject + rather + have + past
question: participle
A: Would you rather go by car?
B: I would rather not. A: Would you rather have been a monk?
B: No way! I’d rather have been a knight.
Wh-question: What + would + subject + rather + verb in base What + would + subject + rather + have +
form past participle

A: You don’t want to do this. Nor do you A: What would you rather have been if
want to do that? So, what would you you had lived in the 15th century?
rather do tonight? B: I’d rather have been a prince.
B: I would rather stay at home studying.

Sample teaching activity 19: Would rather… and would rather have…

II. Preferring someone to do or not to do something

Expressing preference in the present Expressing preference in the past

Affirmative would rather + somebody + verb in the simple would rather + somebody + had + past
Statement: past form participle

A: John said that he wanted to leave in the The party was really nice. I would rather
afternoon. you had been there!
B: Well, I would rather he left on an earlier
train.
Negative would rather + somebody + didn’t + verb in the would rather + somebody + had + not + past
Statement: base form participle

A: She’s coming. And guess what? The seat Kathy went by car and I would rather she
next to you is the only one that is left. hadn’t.
B: Oh, no! I would rather she didn’t sit next
to me.

_________________________
Adapted from:

Alexander, L. G. (1988). Longman English grammar. London: Longman.

Azar, B. S. (1999). Understanding and using English grammar (3rd edition). Prentice Hall Regents.

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