Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 74 (2025) 106830

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Case Studies in Thermal Engineering

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Possibilities of using phase change material in building structures

Mario Machů a,* , Marek Velička a , David Rigo a , Jiří Burda a, Ivan Priesol a,b ,
Dharma Rooban Moorthi a
a
Faculty of Materials Science and Technology, VSB-Technical University of Ostrava, 17. listopadu 15, 708 33, Ostrava-Poruba, Czech Republic
b
IPC Refractories a.s., Magnezitárska 11, Košice, 040 13, Slovakia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The primary objective of this study is to calculate heat losses due to thermal transmission and the
Heat losses accumulation of thermal energy in a model multi-layered flat external wall assembly. The analysis
Heat accumulation is conducted for three fundamental material configurations, representative of common thermal
Phase change material
insulation solutions, as well as for their combinations with a phase change material (PCM) based
Non stationary model
on wax paraffins, exhibiting a phase transition at 27 ◦ C. The calculations provide a basis for
further development and application in the design of energy-efficient building envelopes,
particularly with regard to thermal performance optimization, selection of appropriate heat
sources, and the design of heating systems.
In addition to steady-state thermal analysis, the study introduces a transient numerical model
developed in the ANSYS Fluent software environment. This model simulates heat transfer
behavior under dynamic boundary conditions, with a particular focus on summer operation
scenarios. Two types of external plasters were evaluated: a conventional plaster and a plaster
modified with PCM additives. The incorporation of PCM is intended to enhance the thermal
inertia of the envelope, allowing better utilization of solar gains while reducing the cooling de­
mand and operational energy costs associated with air conditioning systems.
Given the ongoing global trend of rising energy prices and increasing building operation costs,
the presented topic is highly relevant. The integration of phase change materials into building
envelope components represents a promising strategy for enhancing energy efficiency and indoor
thermal comfort in both heating and cooling seasons.

1. Introduction

The rise in global energy prices in recent years has become a key driver for seeking energy-saving opportunities across various
sectors of energy consumption. One of the primary targets of European Union programs is the reduction of energy use in building
operations—specifically for heating, domestic hot water preparation, and air conditioning. In many European countries, these func­
tions currently account for approximately one third of total national energy consumption on average [1]. Even at the design stage of a
building, it is possible to establish the foundations for energy-efficient operation—both through appropriate architectural and
structural solutions, and through the selection of energy-saving systems for heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) [2]. The
primary objective is therefore to minimize heat losses as much as possible. In terms of building design, this goal is mainly reflected in
the tendency to significantly enhance the thermal insulation performance of the building envelope [3]. From the perspective of energy

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: mario.machu@vsb.cz (M. Machů).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csite.2025.106830
Received 1 April 2025; Received in revised form 27 July 2025; Accepted 6 August 2025
Available online 6 August 2025
2214-157X/© 2025 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
M. Machů et al. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 74 (2025) 106830

consumption for heating, buildings with a compact shape are the most advantageous. Energy-saving programs place particular
emphasis on minimizing air leakage through joints and gaps in the building envelope [4]. Through careful construction practices and
proper sealing of windows, it is theoretically possible to reduce heating energy demand by 20–30 %. Improving window airtightness is
relatively easy to implement during the renovation of existing buildings, and therefore holds primary importance [5]. In terms of heat
losses, as well as due to modern construction methods and increasing demands for indoor comfort, mechanical ventilation with heat
recovery is becoming increasingly widespread. Additionally, it is essential to address the issue of uneven thermal loads throughout the
year. One highly effective solution to this challenge is the use of phase change materials (PCMs) [6]. These materials are capable of
storing and releasing latent heat at typical ambient air temperatures [7]. When the indoor temperature reaches the melting point of the
material, a phase transition (melting) occurs, during which energy is stored in the form of latent heat [8]. The accumulation of heat in
the PCM contributes to a reduction in indoor air temperature. Conversely, when the indoor temperature drops below the material’s
solidification point, the PCM solidifies and releases the stored heat back into the interior space. This leads to an increase in indoor
temperature and reduces the energy required for heating.
Several methods have been developed to incorporate PCM into building structures [9]. One particularly effective and relatively
simple approach is to mix PCM with interior plaster, thereby increasing the wall’s thermal storage capacity; however, this may lead to a
reduction in mechanical strength [10]. One option is to create entirely new mixtures in which a portion of the aggregate is replaced
with PCM [11], while another approach involves adding PCM to commercially available dry plaster mixes [12]. In the latter case, it is
not possible to incorporate a large amount of PCM into the plaster, as its addition increases the aggregate content of the mixture.
However, the preparation process remains relatively simple. Numerous research teams have already investigated the mechanical and
thermal properties of such mixtures. Pavlík [13] gradually added 8 %, 16 %, and 24 % PCM to a commercial plaster mix and examined
its basic physical and mechanical properties. The observed enthalpy change reached up to 13 J g− 1, but the mechanical properties
deteriorated by as much as 40 %, rendering the mixture unsuitable for commercial application [14]. Bajare et al. [15] found that the
addition of 10 % microencapsulated PCM to a cement-lime plaster reduced its flexural strength by 40 % and its compressive strength by
60 %. Another study [16] incorporated 5 % PCM into plaster mixtures containing either hydrated lime or hydraulic lime, focusing on
evaluating their thermal, physical, and mechanical characteristics. Some studies have focused on the development of an activated
system model based on gypsum plaster containing microencapsulated PCM [17], or on computational analysis of proposed plaster
mixtures [18]. Numerical models are widely used for simulating thermal energy savings with PCM materials. To solve the governing
equations, researchers have employed the PIMPLE algorithm and the finite volume method [19], while others have utilized software
such as ANSYS [2]. Additionally, DesignBuilder software has been used in numerical simulations by other research teams [20]. Further
investigations have concentrated on the use of PCM to enhance the thermal energy storage capacity of building materials. Kheradmand
et al. [21] compared a modified cement plaster containing 18.34 % PCM with a reference plaster. Compared to the reference material
without PCM, they observed a 20 % reduction in energy consumption for heating and cooling. In another study, the thermal behavior
and energy performance of two container-based model houses were compared: one equipped with gypsum cladding embedded with
PCM microcapsules, and the other serving as a reference during two consecutive winter periods [22]. The house containing PCM
exhibited a 10.3 % reduction in electricity consumption. For statistical analysis of data from the two modular buildings, the Poincaré
method was used, with results presented in 3D diagrams as a function of instantaneous outdoor temperatures and solar radiation
during the spring months. In this case, energy savings of up to 42.9 % were reported [23]. To achieve even higher energy savings,
researchers have also investigated the optimal thicknesses of PCM layers and calculated both monthly and annual energy savings. The
most effective configuration was found to be a three-layer system using InfiniteRPCM21C, a PCM with a melting point of 21 ◦ C [24].
The use of PCM materials has also been studied in significantly warmer regions, such as Egypt, where materials with a higher phase
change temperature of 35 ◦ C were recommended, along with optimal PCM placement at 1.5 cm from both the interior and exterior
surfaces of the wall [25]. PCM-based materials have also been tested in combination with Trombe walls, which enhance solar heat
gains and can further increase energy savings when used together with PCMs [26]. Other researchers have also employed Trombe
walls, with results showing that the best nighttime performance was achieved by applying PCM with a low melting point (29 ◦ C) to a
concrete wall surface [27]. Research has also focused on the development of entirely new PCM-infused bricks designed for construction
applications [28]. Another promising approach for improving system efficiency involves the integration of hybrid heating systems that
combine a solar air heater with a PCM-based ventilated wall structure [29]. Kusama et al. [30] conducted both laboratory and resi­
dential tests on gypsum plaster modified with PCM. The PCM plaster demonstrated a high efficiency in utilizing solar radiation,
achieving an effective utilization rate of 82 %. The PCM-gypsum composite effectively reduced indoor temperature fluctuations by 46
%. A similar study aimed at energy savings using PCM was conducted in Japan, resulting in a 52 % reduction in energy consumption
[31]. To further enhance thermal storage capacity, plasters can be impregnated with PCM [32]. Additional studies have focused on the
fire performance of building materials containing PCM. The use of new types of PCM [33], improved coatings [34], or bio-based PCMs
[35] has been shown to enhance the fire resistance of building elements. Various research teams have also investigated optimal PCM
types, phase change temperatures, and layer thicknesses to maximize performance [36].
Presented paper is a case study demonstrating the suitability of using PCM in construction based on local climatic conditions and
the characterization of PCM material properties beyond the specifications provided by the manufacturer. The measurements confirmed
the material’s ability to store energy in the form of latent heat, and simulations were used to assess the impact of PCM application on
indoor climatic conditions.
In the present study, the organic compound RT27 by RUBITHERM [37] was used for calculations involving latent heat storage. This
PCM utilizes the phase transition between solid and liquid states to accumulate thermal energy. The aim of the research was to
determine the dependence of various material properties on the PCM content in the plaster mixture, in order to better predict how
specific PCM concentrations influence the overall behavior of the mixture [38]. Within the plaster formulation, PCM functions as a

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partial aggregate. However, due to its fine particle structure, it cannot entirely replace conventional aggregate, thus it constitutes only
a portion of the aggregate phase in the mixture. These compositions were subjected to differential thermal analysis (DTA) using a TA
Instruments STA 504 device. podrobeny diferenční termické analýze (DTA) na zařízení TA Instruments STA 504. For PCM research,
Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) is also successfully used. For example, it has been applied to increase the latent heat and
thermal stability of fatty acid-based materials by adding graphene nanoplatelets [39,40] or carbon nanotubes [41]. Another approach
to enhance the heat storage capacity of materials is the preparation of phase change nanofluids (NFPCM) based on aloe vera gel for
low-temperature thermal energy storage systems, where DSC is also used [42]. Similarly, in study [43], DSC was employed to
investigate the functionalization of graphene nanoplatelets. The improvement in thermophysical properties includes increased thermal
conductivity and more efficient heat transfer during phase transitions.

2. Heat energy accumulation

Heat losses—and conversely, heat gains—in buildings can be defined as thermal fluxes transferred from a heated space to a cooler
external or internal environment (e.g., an adjacent unheated room). Heat gains represent the reverse process but are governed by the
same physical laws. The choice of method for calculating building heat losses depends on the intended application. For preliminary
estimates, simplified calculation methods can be used. However, for detailed design purposes—such as sizing the heat source and
heating system, or assessing the energy performance of a building—the calculation must follow standardized algorithms, such as those
specified in ČSN EN 12931-1 [44].
Currently, simulation-based approaches are becoming increasingly relevant. These methods track the thermal behavior of indi­
vidual rooms or the entire building, with the goal of predicting and verifying the real-world performance of heating systems and indoor
thermal conditions. This area of research has been extensively explored by numerous authors, including [45–47].
From a physical standpoint, the total heat loss of a building is the sum of the heat loss through building envelope components,
denoted as Pp (W), and the ventilation heat loss, denoted as Pᵥ (W). The transmission heat loss (Pp) is calculated according to Equation
(1) as the sum of the heat fluxes through the individual envelope elements that enclose the room (or the entire building):
Pp = k ⋅ A ⋅ (ti − te ) (W) (1)

where Pp is the heat loss by transmission through individual building components (W), k – thermal transmittance (W⋅m− 2⋅K− 1), A –
area (m2), ti – design internal temperature (◦ C), te – design external outdoor temperature for a specific region (◦ C).
The thermal transmittance indicates the amount of heat flow, expressed in watts (W), that is transferred from the interior to the
exterior environment through 1 m2 of a building component when there is a temperature difference of 1 K. In other words, it char­
acterizes the thermal insulation performance of building structures. The reciprocal of the thermal transmittance is the overall thermal
resistance to heat transfer, which is defined by Equation (2).
1 1 ( 2 )
RT = = m ⋅ K ⋅ W–1 (2)
k Rsi + ΣR + Rse

where RT is the overall thermal resistance to heat transfer (m2⋅K⋅W− 1), Rsi, Rse – are the internal and external surface resistances to heat
transfer (m2⋅K⋅W− 1), ΣR – total thermal resistance of the n layers within the structure (m2⋅K⋅W− 1).
For horizontal heat flow direction, the following standard values are used in thermal calculations: Rsi = 0.13 m2 K⋅W− 1; Rse = 0.04
m2 K⋅W− 1.
By increasing the thermal resistance of the building envelope, transmission heat losses are reduced, and the relative significance of
ventilation heat losses increases. For this reason, modern ventilation systems are now commonly equipped with heat recovery units
(HRUs) that capture waste heat from the exhaust air [8].
In addition to the prioritized reduction of heat losses through building structures, thermal energy storage represents another key
strategy for reducing the energy demand of buildings. Heat accumulation enables the temporal shifting of energy—from periods of
relative surplus to periods of relative deficit (e.g., day to night, summer to winter). The thermal storage capacity of a building reflects
the ability of its structural elements to absorb or release heat in response to an increase or decrease in surface temperature.
In the present study, two fundamental physical principles of thermal energy storage are applied to model external wall assemblies
in the energy accumulation calculations. These are:

A) Sensible heat storage, and

B) Latent heat storage.

In the first case, thermal energy is stored solely through a change in the temperature of the storage material. The amount of stored
heat depends, according to the simplified Equation (3), on the mass of the storage material, its specific heat capacity, and the difference
in surface temperatures of the building element:
Q = m ⋅ c ⋅ (T2 − T1 ) (J) (3)

where Q is amount of heat accumulated (J), m – mass of heat storage construction (kg), c – average specific heat in temperature range
between T1 a T2 (J⋅kg− 1⋅K− 1), T1, T2 – initial and final temperature (K).

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In the second case, latent heat storage involves the accumulation of thermal energy through reversible phase transitions of the
storage material. The most commonly utilized phase change is between solid and liquid states, although transitions between different
solid phases have also been studied. Latent heat storage systems typically incorporate a portion of sensible heat as well. While the heat
required for melting usually dominates, a certain amount of heat may also be stored as sensible heat before or after the phase change.
Latent heat storage systems offer the advantage of significantly higher energy density compared to sensible heat systems, allowing
for a reduction in the volume and mass of the storage material. However, the adoption of phase change materials (PCMs) for thermal
storage has progressed more slowly than that of sensible heat materials. This is partly due to the higher technological complexity of
latent heat storage systems.
For solid–liquid transitions, various types of PCMs can be employed. These include inorganic compounds (e.g., salt hydrates with
melting points ranging from 0 ◦ C to 150 ◦ C), organic compounds (such as paraffins), and other specialized substances. The field of
phase change materials for energy-efficient construction has been explored in greater detail by several authors, including [48,49]. In
the experimental part, a mixture of Phase Change Materials (PCM) and lime plaster is used, which has already been thoroughly
validated in many previous experiments [50–52].

3. Experimental material

For modeling thermal energy storage in building walls, a Phase Change Material (PCM) was employed. These substances are widely
used in practice due to their ability to store latent heat—that is, the energy required to induce a phase transition in the material. Latent
heat storage is considered the most efficient form of thermal energy storage. Compared to sensible heat storage, it offers a significantly
higher volumetric heat capacity while operating over a smaller temperature difference between the heat storage and release phases.
One of the key advantages of PCMs is their ability to undergo an unlimited number of reversible phase transitions without significant
degradation.
The most common mechanism for latent heat storage involves a solid-to-liquid phase transition. This is favored over liquid-to-gas
transitions due to the relatively small change in volume, which simplifies integration into construction materials. Heat accumulation
during this phase change is described by the following equation (4):
[( ) ( ) ]
ΔQ = m Tf − T1 cs + T2 − Tf c1 (J) (4)

where ΔQ is amount of accumulated heat joule (J), Tf – temperature of phase change (K), T1 – initial temperature (K), T2 – final
temperature(K), cs – specific heat in solid state (J⋅kg− 1⋅K− 1), l – latent heat (J) and a cl – specific heat in liquid solid state (J⋅kg− 1⋅K− 1).
In the present study, the organic compound RT27 from the company RUBITHERM was used for latent heat storage calculations. The
material RT27 was selected from several available PCM materials based on its physical properties, which make it suitable for our
climatic conditions. RT27 consists of mixtures of paraffin waxes based on unsaturated hydrocarbons, primarily paraffins and cyclo­
alkanes, which are in a solid state under standard conditions. The structure of this material is illustrated in Fig. 1.
Several sets of samples were prepared with different ratios of PCM added to the base material. Due to the mechanical properties of
the samples, particularly in terms of cohesion and strength, we continued working with the selected ratio (9:1). Property measure­
ments were carried out on five samples to account for possible inhomogeneity of the mixture and to improve reproducibility. The
average values from the measured data were then used.
This material was mixed into lime plaster at a mass ratio of 9:1, and a sample with dimensions of 20 × 20 cm with a thickness of 2
cm was prepared to determine its thermal properties (Figs. 2 and 3). The sample dimensions (20 × 20 cm) were determined by the
method used to measure thermal conductivity, which is based on the assumption of one-dimensional heat conduction. The sample

Fig. 1. PCM structure.

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thickness (2 cm) was also chosen based on the measurement method and represents the maximum feasible thickness of a lime-plaster
layer for practical use in construction. To assess the influence of the PCM material, a lime plaster without PCM was used as the
reference sample.
The RT27 material was subjected to differential thermal analysis (DTA) using a TA Instruments STA 504 device. On the right side of
Fig. 4 below, the DTA signal during the heating and cooling phases of a 10.10 mg sample can be observed. The sample was heated from
20 ◦ C to 48 ◦ C at a rate of 1 K min− 1, and subsequently cooled at the same rate.
During the heating phase (from 22 ◦ C to 29 ◦ C), an endothermic process was recorded, while during the cooling phase (from 27 ◦ C
to 22 ◦ C), an exothermic process occurred. The area under the endothermic curve during heating is equal to the area under the
exothermic curve during cooling (Fig. 4), indicating the reversible nature of the phase change.
For RT27, the areas of these thermal events are proportional to the latent heat of transformation, which was determined to be
51,000 J kg− 1. The thermal properties of RT27, as declared in the manufacturer’s datasheet, are as follows: c = 2000 J⋅kg− 1⋅K− 1 (only
sensible heat), λ = 0.20 W m− 1⋅K− 1, ρ = 880 kg m− 3.
The determined thermal-technical properties of the individual materials used in the computational model are summarized in
Table 1. The thermal properties of the resulting composite mixture were calculated as a weighted average of the lime plaster and the
RT27 material.
For the thermal loss modeling, thermal insulation defined as a lightweight and rigid organic foam—Isover EPS 100—was used. In
all variants where thermal insulation was included in the material composition, a uniform insulation thickness of d = 100 mm was
assumed. The physical parameters of the insulation material, according to the manufacturer’s datasheet, are as follows: c = 1270 J
kg− 1⋅K− 1, λ = 0.037 W m− 1⋅K− 1, ρ = 25 kg m− 3. These values were used in the numerical model to evaluate the influence of thermal
insulation on the overall heat loss and thermal performance of the wall assembly.

4. Numerical experiments

The modeling of transmission heat losses and thermal energy storage in the model external wall was conducted for three primary
wall material variants: concrete, solid fired brick (CP), and aerated concrete (AAC). For static modeling of heat losses/gains, MS Excel
software was used implementing analytical solution of Fourier’s equation of heat conduction, while for the transient model, ANSYS
Fluent software utilizing Finite Volume Method was employed, which is a commonly accepted tool for this type of calculation. Each
wall type was analyzed in three configurations:

• Without insulation,
• With insulation applied to the interior side of the masonry,
• With insulation applied to the exterior side of the masonry.

Additionally, each configuration was evaluated in combination with either standard lime plaster (LP) or a lime plaster mixed with
the phase change material RT27 (LP + RT27) applied on the interior surface. On the exterior side, a lime-cement plaster (LCP) was
considered in all cases, regardless of the configuration.
Fig. 5 provides a visual overview of the material compositions used in the simulations.
The results for both heat transmission losses and thermal accumulation are presented per 1 m2 of the modeled external wall surface.

4.1. Modeling of transmission heat losses

The results of the heat loss modeling due to thermal transmission Pp (W) through the model external wall with an area of 1 m2,
based on defined input parameters and boundary conditions, are presented in Figs. 6 and 7 below.
As clearly shown in Fig. 6, the transmission heat loss through a multi-layered flat wall is inversely proportional to the total thermal

Fig. 2. Sample from Lime plaster + PCM mixture.

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Fig. 3. Thermal properties measurement.

Fig. 4. Latent heat of RT27 PCM measurement.

Table 1
Measured properties of tested materials.
Parameter Unit Concrete Burnt brick Autoclaved aerated Lime plaster Lime plaster + PCM Lime-cement plaster
(CP) concrete (AAC) (LP) (VO + PCM) (VCM) (LCP)

c J⋅kg− 1⋅K− 1 1020 900 1000 840 1420 790

λ W⋅m− 1⋅K− 1 1.23 0.84 0.13 0.88 0.54 0.99
ρ kg⋅m− 3 2100 1800 300 1600 1240 2000
d mm 290 290 290 15 15 25

Fig. 5. Material composition of the computational model for the external wall.

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Fig. 6. Transmission heat losses as a function of thermal resistance.

Fig. 7. Transmission heat losses as a function of outdoor air temperature.

resistance RT (m2⋅K⋅W− 1) of the wall’s material composition. The total thermal resistance thus characterizes the insulating capability of
the given wall assembly. The overall value of RT is significantly influenced by the thickness (m) and the thermal conductivity
(W⋅m− 1⋅K− 1) of the individual layers that make up the structure of the modeled external wall.
Fig. 7 shows the variation of transmission heat losses through the model wall as a function of outdoor air temperature. The
graphical representation indicates that another key physical parameter significantly affecting the total heat loss is the temper­
ature—specifically, the temperature difference between the indoor and outdoor air. In the computational model, the indoor air
temperature was assumed to be ti = 20 ◦ C.
As shown in Figs. 8 and 9 above, compared to the state without insulation, the thermal resistance increases by a factor of 7.1 for
concrete walls, 5.9 for CP, and 2.1 for AAC. The placement of thermal insulation within the wall composition (external vs. internal) has
no effect on the overall thermal resistance of the wall—the thermal resistances are equal. The use of the RT27 material does not have a
significant impact on reducing heat losses by transmission.

Fig. 8. Heat losses by transmission (LP).

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Fig. 9. Heat losses by transmission (LP + PCM).

4.2. Modeling of thermal energy storage

Figs. 10 and 11 present the results of thermal energy storage modeling for a model exterior wall with an area of A = 1 m2, based on
the specified combinations of variants and defined boundary conditions. In the variant with an interior lime plaster (LP), the total heat
storage was determined as the sum of sensible heat accumulation in the individual layers of the wall composition, according to
Equation (3) above.
In the variant using a mixture of interior lime plaster and the organic compound RT27 (LP + RT27), the total heat storage value of
this material layer is increased by the specific latent heat of the RT27 component. According to laboratory measurements, the specific
latent heat of RT27 is 51,000 J kg− 1. In the calculation, the mixture of lime plaster and RT27 was considered in a mass ratio of 9:1. The
calculation of the total heat storage value of the interior plaster layer, in which the phase change of RT27 was taken into account, is
described by Equation (4).
Q = (m ⋅ c ⋅ (T2 − Tr ))QC + (0.1 ⋅ m ⋅ qT )QT (J) (4a)

where Q is total amount of accumulated heat (J), index QC –sensible heat (J), index QT – latent heat (J), m – mass of heat storage
construction (kg), c – average specific heat (J⋅kg− 1⋅K− 1), T1, T2 – initial and final temperature (K), qT – specific latent heat of RT27
determined by laboratory measurement (J⋅kg− 1).
Based on the data presented in Figs. 10 and 11, the following conclusions can be drawn:

A) The total amount of heat accumulation within the modeled external wall structure is directly proportional to the density
(kg⋅m− 3) of the constituent material. The results indicate that concrete exhibits the highest thermal storage capacity among the
materials evaluated.
B) The positioning of thermal insulation (internal versus external) within the wall assembly has a significant influence on the total
heat accumulation, surpassing its impact on transmission heat losses. This effect is closely associated with the temperature
gradient across the material layers, particularly at the interfaces between individual components of the wall structure, as
illustrated in Figs. 12 and 13. An elevated internal temperature gradient within the structure correlates with enhanced thermal
storage performance.

The influence of thermal energy accumulation in the internal plaster layer of the model external wall is illustrated by the bar charts

Fig. 10. Heat accumulation in the wall.

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Fig. 11. Effect of wall thickness on heat accumulation.

Fig. 12. The distribution of temperatures in a wall assembly with internal insulation.

Fig. 13. The distribution of temperatures in a wall assembly with external insulation.

in Figs. 14 and 15. The obtained results demonstrate a significant increase in the heat storage capacity of the internal plaster when LP is
combined with the phase change material RT27, compared to calculations using lime plaster alone.
In the case of a non-insulated wall, the accumulation capacity increases by a factor of 1.6–1.8. For wall assemblies that include
thermal insulation, the accumulation capacity increases by approximately 1.6 times.

4.3. Transient thermal modeling using PCM material

A transient thermal model of the behavior of a lightweight wall composed of aerated concrete (thickness 19 cm) and 1.5 cm of
plaster was developed using ANSYS Fluent software. The computational mesh used a cell size of 2 mm and a time step of 10 min. The
solver in ANSYS Fluent was set to double-precision mode, with the solution in each time step considered converged once the energy
equation residual reached 10− 12 (the standard being 10− 6).

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Fig. 14. Heat accumulation in interior plaster without insulation.

Fig. 15. Heat accumulation in interior plaster with insulation.

The influence of the placement of the PCM layer (on the exterior or interior side of the composite wall) was evaluated in pre­
liminary steady-state calculations of heat losses and gains. Based on the requirements for indoor temperature, the use of PCM on the
interior side was excluded, as phase change would not occur and the potential for storing thermal energy in the form of latent heat
would not be utilized at all. Placing the PCM within the wall instead of on the surface represents a compromise between these two
extremes and was not considered.
Two configurations were analyzed:

A) In the first case, the plaster consists of a standard lime-cement mixture.

B) In the second, the plaster is modified with a 10 wt% addition of PCM (phase change material) to the lime-plaster.

The simulation period corresponds to the hottest month of the year, a time when latent heat storage due to phase change is most
effective. The solidification temperature of the PCM is 22 ◦ C and the melting temperature is 28 ◦ C.
Boundary conditions were defined as follows: On the interior side, natural convection into a room maintained at 22 ◦ C, with a
convective heat transfer coefficient of 8 W m− 2 K− 1. On the exterior side, the measured outdoor air temperature was corrected using
equivalent solar temperatures according to ČSN 73 0548 [53], which is used for solar gain calculations and HVAC system design.
The modeled wall is south-facing, representing the most exposed vertical surface, located in Ostrava, Czech Republic (49◦ 50′8″ N,
18◦ 17′33″ E), and the simulation is conducted per 1 m2 of surface area. According to the standard, the external convective heat transfer
coefficient is 14 W m− 2 K− 1.
The evolution of outdoor temperature, corrected outdoor temperature, and calculated external surface temperature over an 8 days
is presented in Fig. 16.
Fig. 17 illustrates the temperature field within the wall at 2-h intervals. In the case of the layer with conventional lime-cement
plaster (LP), a faster initial temperature rise is observed, as the plaster with PCM additive utilizes part of the incident heat flux for
the phase change process.
In the afternoon hours, the situation reverses: the wall with conventional plaster cools down more rapidly, while the solidification
of the PCM delays the cooling process.
The overall effect of adding PCM material lies primarily in the phase shift of the thermal wave entering the building envelope.

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Fig. 16. Measured and corrected outdoor temperatures, calculated exterior surface temperatures.

Fig. 18 presents the temperature profile of the interior wall surface. Due to fluctuations in outdoor temperatures, the interior
surface temperatures also vary, but the wall structure dampens the amplitude of these oscillations — while the exterior surface
temperatures fluctuate by approximately 30 ◦ C, the interior surface exhibits significantly smaller variations.
In addition to the phase shift of the thermal wave, the incorporation of PCM material in the plaster reduces the amplitude of interior
temperature oscillations from 2.4 ◦ C to 1.8 ◦ C, making it beneficial for environments where stable indoor temperatures are required.
The phase shift during night-time cooling is approximately 3 h, while during daytime heating, it ranges between 4 and 5 h. This
delay can reduce the cooling demand in, for example, office spaces, by shifting the occurrence of peak indoor temperatures to later
afternoon hours. Similar models using PCM in plaster for the accumulation and utilization of solar energy have also been tested in
previous research [54,55].
In our research so far, we have not addressed degradation caused by potential cyclic instability of the PCM material. However, we
do not anticipate significant material instability due to the relatively narrow temperature range under the considered climatic con­
ditions. Authors also did not address the economic evaluation, as it depends on many local factors such as energy prices, construction
labor and material costs, climatic conditions, and the specific location of the building. These factors make it impossible to generalize
the results of the economic assessment, which must be addressed individually for each building or application.

5. Conclusion

The presented contribution focused on theoretical calculations of heat losses due to transmission and thermal energy accumulation
in a model external wall structure for three commonly used material variants — concrete, bricks (CP), and aerated autoclaved concrete
(AAC) — including their combinations with a phase change material (PCM), RT27. The authors worked with the physical properties of
a lime-plaster and PCM mixture, which are not tabulated for the given ratios in commonly available sources. The manufacturer
provides the properties of the individual building materials and the PCM itself, but their properties in mixtures are not commonly
reported.
The results of the modeling lead to the following conclusions: A) Heat loss through transmission is inversely proportional to the
overall thermal resistance of the multilayered planar wall, and directly proportional to the thermal transmittance. B) The lowest heat
losses were calculated for AAC masonry, which has the lowest thermal conductivity. The position of the thermal insulation within the
wall structure has no effect on the total thermal resistance or the transmission heat loss. C) The total heat accumulation capacity of the
wall is directly proportional to the density of the given material. Unlike transmission losses, the position (interior vs. exterior) of the
thermal insulation has a significant impact on the total heat storage capacity of the wall. D) The combination of LP with PCM RT27
consistently achieves higher heat accumulation across all wall variants compared to calculations using lime plaster alone — with an
increase ranging from 1.6 to 1.8 times. In percentage terms, the highest heat storage values were observed for AAC masonry in
combination with internally placed insulation. E) The previous two points are closely related to the temperature distribution within the
material at the interfaces between individual layers of the wall structure, and to the low thermal conductivity of AAC.

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M. Machů et al. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 74 (2025) 106830

Fig. 17. Evolution of temperature in wall within 24 h.

The transient numerical simulation demonstrated the effect of incorporating PCM into the plaster mixture, particularly in terms of
reducing temperature fluctuations on the interior surface of the room and delaying the passage of the thermal wave from the exte­
rior—primarily induced by solar radiation—by several hours. This effect is attributed both to latent heat storage and to the distinct
thermal properties of the modified plaster mixture.
From the perspective of the overall thermal balance or HVAC system sizing, the impact is relatively minor compared to, for
instance, solar gains through glazing, and may even be negligible at the given geographical latitudes. However, in regions with more
pronounced daily temperature swings, the effect could become more significant.

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M. Machů et al. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 74 (2025) 106830

Fig. 18. Course of temperature on inside wall.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Mario Machů: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Visualization, Methodology, Conceptualization. Marek
Velička: Writing – original draft, Supervision, Formal analysis, Conceptualization. David Rigo: Visualization, Investigation, Formal
analysis. Jiří Burda: Methodology, Investigation. Ivan Priesol: Investigation. Dharma Rooban Moorthi: Investigation.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgement

This paper was created as part of the project No. CZ.02.01.01/00/22_008/0004631 Materials and technologies for sustainable
development within the Jan Amos Komensky Operational Program financed by the European Union and from the state budget of the
Czech Republic and was supported under Project No. SP2025/044 - Advanced materials and technologies for energy and environ­
mental applications.

Data availability

According to Open Science principles, raw climate data used for modelling are available at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.
15039081. Other data will be available upon request sent to corresponding author.

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