ABELO, DONNA FEL A.
BS ECE – II
ASSIGNMENT NO.2 IN ELECTRNOCIS 1 - B
I. FUNDAMENTALS OF TUBES AND OTHER DEVICES
Vacuum tube, also called electron tube or thermionic valve, is a device usually
consisting of a sealed glass or metal ceramic enclosure that is used in electronic circuitry to control
the flow of electrons for various range of applications such as amplification, rectification,
oscillation, and image projection. Some of its varieties include magnetrons, klystrons, gyrotrons,
cathode-ray tubes, photoelectric cells, and neon and fluorescent lamps. Vacuum tubes' operation
is mainly caused by electron emission. Electron emission is defined as the ejection or liberation of
electrons from any surface of a substance (mostly metals). Basically, there are four processes that
produce electron emission – thermionic emission, field emission, secondary emission, and
photoelectric emission.
Basic Applications of Vacuum Tubes
1. Amplification. It is the process of increasing the output of a source to a desired level.
2. Rectification. It is the process of converting an alternating current to direct current.
3. Oscillation. It is the process of producing periodic signal or producing an alternating current
signal from a direct current source.
4. Image Projection. It is the process of electronically displaying image on a surface or medium.
Methods of Electron Emission
1. Thermionic Emission. Thermionic emission or Edison effect is achieved by subjecting a
metallic surface into very high temperatures. The energy produced by high amount of heat
sufficient to eject or liberate the free electrons. It is the core method of liberating free electrons in
vacuum tubes.
2. Field Emission. Field emission is the process of removal of electrons from a conductor’s surface
induced by a strong electrostatic field. The free electrons should overcome the surface barrier or
the potential barrier on the surface of the conductor created by back pull of the positive nuclei on
them. With the high positive charge on the surface caused by the strong electrostatic field, the
electrons will now have enough energy to pass the barrier and be emitted.
3. Secondary Emission. Secondary emission happens when a high-velocity electron beam hits a
metallic surface. The kinetic energy produced from electrons striking each other is transferred to
the free electrons giving them sufficient energy to overcome the surface barrier.
4. Photoelectric Emission. Photoelectric emission is the process of subjecting a metallic surface
to light energy. Light is composed of photons with each photon possessing energy depending on
the light ray’s wavelength. Upon hitting the surface, the photons transfer their energy to the free
electrons, hence, giving them enough energy to surpass the surface barrier.
Types of Vacuum Tubes
1. Diode. A vacuum tube diode is composed of two electrodes, the plate(anode) and the cathode.
The cathode is where the electrons are emitted by thermionic emission while the plate (anode)
attracts the emitted electrons.
2. Triode. A vacuum tube triode is composed of three electrodes, the plate(anode), cathode, and
the control grid. The additional third electrode, the control grid, serves as the cathode’s screen or
shield from the electrostatic field from the anode. By varying the amount of signal voltage applied
to the control grid, the amount of electron flow is also varied.
3. Tetrode. A vacuum tube tetrode is composed of four electrodes, the plate(anode), cathode,
control grid, and the screen. The screen is positioned between the plate and the grid to avoid
capacitive linkages that could result to signal feedback and unwanted oscillations especially at
high frequencies.
4. Pentode. A vacuum tube pentode is composed of five electrodes, the plate(anode), cathode,
control grid, screen, and the suppressor. The suppressor is situated between the plate and the
screen directly connected to the ground or to the cathode. Due to high velocity emissions,
electrons bounce back from the plate and with the suppressor grid, it repels any secondary
emissions back to the plate.
II. Semiconductors
- A semiconductor is a material that has electrical conductivity between that of a
conductor (like copper) and an insulator (like glass). Its conductivity can be
controlled by doping and external factors such as temperature and electric fields.
The most common semiconductor material is silicon (Si), but others like
germanium (Ge) and gallium arsenide (GaAs) are also used.
Types of Semiconductors
A. Intrinsic Semiconductors (Pure)
• No impurities.
• Conductivity depends on temperature (electron-hole pair generation).
• Examples: Pure silicon (Si), pure germanium (Ge).
B. Extrinsic Semiconductors (Doped)
• Impurities (dopants) are added to modify conductivity.
i. N-Type Semiconductor (Negative)
• Doped with donor atoms (e.g., phosphorus, arsenic) that have extra electrons.
• Majority carriers: Electrons.
• Minority carriers: Holes.
ii. P-Type Semiconductor (Positive)
• Doped with acceptor atoms (e.g., boron, gallium) that create holes.
• Majority carriers: Holes.
• Minority carriers: Electrons.
III. DIODE EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS
- A diode equivalent circuit represents a diode using electrical components like resistors
and voltage sources to model its real-world behavior. These models help analyze diode-
based circuits in different operating conditions.
1. Ideal Diode Model
• Assumes the diode is a perfect switch.
• Forward Bias: Acts as a short circuit (0V, no resistance).
• Reverse Bias: Acts as an open circuit (no current flows).
• Limitations: Does not account for voltage drop or leakage current.
2. Piecewise Linear Model
• A more accurate representation, considering real diode characteristics.
• Forward Bias: Modeled as a small voltage source (e.g., 0.7V for silicon, 0.3V for
germanium) and a small series resistance.
• Reverse Bias: Open circuit with a small leakage current.
3. Small-Signal Model
• Used for AC analysis around an operating point.
• Represents the diode as a small dynamic resistance (rd) in parallel with a capacitance.
• Useful for signal processing and high-frequency applications.
