DIRE DAWA UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

DEPARTMENT OF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY AND

MANAGEMENT

Construction Operation & Maintenance- COTM7031

Group Work Project

“Identifying, Investigating Root Causes, and Suggesting Scientific

Remedial Actions for Interior and Exterior Building Defects.”

Submitted to: Instructor: Lucy Feleke

(Ph.D.)

Submission date: March 6, 2024

Dire Dawa, Ethiopia

N Name of Group Members ID No
o

1 Arega Birhanu DDU1500162

2 Azmera W/Yohannes DDU1500163

3 Bisrateab Wondimu DDU1500164

4 Kitaw Simegn DDU1500174

5 Teshome Amare DDU1500184

6 Mengstagegnehu Mebrate DDU1500223

Submitted to: Instructor: Lucy Feleke (Ph.D.)

Submission date: March 6, 2024

 Identifying, Investigating Root Causes, and Suggesting Scientific Remedial Actions for Interior and
Exterior Building Defects

Table of Contents
Abstract.......................................................................................................................................................5
1. Introduction.........................................................................................................................................5
1.1. Importance of identifying building defects..................................................................................5
1.2. Overview of Assignment Objectives............................................................................................6
2. Identification of Building Defects.........................................................................................................7
2.1. Falling over Wall ceramic.............................................................................................................8
2.1.1. Nature of the Defect............................................................................................................9
2.1.2. Potential Causes of Falling over of Wall Ceramic Tiles.........................................................9
2.1.3. Implications of Falling over of Wall Ceramic Tiles..............................................................10
2.1.4. Recommendations for Resolution of Falling Over Wall Ceramic Tiles................................11
2.2. Defect of Drainage Gutter outlet...............................................................................................12
2.2.1. Nature of the Defect..........................................................................................................12
2.2.3. Potential Causes for Defect of Drainage Gutter Outlet......................................................13
2.2.4. Implications........................................................................................................................14
2.2.5. Recommendations for Resolution......................................................................................15
2.3. Defects on Slab Celling and wall connection..............................................................................16
2.3.1. Nature of the Defect..........................................................................................................17
2.3.2. Potential Causes.................................................................................................................17
2.3.3. Implications........................................................................................................................18
2.3.4. Recommendations for Resolution......................................................................................19
2.4. Degradation of Floor ceramic....................................................................................................20
2.4.1. Nature of the Defect..........................................................................................................21
2.4.2. Potential Causes for Degradation of Floor ceramic............................................................21
2.4.3. Implications........................................................................................................................22
2.4.4. Recommendations.............................................................................................................23
2.5. Dampness and Efflorescence Effect...........................................................................................24
2.5.1. Nature of the Defect..........................................................................................................25
2.5.2. Potential causes of dampness and efflorescence effects...................................................26
2.5.3. Recommendation...............................................................................................................26

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 Identifying, Investigating Root Causes, and Suggesting Scientific Remedial Actions for Interior and
Exterior Building Defects

2.6. Wall column junction crack........................................................................................................27

2.6.1. Nature of the Cracks..........................................................................................................28
2.6.2. Potential Causes of Cracking..............................................................................................28
2.6.3. Effects and Implications of Wall column junction crack.....................................................29
2.6.4. Risk Mitigation and Remedial Measures............................................................................30
2.7. Discoloration of External Façade...............................................................................................31
2.7.1. Nature................................................................................................................................32
2.7.2. Causes................................................................................................................................32
2.7.3. Impact................................................................................................................................33
2.7.4. Functional Implications......................................................................................................33
3. References.........................................................................................................................................35
4. Annex.................................................................................................................................................41
4.1. Checklist to identify possible defects in both interior and exterior building elements..............41

List of Pictures

picture 1 Falling over of Wall ceramic........................................................................................................9

picture 2 Defect of Drainage Gutter outlet...............................................................................................12
picture 3 Defects on Slab Celling and wall connection.............................................................................17
picture 4 Degradation of Floor ceramic....................................................................................................20
picture 5 Dampness and Efflorescence Effect...........................................................................................24
picture 6 Wall column junction crack.......................................................................................................28
picture 7 Discoloration of External Façade...............................................................................................31

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Identifying, Investigating Root Causes, and Suggesting Scientific Remedial Actions for Interior and Exterior Building Defects

Abstract
This paper focuses on the identification of exterior and interior defects in the buildings of Dire

Dawa University to enhance safety, functionality, and longevity of the structures. Through a

detailed examination of the university's facilities, common defects such as discoloration of

external façade, drainage gutter outlet issues, dampness, and efflorescence effects are identified

and analyzed. By investigating the nature and implications of these defects, this paper aims to

provide insights into the root causes and propose scientifically-backed remedial measures for

each deterioration. The findings of the paper offer practical recommendations for building

maintenance and management, aiming to improve the overall condition and resilience of Dire

Dawa University's buildings.

1. Introduction
1.1. Importance of identifying building defects
Identifying building defects is a crucial aspect of ensuring the safety, longevity, and functionality
of a structure. From residential homes to commercial buildings, the presence of defects can pose
serious risks to occupants, impact property value, and lead to costly repairs if left unaddressed.
Therefore, understanding the importance of identifying building defects is essential for property
owners, developers, contractors, and building inspectors alike.

The process of identifying building defects involves thorough inspection, assessment, and
documentation of any issues or abnormalities within a structure. These defects can range from
minor cosmetic imperfections to major structural deficiencies that compromise the integrity of
the building. By promptly identifying and addressing these issues, property owners can prevent
further damage, maintain a safe and healthy environment for occupants, and protect their
investment in the property.

Moreover, identifying building defects is essential for compliance with building codes,
regulations, and industry standards. Building defects that violate safety codes or regulations can

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Identifying, Investigating Root Causes, and Suggesting Scientific Remedial Actions for Interior and Exterior Building Defects

result in legal liabilities, fines, and even forced closure of the property. Therefore, conducting
regular inspections and addressing any identified defects in a timely manner is critical to ensure
that the building remains in compliance with relevant requirements.

In addition to safeguarding the structural integrity and safety of a building, identifying defects
can also help improve energy efficiency, reduce maintenance costs, and enhance overall
occupant comfort. By addressing issues such as air leaks, water intrusion, faulty electrical
systems, or inadequate insulation, property owners can create a more sustainable and functional
living or working environment.

Overall, the importance of identifying building defects cannot be overstated. It is a proactive

measure that not only protects the investment in a property but also ensures the well-being and
safety of its occupants. By staying vigilant, conducting regular inspections, and addressing any
identified defects promptly, property owners can maintain the value and integrity of their
buildings for years to come.

1.2. Overview of Assignment Objectives

The primary objective of this assignment is to conduct a comprehensive literature review to
address three key aspects related to building defects: identification, root cause investigation, and
remedial measures. The assignment is structured around the following objectives:

a) Identify Possible Defects in Building Interior and Exterior Elements

The first objective involves reviewing a minimum of five papers/articles to identify common
defects found in both the interior and exterior elements of buildings. By analyzing existing
literature, we aim to compile a comprehensive list of building defects, categorizing them based
on their location and nature.

b) Investigate the Root Cause of the Identified Defects (Literature Review)

The second objective focuses on delving into the literature to understand the underlying causes
behind the identified defects. Through a detailed literature review, we aim to uncover recurring
themes and factors contributing to the occurrence of building defects. This investigation will

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Identifying, Investigating Root Causes, and Suggesting Scientific Remedial Actions for Interior and Exterior Building Defects

provide insights into the relationships between environmental factors, construction materials,
design flaws, and maintenance practices in the context of building defects.

c) Suggest Scientific Remedial Measures for Each Deterioration

The final objective entails proposing scientifically-backed remedial measures for each type of
identified defect. Drawing upon the findings of the literature review, we will recommend
effective, feasible, and sustainable remedial measures aimed at addressing the root cause of the
defects. These suggestions will be accompanied by detailed explanations and justifications,
supported by evidence from the reviewed literature.

By fulfilling these objectives, the assignment aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of

building defects, their causes, and potential remedial measures, contributing to the advancement
of knowledge in this field and offering practical insights for building maintenance and
management.

2. Identification of Building Defects

Identifying building defects is a crucial aspect of maintaining the structural integrity and safety
of a building. Common building defects can arise from various sources such as poor construction
practices, design flaws, material deterioration, or inadequate maintenance. To effectively identify
building defects, a thorough inspection of the property is necessary. This inspection should
encompass both the interior and exterior of the building, including structural elements,
mechanical systems, and finishes.

One of the key areas to inspect for building defects is the building envelope. This includes the
roof, walls, windows, and doors. Common defects in the building envelope can include water
infiltration due to damaged roofing materials or poorly sealed windows, which can lead to mold
growth and structural damage. Cracks in walls or foundations can also indicate structural issues
that need to be addressed promptly.

Another important aspect to consider during a building inspection is the mechanical systems,
such as plumbing, electrical, and HVAC systems. Leaks in plumbing pipes, faulty electrical
wiring, or malfunctioning HVAC units can all contribute to building defects and pose safety

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Identifying, Investigating Root Causes, and Suggesting Scientific Remedial Actions for Interior and Exterior Building Defects

hazards. Regular maintenance and inspections of these systems are essential to prevent defects
from occurring.

In addition to the structural and mechanical components, finishes within the building should also
be inspected for defects. This includes flooring, paint, and fixtures. Signs of water damage, such
as stains or warping, can indicate underlying defects that need to be addressed. Poorly installed
flooring or finishes can also be indicators of subpar construction practices.

To aid in the identification of building defects, it is recommended to consult with professionals

such as structural engineers, architects, or building inspectors. These experts can provide a more
in-depth analysis of the building's condition and recommend appropriate solutions to address any
defects that are identified.

In conclusion, identifying building defects requires a comprehensive inspection of the property,

focusing on the building envelope, mechanical systems, and finishes. By conducting regular
inspections and seeking professional advice when needed, building owners can ensure the safety
and longevity of their structures.

2.1. Falling over Wall ceramic

In the student dormitories of Dire Dawa University, a notable and concerning defect has been
identified, specifically pertaining to the detachment and falling over of wall ceramics. This issue
predominantly manifests in the bathrooms and toilets within the dormitory premises. The
presence of falling wall ceramics poses a multifaceted challenge that warrants detailed
examination and resolution.

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Identifying, Investigating Root Causes, and Suggesting Scientific Remedial Actions for Interior and Exterior Building Defects

picture 1 Falling over of Wall ceramic

2.1.1. Nature of the Defect

The defect is characterized by the detachment or dislodging of ceramic tiles or wall coverings
from their intended positions on the walls of bathrooms and toilets. This phenomenon may
involve individual tiles or entire sections of wall ceramics, indicating a systemic problem with
the adhesion, installation, or underlying structural elements.

2.1.2. Potential Causes of Falling over of Wall Ceramic Tiles

Falling off of wall ceramic tiles can be attributed to various factors based on recent research
findings. One significant factor is poor adhesion during the application of ceramic tiles. Studies
have highlighted that detachment and adhesive failure of ceramic tiles are common building
pathologies that can result from inadequate adhesion of the tiles during installation (Laranjeira et

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Identifying, Investigating Root Causes, and Suggesting Scientific Remedial Actions for Interior and Exterior Building Defects

al., 2014; Simões et al., 2016). Additionally, defects in the tiles themselves, such as shrinkage or
other material issues, can lead to compromised adhesion and subsequent tile detachment (Lee et
al., 2020). Moreover, the use of recycled materials in tile production, such as recycled
aggregates, can impact the quality and strength of the tiles, potentially contributing to their
falling off (Dagnew, 2022; Eckert & Oliveira, 2017).

Furthermore, the composition of ceramic wall tiles plays a crucial role in their durability and
adhesion properties. Ceramic wall tiles are primarily composed of quartz, clays, and different
carbonates, and variations in these compositions can affect the tiles' performance (Zaman et al.,
2018). Incorporating alternative materials, such as incinerated bottom ash, in tile production can
also influence the adhesion and structural integrity of the tiles (Dagnew, 2022).

Moreover, the design and fabrication processes of ceramic tiles can impact their adhesion and
longevity on walls. Research has shown that factors like the angle dependence in spectral
emissivity and the use of artistic CAD/CAM and 3D printing technology for tile design can
influence the properties and performance of ceramic tiles (Anggoro et al., 2022; Kobayashi et al.,
2015).

In general, the falling off of wall ceramic tiles can be caused by a combination of factors
including poor adhesion during installation, material defects, the use of recycled materials, tile
composition, and design considerations. Addressing these factors through improved installation
practices, material selection, and design optimization can help mitigate the risk of ceramic tiles
detaching from walls.

2.1.3. Implications of Falling over of Wall Ceramic Tiles

The implications of falling over of wall ceramic tiles can have various consequences on both the
structural integrity of buildings and the safety of occupants. When ceramic tiles detach from
walls, they can pose safety hazards by potentially falling onto individuals or causing tripping
hazards. This can lead to injuries and liabilities for building owners or managers. Additionally,
the aesthetic appeal of the space is compromised, affecting the overall visual appeal and
functionality of the area.

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Identifying, Investigating Root Causes, and Suggesting Scientific Remedial Actions for Interior and Exterior Building Defects

From a structural perspective, the detachment of ceramic tiles can indicate underlying issues
such as poor installation practices, material defects, or structural weaknesses. This can raise
concerns about the overall quality of construction and may require thorough inspections and
repairs to prevent further tile failures or potential damage to the building structure.

Moreover, the financial implications of falling ceramic tiles should not be overlooked. Replacing
damaged tiles, repairing any underlying issues, and addressing safety concerns can incur
significant costs for building owners. Furthermore, if the tile detachment is a result of
manufacturing defects or poor-quality materials, legal actions or warranty claims may need to be
pursued, adding further complexity and costs to the situation.

2.1.4. Recommendations for Resolution of Falling Over Wall Ceramic Tiles

To address the issue of falling wall ceramic tiles, several recommendations can be drawn from
relevant research findings. Firstly, it is crucial to ensure proper adhesion of ceramic tiles during
installation. This can be achieved by using high-quality adhesives and following manufacturer
guidelines for installation procedures (Andino et al., 2020; Sidique et al., 2022). Additionally,
incorporating innovative techniques such as injecting epoxy resin adhesive into cement mortar
can enhance tile adhesion performance and reduce the risk of detachment (Lee et al., 2020).

Furthermore, regular inspection and maintenance of ceramic tile claddings are essential to
identify defects early on. Visual inspections, as well as auxiliary diagnosis techniques, can help
detect issues like detachment, cracking, grout failure, and efflorescence, allowing for timely
repairs and replacements (Castro et al., 2023; Chiang et al., 2016). Evaluating the adhesion
strength of ceramic tiles using standardized techniques like the pull-off method can also provide
valuable insights into the tiles' performance and durability (Lopes et al., 2015).

In terms of material selection, considering alternative resources like incineration bottom ash in
ceramic tile production can improve sustainability and potentially enhance the tiles' properties
(Dagnew, 2022). Moreover, exploring the use of recycled materials, such as ceramic dust, in
improving the strength and consolidation properties of clayey soil can contribute to more robust
tile installations (Hossain, 2019).

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Identifying, Investigating Root Causes, and Suggesting Scientific Remedial Actions for Interior and Exterior Building Defects

To prevent future incidents of falling ceramic tiles, the development of advanced deterioration
diagnosis models for building external wall tiles can aid in early detection of potential issues and
facilitate proactive maintenance strategies (Guo, 2018). Additionally, leveraging smart skin
sensory systems for innovative strain sensing can enable real-time monitoring of exterior wall
tile conditions, enhancing safety and reducing risks associated with tile detachment (Chang et al.,
2018).

2.2. Defect of Drainage Gutter outlet

Within the premises of Dire Dawa University, specifically in the learning hall buildings, a
significant defect concerning the drainage gutter outlets has been identified. This defect pertains
to the external infrastructure of the buildings, particularly affecting the functionality and
efficiency of the drainage system. Detailed examination and resolution of this issue are
imperative to mitigate potential consequences and ensure the optimal performance of the
university's facilities.

picture 2 Defect of Drainage Gutter outlet

2.2.1. Nature of the Defect

The defect involves the malfunction or inadequacy of drainage gutter outlets, which are essential
components of the external drainage system designed to channel rainwater away from the
building structure. This may manifest in various forms, including clogged outlets, damaged or

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Identifying, Investigating Root Causes, and Suggesting Scientific Remedial Actions for Interior and Exterior Building Defects

deteriorated components, improper installation, or inadequate capacity to accommodate water

flow.

2.2.2. Nature of the Defect

The defect involves the malfunction or inadequacy of drainage gutter outlets, which are essential
components of the external drainage system designed to channel rainwater away from the
building structure. This may manifest in various forms, including clogged outlets, damaged or
deteriorated components, improper installation, or inadequate capacity to accommodate water
flow.

2.2.3. Potential Causes for Defect of Drainage Gutter Outlet

The causes for the defect of roof rainwater drainage gutter outlets can be attributed to various
factors identified in recent research studies. One significant factor contributing to such defects is
the accumulation of debris and organic matter in the gutter system. Studies have shown that
leaves, twigs, dirt, and other debris can clog gutter outlets, impeding the flow of rainwater and
leading to water pooling on the roof. This accumulation can result in blockages, corrosion, and
structural deterioration of the gutter outlets, affecting their functionality (Sañudo, 2024).

Furthermore, the design and installation of roof drainage systems play a crucial role in their
performance. Improper slope gradients, incorrect sizing, or inadequate positioning of gutter
outlets can lead to inefficient water drainage and potential overflow issues. Research has
highlighted that the use of low-quality materials or substandard construction practices during the
installation of gutter outlets can result in premature defects and failures (Antunes et al., 2020;
Silva et al., 2019).

Environmental factors also contribute to the deterioration of roof drainage gutter outlets.
Prolonged exposure to extreme weather conditions, UV radiation, and freeze-thaw cycles can
weaken the structural integrity of gutter materials, leading to cracks, leaks, and eventual failure
of the outlets. Studies have indicated that environmental stressors can accelerate the degradation
of gutter outlets, emphasizing the importance of considering these factors during design and
maintenance (Wilcox et al., 2022; ziaee et al., 2022).

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Identifying, Investigating Root Causes, and Suggesting Scientific Remedial Actions for Interior and Exterior Building Defects

In addition, the quality of rainwater harvested from roof gutter outlets can be affected by the
condition of the drainage system. Research has shown that clogged or damaged gutter outlets can
lead to contamination of harvested rainwater, impacting its quality for potential reuse. Proper
maintenance and regular inspection of gutter outlets are essential to ensure the efficiency and
effectiveness of rainwater harvesting systems.

In conclusion, addressing the potential causes for the defect of roof rainwater drainage gutter
outlets through proper maintenance, design considerations, high-quality materials, and protective
measures against environmental stressors is crucial to prevent and mitigate issues with water
drainage and overflow on roofs. By implementing these recommendations, building owners and
managers can ensure the longevity, functionality, and efficiency of roof drainage systems in their
structures.

2.2.4. Implications

The implications of defects in roof rainwater drainage gutter outlets can have significant
consequences based on the findings of various research studies. One key implication is the risk
of water damage to buildings and infrastructure. When gutter outlets are defective or blocked,
rainwater may overflow, leading to water seepage into the building structure, causing dampness,
mold growth, and potential structural damage. This can compromise the integrity of the building
and pose health risks to occupants (Forte & Whipple, 2018; Vijay et al., 2019).

Moreover, the inefficient drainage of rainwater due to defective gutter outlets can contribute to
water pooling on roofs. This standing water can accelerate roof deterioration, increase the risk of
leaks, and create breeding grounds for pests such as mosquitoes. Additionally, prolonged water
exposure can lead to erosion of the building foundation and surrounding landscape, impacting
the overall stability and safety of the property (Johansson et al., 2022; Mudd et al., 2014).

Furthermore, the environmental implications of defective gutter outlets are significant. Improper
drainage can result in water runoff carrying pollutants, debris, and sediment into natural water
bodies, leading to water contamination and ecosystem degradation. Studies have shown that

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Identifying, Investigating Root Causes, and Suggesting Scientific Remedial Actions for Interior and Exterior Building Defects

untreated stormwater runoff from defective gutter outlets can contribute to water pollution,
affecting aquatic life and water quality (Otto et al., 2022; Verma et al., 2022).

From a financial perspective, the implications of roof rainwater drainage gutter defects can result
in costly repairs and maintenance. Water damage to buildings, landscaping, and infrastructure
due to faulty gutter outlets can lead to expensive remediation efforts. Moreover, legal liabilities
may arise if water damage affects neighboring properties or if negligence in maintaining gutter
systems is identified (Latif et al., 2022; Pan et al., 2021).

In conclusion, the implications of defects in roof rainwater drainage gutter outlets are
multifaceted, encompassing risks to building structures, health hazards, environmental
degradation, and financial burdens. Addressing these implications through regular maintenance,
proper design considerations, and timely repairs is crucial to mitigate the risks associated with
faulty gutter outlets and ensure the long-term sustainability and resilience of buildings and
surrounding environments.

2.2.5. Recommendations for Resolution

Based on the studies and references provided, several recommendations can be made to address
the defect of roof rainwater drainage gutter outlets effectively:

a) Regular Maintenance: Implement a routine maintenance schedule to clean gutter outlets and
remove debris, leaves, and other obstructions that can cause blockages. Regular inspections
can help identify early signs of defects and prevent potential water damage (Hamilton et al.,
2019; Sánchez et al., 2015).
b) Proper Design and Installation: Ensure that gutter systems are correctly designed with
appropriate slope gradients, sizing, and positioning of outlets to optimize water flow and
prevent overflow issues. The use of high-quality materials and construction practices during
installation is essential to prevent premature defects and failures (Makbul et al., 2021;
Spekkers et al., 2017).
c) Environmental Considerations: Take into account environmental factors such as extreme
weather conditions and UV radiation that can impact the structural integrity of gutter

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Identifying, Investigating Root Causes, and Suggesting Scientific Remedial Actions for Interior and Exterior Building Defects

materials. Implement protective measures to mitigate the effects of environmental stressors

on gutter outlets (Kolasa-Więcek & Suszanowicz, 2021; Naranjo et al., 2020).
d) Rainwater Harvesting Systems: Consider integrating rainwater harvesting systems with green
roofs or rain gardens to reduce the load on drainage systems and promote sustainable water
management practices. These systems can help alleviate water runoff and enhance water
quality (Horváth & Kovács, 2023; Sá et al., 2021).
e) Water Quality Assessment: Conduct regular assessments of rainwater quality treated via
green roof systems to ensure that harvested rainwater meets quality standards for potential
reuse. Monitoring and treating rainwater can help maintain water quality and prevent
contamination (Peng et al., 2020; Uotila et al., 2019).
f) Stormwater Management: Implement low-impact development (LID) practices such as green
roofs, swales, and rain barrels to mitigate stormwater runoff and reduce peak flow rates. LID
facilities can help manage stormwater effectively and minimize environmental impacts
(Sucheran & Sucheran, 2021; Wigati et al., 2021).
g) Decision Support Systems: Utilize decision support systems for the design and planning of
LID practices to optimize hydrological cycle components and improve the effectiveness of
stormwater management strategies. These systems can provide guidance for sustainable
water resource management (Meenakshi et al., 2022; Song et al., 2018).

By incorporating these recommendations into the maintenance, design, and implementation of

roof rainwater drainage gutter outlets, building owners and managers can effectively address
defects, enhance water drainage efficiency, and promote sustainable water management practices
in urban and residential environments.

2.3. Defects on Slab Celling and wall connection

In structures within the Dire Dawa University campus, a notable defect has been identified at the
connection point between the slab ceiling and the adjacent walls. This defect presents itself in the
form of visible cracks that have developed along the interface where the ceiling slab meets the
walls. Detailed examination and resolution of this issue are imperative to address structural
integrity concerns and maintain the safety and aesthetics of the university buildings.

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Identifying, Investigating Root Causes, and Suggesting Scientific Remedial Actions for Interior and Exterior Building Defects

picture 3 Defects on Slab Celling and wall connection

2.3.1. Nature of the Defect

The defect is characterized by the formation of cracks at the junction between the slab ceiling
and the adjoining walls of the building. These cracks may vary in size, orientation, and severity,
but they typically indicate a discontinuity or separation between the ceiling structure and the
walls. Such a defect compromises the seamless integration of building components and may be
indicative of underlying structural issues or differential movement between building elements.

2.3.2. Potential Causes

Defects at the connection between slab ceilings and walls can arise due to various factors. One
common issue is the lack of appropriate solutions at the junction of window frames or balcony
slabs with walls, especially during the implementation of extra insulation on building facades
(Sadowska & Bieranowski, 2021). In precast wall-slab-wall structures, the connection between
walls and slabs is crucial, as they are linked by mechanical anchors and felts, which may not
prevent sliding between structural members under lateral loads, making them vulnerable to
actions like earthquakes (Brunesi et al., 2019). Additionally, the punching shear behavior of
reinforced concrete slabs supported on walls is a critical aspect to consider, as punching failures
can occur before shear failures, highlighting the importance of analyzing slab-wall connections
(Milligan et al., 2022).

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Identifying, Investigating Root Causes, and Suggesting Scientific Remedial Actions for Interior and Exterior Building Defects

Furthermore, the seismic behavior of rectangular shear walls connected to floor slabs has been
studied to assess stress concentration at the wall-slab junction region and observe potential
damages in the wall, slab, and their junction region (Kaushik & Dasgupta, 2022). The influence
of support elongation on punching resistance at internal slab column connections without shear
reinforcement has also been investigated, emphasizing the significance of proper support design
at such junctions (Setiawan et al., 2020). Moreover, the airtightness of residential buildings with
concrete element external walls and hollow core ceiling slabs in Finland underscores the
importance of construction quality in preventing defects at these junctions (Vinha et al., 2015).

2.3.3. Implications

Implications of defects at the connection between slab ceilings and walls can have significant
consequences on the structural integrity, safety, and functionality of buildings. These defects can
lead to compromised load-bearing capacity, reduced seismic performance, increased risk of
structural failure, and potential safety hazards for occupants. Inadequate connections between
slabs and walls can result in structural instability, causing cracks, displacement, or even collapse
of the building elements. Such defects may also impact the overall performance of the building
envelope, leading to issues with water infiltration, air leakage, and thermal inefficiency.

Moreover, defects at slab-wall connections can result in costly repairs, maintenance, and
retrofitting measures to address the structural deficiencies and ensure the safety of the building.
These repairs may disrupt the normal functioning of the building and incur financial burdens on
the building owners. Additionally, structural defects can affect the resale value of the property
and may lead to legal disputes between stakeholders regarding liability for the defects.

From a regulatory perspective, building codes and standards mandate specific requirements for
the design and construction of slab-wall connections to ensure structural robustness and safety.
Failure to comply with these regulations can result in non-compliance penalties, legal
consequences, and challenges in obtaining building permits or insurance coverage.

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Identifying, Investigating Root Causes, and Suggesting Scientific Remedial Actions for Interior and Exterior Building Defects

2.3.4. Recommendations for Resolution

Based on the studies referenced, several recommendations can be proposed to address defects at
the connection between slab ceilings and walls:

a) Proper Design and Construction: Ensuring that the design and construction of slab-wall
connections comply with building codes and standards is crucial to prevent defects
(Marinis et al., 2019). Employing appropriate materials and construction techniques, such
as using mechanical anchors and felts in precast structures, can enhance the stability and
performance of these connections (Brunesi et al., 2019).
b) Seismic Considerations: Given the importance of seismic performance, it is
recommended to analyze the behavior of slab-wall connections under seismic loads to
assess their adequacy and make necessary improvements (Idriss & Gamal, 2022; Wang et
al., 2021). Incorporating seismic design principles and reinforcement measures can
enhance the resilience of these connections.
c) Maintenance and Inspection: Regular maintenance and inspection of slab-wall
connections are essential to identify defects early on and address them promptly
(Krahmalny & Evtushenko, 2020). Monitoring for signs of deterioration, such as cracks
or displacement, can help prevent structural issues from escalating.
d) Quality Control: Implementing quality control measures during construction, such as
proper installation of connections and adherence to design specifications, can help
mitigate potential defects. Ensuring the integrity of materials and workmanship is vital
for the long-term performance of slab-wall connections.
e) Repair and Retrofitting: In cases where defects are identified, timely repair and
retrofitting measures should be undertaken to rectify the issues and restore the structural
integrity of the building (Patnana & Durgesh, 2022). Engaging qualified professionals for
repair work is essential to ensure effective solutions.
f) Occupational Health Considerations: For construction activities involving slab-wall
connections, it is important to address occupational health hazards, such as exposure to
silica dust during drilling or demolition work (Tuomi et al., 2023). Implementing

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Identifying, Investigating Root Causes, and Suggesting Scientific Remedial Actions for Interior and Exterior Building Defects

appropriate safety measures and providing personal protective equipment can safeguard
the health of workers.

In conclusion, by following these recommendations, stakeholders can effectively address defects

at the connection between slab ceilings and walls, ensuring the structural integrity, safety, and
longevity of buildings.

2.4. Degradation of Floor ceramic

Within the premises of Dire Dawa University, a notable defect has been identified concerning
the degradation of floor ceramic tiles. This defect manifests as visible signs of wear,
deterioration, or damage to the ceramic tiles installed on the floors of various buildings within
the university campus. Understanding and addressing this issue are essential to maintain the
safety, functionality, and aesthetic appeal of the university facilities.

picture 4 Degradation of Floor ceramic

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Identifying, Investigating Root Causes, and Suggesting Scientific Remedial Actions for Interior and Exterior Building Defects

2.4.1. Nature of the Defect

The defect involves the progressive deterioration or degradation of ceramic floor tiles, leading to
various forms of damage or wear. This may include chipping, cracking, pitting, surface abrasion,
discoloration, or loss of gloss or finish. The degradation may occur uniformly across the floor
surface or may be localized to specific areas, depending on factors such as traffic patterns,
maintenance practices, and the quality of the original tile installation.

2.4.2. Potential Causes for Degradation of Floor ceramic

Ceramic floors in buildings can degrade due to various factors, including mechanical forces,
chemical attacks, and environmental conditions. Mechanical forces such as heavy foot traffic,
impacts, and abrasions can lead to wear and tear on ceramic tiles (Habib et al., 2021). Chemical
attacks from substances like water, soluble salts, and mold growth can also contribute to the
degradation of ceramic surfaces (Oancea et al., 2023). Additionally, factors like temperature
variations and exposure to UV light can impact the properties of ceramics, affecting their
strength and appearance (Akkarakittichoke et al., 2022; Maity & Kim, 2021).

Moreover, the quality of ceramic materials used in floors can play a significant role in their
degradation. Porosity, sintering temperatures, and the presence of defects in the ceramic structure
can affect properties like translucency and strength, making the tiles more susceptible to
deterioration (Pekkan et al., 2019; Walczak et al., 2018). Studies have shown that different
sintering temperatures can result in diverse microstructures of ceramics, influencing their overall
performance (Zhao et al., 2022).

Furthermore, environmental factors like exposure to moisture, temperature fluctuations, and

chemical substances can accelerate the degradation of ceramic floors (Promsawat et al., 2017).
For instance, in raised floor systems with ceramic coatings, the mechanical strength of the tiles
can be affected by the surrounding conditions and the materials used in the system (Idalêncio et
al., 2022). Additionally, the presence of antimicrobial agents on ceramic surfaces can impact
their durability and resistance to degradation (Reinosa et al., 2019).

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In conclusion, the degradation of ceramic floors in buildings can be attributed to a combination

of mechanical, chemical, and environmental factors. Understanding the impact of these factors
on the properties of ceramic materials is essential for ensuring the longevity and performance of
ceramic floors in various settings.

2.4.3. Implications

The deterioration of floor ceramics can have significant implications for buildings, affecting not
only their aesthetic appeal but also their structural integrity and safety. Mechanical forces,
environmental conditions, and chemical attacks can all contribute to the degradation of ceramic
floors, leading to various consequences.

Mechanical forces, such as heavy foot traffic and impacts, can cause wear and tear on ceramic
tiles, resulting in cracks, chips, and overall surface degradation (Esquivel-Upshaw et al., 2017).
This degradation can compromise the structural integrity of the flooring, potentially leading to
safety hazards for occupants of the building. Additionally, the presence of defects in the ceramic
structure due to poor quality materials or manufacturing processes can further exacerbate the
degradation process, making the tiles more susceptible to damage (Awoyera et al., 2018).

Environmental factors, including temperature fluctuations and exposure to UV light, can also
impact the properties of ceramic floors. These factors can affect the strength and appearance of
the tiles over time, leading to discoloration, warping, or other forms of deterioration (Nair et al.,
2022). Such degradation not only affects the visual appeal of the flooring but can also
compromise its functionality and longevity.

Chemical attacks from substances like water, soluble salts, and mold growth can contribute to the
degradation of ceramic surfaces, causing discoloration, staining, and surface damage (Iraqi et al.,
2018). This not only affects the aesthetics of the flooring but can also create an unhygienic
environment, especially in areas prone to moisture or mold growth.

In conclusion, the implications of the degradation of floor ceramics in buildings are multifaceted,
encompassing safety risks, structural concerns, aesthetic degradation, and hygiene issues.
Understanding the factors that contribute to the deterioration of ceramic floors is essential for

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implementing appropriate maintenance strategies, repair measures, and material selection to

ensure the longevity and performance of ceramic flooring in various building settings.

2.4.4. Recommendations

To address the degradation of floor ceramics in buildings, several recommendations can be

proposed based on the factors contributing to the deterioration of ceramic floors. These
recommendations aim to mitigate the effects of mechanical forces, environmental conditions,
and chemical attacks on ceramic surfaces, ensuring the longevity and performance of the
flooring.

a. Regular Maintenance and Inspection: Implementing a routine maintenance schedule for

ceramic floors can help identify early signs of degradation, such as cracks, chips, or
discoloration. Regular inspections can allow for timely repairs or replacements of damaged
tiles, preventing further deterioration.
b. Use of High-Quality Ceramic Materials: Selecting high-quality ceramic tiles with low
porosity and proper sintering temperatures can enhance the durability and resistance of the
flooring to mechanical and environmental stresses. Investing in premium ceramic materials
can prolong the lifespan of the floor and reduce the risk of degradation.

c. Appropriate Cleaning and Sealing: Proper cleaning and sealing of ceramic floors can protect
them from chemical attacks and moisture infiltration. Using suitable cleaning agents and
sealants can help maintain the appearance and integrity of the tiles, preventing stains,
discoloration, and surface damage.
d. Control Environmental Factors: Controlling environmental conditions, such as temperature
and humidity levels, can help minimize the impact of external factors on ceramic floors.
Installing proper insulation, ventilation, and shading can regulate the indoor environment and
reduce the risk of degradation due to temperature fluctuations and UV exposure.
e. Implementing Antimicrobial Treatments: Applying antimicrobial agents on ceramic
surfaces can inhibit mold growth and prevent microbial degradation, enhancing the hygiene

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and longevity of the flooring. Incorporating antimicrobial treatments in the maintenance

routine can help preserve the quality of ceramic floors in high-moisture areas.
f. Professional Installation and Repair: Engaging qualified professionals for the installation
and repair of ceramic floors is essential to ensure proper handling of materials and adherence
to industry standards. Professional installation can minimize the risk of defects and structural
weaknesses that may lead to premature degradation of the flooring.

By following these recommendations, building owners and managers can effectively address the
degradation of floor ceramics in buildings, prolonging the lifespan of the flooring and
maintaining a safe and aesthetically pleasing environment for occupants.

2.5. Dampness and Efflorescence Effect

In the confines of Dire Dawa University, particularly within the learning hall buildings, a notable
issue has come to light regarding the presence of dampness and efflorescence effects. These
effects primarily affect the external infrastructure of the buildings, specifically impacting the
functionality and effectiveness of the drainage system. It is crucial to conduct a thorough
examination and address this issue promptly to mitigate potential repercussions and uphold the
optimal performance of the university's facilities.

picture 5 Dampness and Efflorescence Effect

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Identifying, Investigating Root Causes, and Suggesting Scientific Remedial Actions for Interior and Exterior Building Defects

2.5.1. Nature of the Defect

The dampness and efflorescence effects observed within the buildings of Dire Dawa University
encompass several key characteristics:

2.5.1.1. Dampness

Moisture Accumulation: The presence of excess moisture within building materials, resulting
from factors such as water infiltration, condensation, or rising damp.

Visible Signs: Dampness often manifests as water stains, damp patches, or visible moisture on
walls, ceilings, or floors, indicating compromised building envelope integrity.

Musty Odor: Damp environments may emit a characteristic musty or moldy odor, particularly in
enclosed spaces with poor ventilation.

Structural Damage: Prolonged dampness can lead to structural deterioration, weakening of

building materials, and potential corrosion of steel reinforcements or wood framing elements.

2.5.1.2. Efflorescence

White Deposits: Efflorescence presents as powdery white or crystalline deposits on the surfaces
of masonry materials such as brick, concrete, or stone.

Salt Migration: The formation of efflorescence occurs when water containing soluble salts
migrates through porous materials and evaporates, leaving behind salt deposits on the surface.

Surface Discoloration: Efflorescence detracts from the aesthetic appeal of building materials,
causing unsightly discoloration and texture irregularities.

Indication of Moisture: Efflorescence serves as a visible indicator of underlying moisture issues

within the building, signaling potential water infiltration or rising damp.

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2.5.2. Potential causes of dampness and efflorescence effects

Dampness and efflorescence are significant issues that can impact the structural integrity and
aesthetics of buildings. Dampness, often caused by rising damp, can lead to physical, biological,
and chemical deterioration of building materials (Asamoah et al., 2017). This moisture can
trigger various deterioration mechanisms, including physical, mechanical, chemical, and
biological processes, ultimately resulting in building-scale damage (Kreiger & Srubar, 2019). In
the case of rising damp, hygroscopic salts can lead to surface efflorescence, decayed skirting,
and mold growth on walls (Agyekum et al., 2014).

Efflorescence, a common consequence of dampness, can manifest as the precipitation of salts on

building surfaces. Efflorescence’s are a common cause of damage and decay in historical
buildings (Tavares et al., 2022). The formation of efflorescence can be influenced by factors
such as the presence of sulfates affecting mortars and other building materials (Konduru et al.,
2023). Additionally, the occurrence of efflorescence can be accidental, as in the case of the
deliquescence of inorganic preservatives impregnated in wood (Catelli et al., 2016).

Efflorescence can also be influenced by environmental factors such as moisture content.

Undesired moisture in masonry structures can lead to salt efflorescence, posing risks of
disintegration, corrosion, frost damage, and biological decay (Fořt et al., 2020). The migration of
saline solutions due to moisture can lead to the formation of salt efflorescence, affecting the
technical and decorative properties of building structures (Kropyvnytska et al., 2018).

In conclusion, dampness and efflorescence are interconnected issues that can have detrimental
effects on buildings. Dampness can lead to efflorescence, which in turn can cause damage and
decay to building materials. Understanding the causes and effects of dampness and efflorescence
is crucial for implementing effective mitigation strategies to preserve the integrity and longevity
of buildings.

2.5.3. Recommendation

To mitigate the effects of dampness and efflorescence on buildings, several recommendations

can be drawn from scholarly articles. One key aspect is the impact of environmental exposure

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Identifying, Investigating Root Causes, and Suggesting Scientific Remedial Actions for Interior and Exterior Building Defects

conditions on the maintenance of facades' claddings. The presence of moisture in conjunction

with salts significantly increases the degradation rate of external claddings, leading to aesthetic
anomalies such as efflorescence, scaling, and biological growth. Therefore, it is crucial to
address moisture ingress and salt presence to prevent these issues (Ferreira et al., 2021).

Additionally, understanding the progression of salts in walls is essential for building

conservation. By characterizing the salt progression and pattern of decay, future
recommendations for building conservation can be developed. Identifying environmental
conditions conducive to efflorescence occurrence is vital for implementing preventive measures
(Tavares et al., 2022).

Furthermore, in the context of rising damp, mechanisms for preventing rising damp in new
building infrastructure are crucial. Findings suggest that rising damp is present, as evidenced by
fluctuations in water levels in walls during different seasons. Implementing effective damp-
proofing measures during construction can help prevent rising damp issues in buildings
(Agyekum et al., 2019).

In conclusion, to address dampness and efflorescence in buildings, it is essential to focus on

preventing moisture ingress, controlling salt presence, characterizing salt progression, and
implementing effective damp-proofing measures during construction. By incorporating these
recommendations, the detrimental effects of dampness and efflorescence on buildings can be
mitigated, ensuring the longevity and structural integrity of the built environment.

2.6. Wall column junction crack

The presence of cracks at the junction between walls and columns in the teaching buildings of
Dire Dawa University is a significant concern. These cracks, occurring at the interface where
vertical columns meet the adjoining walls, can have various characteristics and implications.

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Identifying, Investigating Root Causes, and Suggesting Scientific Remedial Actions for Interior and Exterior Building Defects

picture 6 Wall column junction crack

2.6.1. Nature of the Cracks

Location: Cracks typically appear at the junction points where vertical load-bearing columns
intersect with the adjacent walls, commonly observed near door and window openings or at
building corners.

Orientation: Cracks may exhibit different orientations, including vertical, horizontal, or

diagonal, depending on the direction of structural forces and movements.

Width and Depth: The width and depth of cracks can vary, ranging from hairline fissures to
more substantial openings, indicating the degree of structural displacement or settlement.

2.6.2. Potential Causes of Cracking

Cracks at the junction between wall columns in buildings can be attributed to various factors.
One significant factor is the presence of thermal bridges at these junctions, which can lead to

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Identifying, Investigating Root Causes, and Suggesting Scientific Remedial Actions for Interior and Exterior Building Defects

breaks due to different situations such as connections with concrete columns and slabs between
floors (Al-Awadi et al., 2022). Additionally, the high percentage of fine materials with high
moisture content and plasticity indices in the soils around the building can contribute to the
formation of active cracks that widen over time (Pathan, 2021). Furthermore, the redistribution
of stress among concrete and rebars in columns due to factors like creep strain and shrinkage
strain can make the structure more susceptible to cracking, especially during seismic events
(Maruyama, 2016).

Moreover, the seismic behavior of walls, especially steel reinforced concrete walls, can influence
crack formation at column junctions. Steel or steel reinforced concrete coupling beams
connecting wall piers can impact the overall behavior of the structure (Ji et al., 2014). In cases
where there is no anchor between columns and brick walls, cracks and separation can occur,
highlighting the importance of proper anchoring to prevent such issues (Hutajulu et al., 2019).
Additionally, the mechanical properties of materials used in construction, such as rammed earth
walls, can affect their behavior under seismic conditions, potentially leading to cracking and
collapse (Zhou et al., 2020).

In summary, the causes of cracks at wall column junctions in buildings can be multifaceted,
involving factors such as thermal bridges, soil properties, seismic behavior, material properties,
and lack of proper anchoring. Understanding these factors is crucial for designing and
constructing buildings that are resilient to cracking and structural failures.

2.6.3. Effects and Implications of Wall column junction crack

Cracks at the junctions between wall columns in buildings can have significant effects and
implications on the structural integrity and safety of the building. If left undetected and
untreated, these defects can compromise the stability of the structure and impact its aesthetic
appearance (Hoang, 2018). The presence of cracks can lead to functional deterioration and
monetary losses, especially during seismic events where structural damages are limited (Huang
et al., 2022). Concrete cracks, in particular, can have a crucial impact on the safety of structures
(Yin et al., 2019).

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Identifying, Investigating Root Causes, and Suggesting Scientific Remedial Actions for Interior and Exterior Building Defects

Detection of these cracks is essential to assess the extent of damage and plan appropriate
maintenance and repair strategies. Various methods, such as image processing, machine learning
approaches, and UAV technologies, have been employed for crack detection in buildings
(Hoang, 2018; Sheng et al., 2023; Zhang et al., 2023). The use of deep learning and UAVs can
aid in identifying and assessing cracks caused by factors like drying shrinkage of concrete,
corrosion expansion of rebars, and other structural issues (Kung et al., 2021).

Furthermore, cracks at wall column junctions can be indicative of underlying issues such as poor
workmanship, material deficiencies, or seismic vulnerabilities. The behavior of stiffening walls
and the influence of geometric characteristics of cracks on building performance have been
subjects of study to understand the implications of cracks on the overall structural behavior
(Grzyb & Jasiński, 2022). Additionally, the seismic resistance of different wall structures, such
as ferrocement and expanded metal, has been investigated to enhance building resilience against
cracking and damage (Chonratana & Chatpattananan, 2023).

2.6.4. Risk Mitigation and Remedial Measures

Mitigating the risks associated with wall column junction cracks in buildings requires a
comprehensive approach that includes remedial measures to ensure structural integrity and
safety. One effective strategy is to conduct shake-table tests on buildings to assess their response
to seismic events and identify potential vulnerabilities (Henry et al., 2021). These tests provide
valuable data for validating design methods and numerical models, aiding in the development of
robust mitigation strategies.

To detect cracks and defects in building structures, advanced technologies such as Time-of-
Flight and Phase-Shift TLS intensity data can be utilized (Suchocki, 2020). These technologies
enable the identification of surface defects like cracks, moisture, and weathered parts of walls,
facilitating early detection and intervention to prevent further damage.

In cases where historical or heritage buildings are affected by cracks, experimental investigations
on bond behavior can provide insights into compatible repair solutions, especially for structures
like rammed earth heritage buildings (Romanazzi & Oliveira, 2019). Understanding the bond

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Identifying, Investigating Root Causes, and Suggesting Scientific Remedial Actions for Interior and Exterior Building Defects

behavior through direct tensile tests and pull-out tests can guide the selection of appropriate
remedial measures to address cracks and ensure the longevity of the building.

Furthermore, retrofitting solutions such as remedial wall ties for masonry enclosure brick walls
can be implemented to strengthen the structural integrity of buildings affected by cracks (Rebelo
et al., 2021). These retrofitting techniques can effectively enhance the performance of masonry
structures and prevent further deterioration due to wall column junction cracks.

Overall, a combination of structural testing, advanced diagnostic technologies, and targeted

retrofitting solutions can significantly contribute to mitigating the risks associated with wall
column junction cracks in buildings. By implementing these remedial measures, building owners
and stakeholders can ensure the safety, durability, and resilience of structures against the
detrimental effects of cracks.

2.7. Discoloration of External Façade

The discoloration of the external façade, coupled with the presence of cracks and fading paint,
presents significant concerns for the buildings within Dire Dawa University. This multifaceted
issue involves several interrelated factors and implications.

picture 7 Discoloration of External Façade

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Identifying, Investigating Root Causes, and Suggesting Scientific Remedial Actions for Interior and Exterior Building Defects

2.7.1. Nature

The external façade exhibits abnormal color changes, ranging from staining, blotching, or
darkening, to overall dullness or loss of vibrancy.

2.7.2. Causes

Discoloration of the external façade on the exterior side of buildings can be attributed to various
factors. One significant cause is the impact of environmental elements such as rain and wind-
driven rain. Rainwater can lead to film runoff on building facades, causing moisture to be
absorbed by the facade and potentially transporting it to internal layers, resulting in moisture-
induced damage and discoloration (Kubilay et al., 2017). Additionally, wind-driven rain can
cause erosion of building materials and moisture-induced salt migration, further contributing to
discoloration by efflorescence and surface soiling (Kubilay et al., 2014).

Moreover, the presence of moisture in porous exterior materials due to factors like microclimate
conditions can result in water penetration into the building envelope, leading to damage,
including discoloration of the façade (Wu, 2021). Furthermore, the growth and activities of
organisms like cyanobacteria can cause bio weathering and discoloration of building exteriors,
impacting their aesthetic appearance and structural integrity (Pandey, 2021).

In the context of fire incidents, external factors like wind can influence the spread of fire along
building exteriors, potentially causing discoloration and damage to the façade (Nishio et al.,
2016). Additionally, the thermal characteristics of flames and their interaction with exposed
façade surfaces can also play a role in affecting the appearance of the exterior side of buildings
(Asimakopoulou et al., 2017).

In conclusion, the discoloration of external facades on the exterior side of buildings can be a
result of various factors such as moisture penetration, environmental elements like rain and wind,
biological activities, and even fire incidents. Understanding and addressing these factors are
crucial in maintaining the visual appeal and structural integrity of building exteriors.

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Identifying, Investigating Root Causes, and Suggesting Scientific Remedial Actions for Interior and Exterior Building Defects

2.7.3. Impact

The impact of discoloration of the external façade on the exterior side of buildings can have
several implications. Firstly, aesthetically, discoloration can significantly diminish the visual
appeal of a building, affecting its overall appearance and potentially reducing its market value.
This can be particularly concerning for commercial buildings where a well-maintained exterior is
crucial for attracting customers and maintaining a positive image.

Moreover, discoloration can also signal underlying issues with the building envelope, such as
moisture penetration or biological growth, which can lead to structural damage over time.
Addressing discoloration promptly is essential to prevent further deterioration of the façade and
potential costly repairs in the future.

From a health perspective, certain types of discoloration, such as mold growth, can pose health
risks to occupants of the building, especially those with respiratory conditions. It is crucial to
address the root cause of discoloration to ensure a healthy indoor environment.

Furthermore, the presence of discoloration on the exterior façade can impact the building's
energy efficiency. Darker discoloration can absorb more heat, potentially leading to increased
cooling demands in warmer climates. This can result in higher energy costs and a larger carbon
footprint for the building.

2.7.4. Functional Implications

The impact of discoloration of the external façade on the exterior side of buildings can have
several implications. Firstly, aesthetically, discoloration can significantly diminish the visual
appeal of a building, affecting its overall appearance and potentially reducing its market value.
This can be particularly concerning for commercial buildings where a well-maintained exterior is
crucial for attracting customers and maintaining a positive image.

Moreover, discoloration can also signal underlying issues with the building envelope, such as
moisture penetration or biological growth, which can lead to structural damage over time.

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Identifying, Investigating Root Causes, and Suggesting Scientific Remedial Actions for Interior and Exterior Building Defects

Addressing discoloration promptly is essential to prevent further deterioration of the façade and
potential costly repairs in the future.

From a health perspective, certain types of discoloration, such as mold growth, can pose health
risks to occupants of the building, especially those with respiratory conditions. It is crucial to
address the root cause of discoloration to ensure a healthy indoor environment.

Furthermore, the presence of discoloration on the exterior façade can impact the building's
energy efficiency. Darker discoloration can absorb more heat, potentially leading to increased
cooling demands in warmer climates. This can result in higher energy costs and a larger carbon
footprint for the building.

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Identifying, Investigating Root Causes, and Suggesting Scientific Remedial Actions for Interior and Exterior Building Defects

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Identifying, Investigating Root Causes, and Suggesting Scientific Remedial Actions for Interior and Exterior Building Defects

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Identifying, Investigating Root Causes, and Suggesting Scientific Remedial Actions for Interior and Exterior Building Defects

4. Annex
4.1. Checklist to identify possible defects in both interior and exterior building
elements
Exterior Building Elements:

1. Roof:

 Missing or damaged tiles

 Signs of leaks

2. Walls:

 Cracks or gaps in the facade

 Stains or discoloration

3. Windows and Doors:

 Proper sealing and weather stripping

 Functionality of locks and hinges

4. Foundation:

 Cracks or settling

 Water penetration

5. Exterior Walkways and Driveways:

 Cracks or uneven surfaces

 Proper drainage

Interior Building Elements:

1. Ceilings:

 Stains or discoloration

 Sagging or cracks

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Identifying, Investigating Root Causes, and Suggesting Scientific Remedial Actions for Interior and Exterior Building Defects

2. Walls:

 Cracks or holes

 Peeling paint or wallpaper

3. Floors:

 Cracks, stains, or uneven surfaces

 Loose or damaged tiles or floorboards

4. Windows and Doors:

 Proper sealing and weather stripping

 Functionality of locks and hinges

5. Plumbing:

 Leaks under sinks or around pipes

 Proper drainage

6. Electrical:

 Proper functioning of outlets and switches

 No exposed wiring

7. HVAC Systems:

 Proper functioning of heating and cooling systems

 Clean and unobstructed vents

8. Safety Features:

 Check smoke detectors and carbon monoxide detectors

 Ensure fire extinguishers are present and in good condition

9. General Safety:

 Check for trip hazards

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Identifying, Investigating Root Causes, and Suggesting Scientific Remedial Actions for Interior and Exterior Building Defects

 Ensure handrails on stairs are secure

43