MOUNT CARMEL COLLEGE AUTONOMOUS

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS

ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION
LAB MANUAL
III SEMESTER
 LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

Sl. Experiment name Page

No no.
1 AMPLITUDE MODULATION

2 VOLTAGE CONTROLLED OSCILLATOR

3 SECOND ORDER HIGH PASS FILTER

4 SECOND ORDER LOW PASS FILTER

5 PWM AND PPM USING IC 555

6 FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING

7 AMPLITUDE SHIFT KEYING

8 PULSE AMPLITUDE MODULATION

 1. AMPLITUDE MODULATOR AND DEMODUALTOR
AIM: a) To construct a Transistor Amplitude modulator and to determine modulation index.
b) To construct a diode demodulator at the output of the modulator and to study its
performance
COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENT: Power supply (0-15)V, Sine wave signal generator (2),
Transistor SL100, Diode - 0A79, Resistors – 22KΩ, 3.3KΩ, 1KΩ, 10 KΩ, Capacitors-10μF(2),
100μF and 0.1μF, Variable inductance Box, Variable capacitance Box, CRO
PRINCIPLE: Amplitude modulation is a process of varying the amplitude of a high frequency
carrier signal in accordance with the instantaneous values of a modulating signal (low frequency
audio signal). The circuit employs Emitter modulation with a class C amplifier.
The transistor is operated in the class C mode, which is biased beyond cutoff. Carrier input to the
base must be sufficient to drive the transistor to conduction, over a part of the R F cycle, during
which the current flows in the form of pulses. The tuned circuit in the collector is tuned to resonate
at the carrier frequency. The modulating signal is a part of biasing and hence it produces low
frequency variations in the Emitter circuit. When the modulating signal is applied, the amplitude
of the carrier signal varies with the modulating signal and the waveform at the collector is an
Amplitude Modulated wave.
A diode demodulator is a circuit which extracts the modulating signal from the modulated signal.
A diode detector uses a diode which allows only the positive wave from the modulated signal to
pass through it. A RC filter circuit filters the high frequency carrier signal and passes the
modulating signal, which is the positive envelope through it. A de-clamping capacitor removes the
DC component of the output and gives back the original signal.
PROCEDURE: The components are checked and circuit connections are made as shown in the
circuit diagram. RF carrier frequency is set to 20KHz and amplitude is adjusted to 50mV. AF
oscillator is switched on with frequency 200Hz and amplitude adjusted to observe AM wave at the
output of the modulator circuit. 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 of AM wave are noted and modulation index ‘m’
is calculated as
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑚=
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛
The above procedure is repeated for different modulating signal amplitudes.
A demodulator is constructed at the output of the modulator circuit as shown.
The demodulated output waveform is observed on the CRO. The modulating wave, carrier wave,
modulated wave and the de-modulated wave are drawn on a graph sheet.

RESULT: A transistor amplitude-modulator has been constructed and modulation index is

determined.
 2. Voltage Controlled Oscillator using IC555
AIM: To construct a voltage controlled oscillator using IC555 and to determine its frequency of
oscillations with variations in control voltage.

COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED: Timer IC 555, 100K Pot, Resistors 10KΩ,
100KΩ, Capacitor 0.01μF, (0-15) V DC power supply, Multi meter, CRO.

PRINCIPLE: A Voltage controlled oscillator is a free running oscillator which produces a varying
output signal whose frequency can be adjusted over a controlled range by varying 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 (𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑛 )
which is applied to pin5 of the timer. 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑛 becomes the reference voltage to the upper comparator.
The capacitor charges and discharges between the voltages, 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑛 and ½ 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑛 . If Vcon increases, it
increases the charging and discharging time of the capacitor. Hence the time period of the output
signal increases, decreasing the output frequency. Thus, varying the control voltage can vary the
output frequency.

PROCEDURE: Components are checked and connections are made as shown in the circuit
diagram. The potentiometer is varied in given steps and the waveform is observed on the CRO.
The time period T is noted in each case and frequency f = 1/T is calculated. 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑛 is measured
between pin5 and ground using a multimeter. The capacitor waveforms are noted between pin6
and ground. The waveforms are drawn on a graph sheet. The procedure is repeated for 47KPot and
10kPot.

RESULT: A Voltage controlled oscillator using IC555 has been constructed. It is found that the
frequency of oscillations is inversely proportional to the control voltage.
 3. SECOND ORDER HIGH PASS FILTER
AIM: To design and study the frequency response of a second order active high-pass filter
using an op-amp.
COMPONENTS REQUIRED: Op-Amp IC 741, Resistors: R1=10 kΩ, R2=R3= To be
calculated, RF= To be calculated, Capacitors:C2=C3=0.01 μF, Function Generator, Dual Power
Supply (±Vcc), CRO.
THEORY: A high-pass filter (HPF) passes signals with a frequency higher than a certain cutoff
frequency and attenuates signals with lower frequencies. A second-order HPF offers a roll-off
rate of 40 dB/decade and improved selectivity compared to a first-order filter.
For a second-order active HPF using an op-amp: The cutoff frequency is given by:
1
𝑓𝐿 = , (𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑅2 = 𝑅3 = 𝑅, 𝐶2 = 𝐶3 = 𝐶)
2πRC1
The gain (AF) of the filter is determined by:
𝑅𝐹
𝐴𝐹 = 1 +
𝑅1
The circuit uses capacitors at the input and resistors in the feedback path to determine the
filtering behavior.
The frequency response shows that the gain is minimal at very low frequencies, increases near
the cutoff frequency 𝑓𝐿 and becomes constant (maximum) at high frequencies.
Procedure:
To begin the experiment, the design parameters for the second-order high-pass filter are calculated.
A cutoff frequency (fL) of 1 kHz is selected, and capacitors of value C=0.01 μF are chosen. Using
1
the standard formula for the cutoff frequency of a second-order filter, 𝑓𝐿 = 2πRC , the resistor value
1
is computed as approximately 15.9 kΩ. Equal resistor values 𝑅2 and 𝑅3 are used in the input path,
while resistors 𝑅1 and 𝑅𝐹 are used in the feedback network to set the gain. For a gain factor (𝐴𝐹 )
𝑅
of 1.586, the value of 𝑅𝐹 is determined using the relation 𝐴𝐹 = 1 + 𝑅𝐹. The circuit is then
1
assembled on a breadboard according to the given schematic, using an op-amp (IC 741) powered
by a dual power supply. A sine wave input of 1V amplitude is applied using a function generator,
and the output voltage is measured at various input frequencies ranging from well below to well
𝑉
above the cutoff frequency. For each frequency, the corresponding output voltage and gain ( 𝑉𝑜 )
𝑖
are recorded. Finally, a graph of gain versus frequency is plotted to observe the frequency response
and identify the cutoff frequency, where the gain drops to 70.7% of its maximum value.
Result: The second-order high-pass filter was successfully designed and its frequency response
was observed.
4.
 4. SECOND ORDER LOW PASS FILTER
AIM: To design and study the frequency response of a second order active low-pass filter using
an op-amp.
COMPONENTS REQUIRED: Op-Amp IC 741, Resistors: R1=10 kΩ, R2=R3= To be
calculated, RF= To be calculated, Capacitors:C2=C3=0.01 μF, Function Generator, Dual Power
Supply (±Vcc), CRO.
THEORY: A high-pass filter (HPF) passes signals with a frequency higher than a certain cutoff
frequency and attenuates signals with lower frequencies. A second-order LPF offers a roll-off
rate of 40 dB/decade and improved selectivity compared to a first-order filter.
For a second-order active HPF using an op-amp: The cutoff frequency is given by:
1
𝑓𝐻 = , (𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑅2 = 𝑅3 = 𝑅, 𝐶2 = 𝐶3 = 𝐶)
2πRC1
The gain (AF) of the filter is determined by:
𝑅𝐹
𝐴𝐹 = 1 +
𝑅1
The circuit uses capacitors at the input and resistors in the feedback path to determine the
filtering behavior.
The frequency response shows that the gain is minimal at very low frequencies, increases near
the cutoff frequency 𝑓𝐻 and becomes constant (maximum) at high frequencies.
Procedure:
To begin the experiment, the design parameters for the second-order high-pass filter are calculated.
A cutoff frequency (𝑓𝐻 ) of 1 kHz is selected, and capacitors of value C=0.01 μF are chosen. Using
1
the standard formula for the cutoff frequency of a second-order filter, 𝑓𝐻 = 2πRC , the resistor value
1
is computed as approximately 15.9 kΩ. Equal resistor values 𝑅2 and 𝑅3 are used in the input path,
while resistors 𝑅1 and 𝑅𝐹 are used in the feedback network to set the gain. For a gain factor (𝐴𝐹 )
𝑅
of 1.586, the value of 𝑅𝐹 is determined using the relation 𝐴𝐹 = 1 + 𝑅𝐹. The circuit is then
1
assembled on a breadboard according to the given schematic, using an op-amp (IC 741) powered
by a dual power supply. A sine wave input of 1V amplitude is applied using a function generator,
and the output voltage is measured at various input frequencies ranging from well below to well
𝑉
above the cutoff frequency. For each frequency, the corresponding output voltage and gain ( 𝑉𝑜 )
𝑖
are recorded. Finally, a graph of gain versus frequency is plotted to observe the frequency response
and identify the cutoff frequency, where the gain drops to 70.7% of its maximum value.
Result: The second-order low-pass filter was successfully designed and its frequency response
was observed.
 5. PWM AND PPM USING IC 555

AIM: (a) To study pulse width modulation using IC 555.

(b) To convert pulse width modulation to pulse position modulation and to observe
the waveforms.
COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENT REQUIRED: Power supply (0-15) V, Signal Generator,
CRO, IC 555 timer (2), Diode IN4001, Resistors - 47KΩ, 10KΩ (2), 1KΩ (2), 2.2KΩ, Capacitors
- 0.01μF (2), 0.1μF (2).

PRINCIPLE:
Pulse width Modulation (PWM)
It is a modulation technique in which the amplitude and time of commencement of pulses are kept
constant and the pulse width of the pulses is varied in accordance with the amplitude of the
information signal.
In PWM circuit, IC 555 timer is connected in Astable mode. The modulating voltage connected at
the control pin 5 of the timer circuit, controls the width of each pulse in accordance with its
magnitude, keeping the amplitude of the pulse constant.
Pulse position modulation (PPM)
In this system, the position of the sampled pulses is varied in accordance with the information
signal. The amplitude and width of the pulses is kept constant.
Pulse position modulation can be obtained by generating short duration constant width pulses at
the trailing edges of every pulse width modulated pulse.
The PWM pulses are first differentiated and the positive going spikes are discarded. The negative
going spikes are used to trigger a Monostable multivibrator to give a PPM output.
PROCEDURE: The components are checked and the first section of the circuit, section 1 is
constructed. Modulating signal, a sine wave of vi = 6Vp-p and frequency 300Hz is applied at pin
5. Pulse width modulated output is observed at pin3 and the waveform is traced. Section2, trigger
pulse generator is constructed and the trigger pulse is observed on
the CRO. Section3, PPM circuit is constructed and the output is observed on the CRO with
respect to PWM waveform.
RESULT:(i) A PWM circuit has been constructed and waveforms observed.
(ii) PWM output has been given to a Monostable multivibrator as trigger pulses to
obtain PPM and waveforms observed.
 6. FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING MODULATOR

AIM:
To construct FSK modulator circuit and to determine mark frequency and space frequency
COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
Power supply (0-5) V, Function Generator, CRO, Timer IC 555, Transistor –3906, Resistors-33kΩ,
220kΩ, 6.8kΩ, Capacitors- 0.001μF
PRINCIPLE:
Frequency shift keying [FSK] is a simple, low performance type of digital modulation. FSK is a
form of constant amplitude angle modulation similar to standard frequency modulation [FM]
except the modulating signal is a binary signal that varies between two discrete voltage levels
rather than a continuously changing analog waveform. Consequently, FSK is sometimes called
binary FSK [BFSK].
With binary FSK, the carrier frequency (fc) is shifted up and down in the frequency domain
by the binary input signal. As the binary input signal changes from logic 0 to logic 1 and vice
versa, the output frequency shifts between two frequencies: a mark or logic 1 frequency [fm], and
a space or logic 0 frequencies [fs]. The mark and space frequencies are separated from the carrier
frequency by peak frequency deviation Δf and from each other by 2Δf.
With FSK, frequency deviation is defined as the difference between either the mark or
space frequency and center frequency or half the difference between the mark and space
frequencies.
When the binary input changes from logic 1 to logic 0 and vice versa, the FSK output
frequency shifts from a mark [fm] to a space [fs] frequency and vice versa .The mark frequency is
the highest frequency [fc+Δf] and the space frequency is the lower frequency [fc-Δf].

PROCEDURE:
Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram. AF input is set to 1Vp-p, and 1KHz using
the function generator. Output is observed on the CRO. The observed waveforms are drawn on the
graph. The mark frequency [fm] and the space frequency [fs] are observed and the waveforms
traced on a graph sheet.

RESULT:
FSK modulator circuit is constructed and mark frequency and space frequency are determined.
 7. ASK MODULATION AND DEMODULATION

AIM:
To study and implement ASK modulator and demodulator and to trace the waveforms.
COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
Power supply (0-15) V (2), Function Generator (2), CRO, IC741, Transistor SL100, Diode 0A79,
Resistors- 220KΩ, 33KΩ, 3.3KΩ, 10KΩ, Capacitors-0.1μF
PRINCIPLE:
The simplest digital modulation technique is amplitude shift keying (ASK), where a binary
information signal directly modulates the amplitude of an analog carrier. ASK is similar to standard
amplitude modulation except there are only two output amplitudes possible. Amplitude shift
keying is also called digital amplitude modulation (DAM). With amplitude modulation, the digital
signal is used to switch the carrier between amplitude levels and hence it is referred to as
“Amplitude shift keying”. The Digital modulation technique in ASK is such that the signal is
present for a certain specific period and is absent for some period. The ASK waveform is shown
in the fig. The region for which the signal is absent is called “mark” and the region for which the
signal is absent is called “space”.

PROCEDURE:
Components are checked and the first sections of the circuit i.e. ASK modulator is constructed.
Modulating signal, a square wave of Vi=12Vp-p and frequency of 250Hz is applied at the base of
the transistor. The high frequency carrier, a sine wave of amplitude 12V and frequency 2 – 4 KHz
is applied at the collector of the transistor. The ASK modulated output is observed at the emitter
of the transistor with respect to ground, and the output is traced. An ASK demodulator is
constructed as in the second section. The ASK modulated signal is applied as an input to this
circuit. The demodulated ASK output is observed on the CRO and the waveforms are traced.

RESULT:
An ASK Modulator and Demodulator circuits have been constructed and the Waveforms traced.
 8. PULSE AMPLITUDE MODULATION AND DEMODULATION

AIM: (a) To construct a Pulse Amplitude Modulator and to sketch the output waveforms.
(b) To construct a PAM demodulator and to study its performance.

COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENT REQUIRED: Function Generator (2), CRO, Transistor -

BC107, Resistor - 10KΩ, 1KΩ, 680Ω, Capacitor – 0.01μF.

PRINCIPLE: Pulse amplitude modulation is a kind of analog modulation where the carrier pulse
is amplitude modulated at discrete time intervals corresponding to a continuous modulating signal
i.e., the amplitude of the carrier pulse is varied with respect to the modulating signal at the instant
of sampling.
The circuit is a simple emitter follower. In the absence of carrier signal, output follows the input.
Base of the transistor is coupled with the modulating signal and carrier at the collector end.
Amplitude of the carrier is kept high to bias the transistor into the cut off region. When the pulse
signal is high, the transistor circuit behaves as an emitter follower and the output follows the input-
modulating signal. When the clock signal is low, the transistor is in cut off and the output is zero.
A PAM de-modulator is a RC circuit which filters the high frequency carrier wave and at the output
the signal is recovered back.

PROCEDURE: Circuit connections are made as shown. The modulating voltage is adjusted to
1V, 3 KHz and the carrier voltage (square wave) is adjusted 3 V, 33 KHz frequency and individual
waveforms are observed. The output waveforms are observed at the emitter. A demodulator circuit
is connected at the output of the modulator. The demodulated waveform is observed. The input
output waveforms are traced on a graph sheet.

RESULT: A Pulse Amplitude Modulator has been constructed using transistor and output
waveforms are observed. A de-modulator circuit is connected at the output of the modulator and
waveforms studied.