MODULE III

Lesson Stadia Measurements

1
Lesson Traversing
2
Lesson Area Computation
3
Lesson Mapping
4
Lesson Volume of Earthwork
5
5.1. Types of Cross-Section
5.2. Setting of slopes stakes
5.3. Earthwork volumes
Lesson 6 Land Grading

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 MODULE III

 INTRODUCTI
This is the final module, topics involve in the discussion are the principles and
concepts of (stadia measurements, traversing, area computation, mapping, volume
earthworks and land grading). It is hoped that the student will learn to appreciate the
application of the different principles and concept of the above topics in the
application of agricultural and bio systems engineering practice. The student will
learn the different stadia measurements, traversing computations, area & volume
computation of the different earthworks, and partition of land.

OBJECTIV
ES
After studying the module, you should be able to:
1. Discuss the importance of stadia measurements;
2. Compute different problems in traversing;
3. Identify the different methods in determining area;
4. Discuss the importance of mapping;
5. Compute the different types of volume earthworks; and
6. Discuss the principle and concept of land grading.

 DIRECTIONS/ MODULE ORGANIZER

There are six lessons in the module. Read each lesson carefully then answer
the exercises/activities to find out how much you have benefited from it. Work on
these exercises carefully and submit your output to the google classroom of the
class.

In case you encounter difficulty, discuss this with your instructor during the
face-to-face meeting. If not contact your tutor at the IABE office.

Good luck and happy reading!!!

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LESSON 1

Introduction
 STADIA
MEASUREMENTS

Tachometric surveys the branch of surveying in which the horizontal and vertical
distances with the angular measurements can be determined. It is not so accurate
method of finding the horizontal distances as the Chaining is, but it is most suitable
for carrying out the surveys to find the distances in the hilly area where other
methods are quite difficult being carried out.

It is generally used to locate contours, hydrographic surveys and laying out routes of
highways, railways and other applications for civil engineering. There are several
different types of system, including the stadia, sub tense bar, and optical wedge
systems. The stadia tachometry method is the most commonly used, stadia method,
is used to quickly measure distances with an engineer's transit, theodolites, or auto-
level and a graduated rod. This Stadia range finding is good for locating topographic
details such as fields, rivers, bridges, buildings, and roads.

Features of Tachometer or Characteristic of Tachometer

The multiple constant (f/i) should have a normal value of 100 and the error contained
in this value should not exceed 1 in 1000.

The axial horizontal lines should be exactly midway between the other two lines.

The telescope should be fitted with an anallatic lens to make the additive constant (f
+ d) exactly to zero.

The telescope should be truly analectic.

The telescope should be powerful having a magnification of 20 to 30 diameters. The

Aperture of the object should be 35 to 45 mm in diameter.

Levelling and Stadia Staff Rod

For short distances, ordinary leveling staves are used. The leveling staff normally
4m long, and it can be folded with here parts. The graduations are so marked that a

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minimum reading of 0.005 or 0.001m can be taken.

Different systems of Tachometric Measurement

The various systems of tachometric survey may be classified as follows:

1. The Stadia Method

i. Fixed Hair Method and- In this method, stadia hairs are kept at fixed interval
and the staff interval or intercept (corresponding to the stadia hairs) on the
leveling staff varies. Staff intercept depends upon the distance between the
instrument station and the staff.

ii. Movable Hair Method- In this method, stadia hairs are kept at fixed interval
and the staff interval or intercept (corresponding to the stadia hairs) on the
leveling staff varies. Staff intercept depends upon the distance between the
instrument station and the staff.

2. Non-stadia systems - This method of surveying is primarily based on principles

of trigonometry and thus telescopes without stadia diaphragm are used. This system
comprises of two methods:

(i) Tangential method - In this method, readings at two different points on a

staff are taken against the horizontal cross hair and corresponding vertical
angles are noted.

(ii) Subtense bar method - In this method, a bar of fixed length, called a
subtense bar is placed in horizontal position. The angle subtended by two
target points, corresponding to a fixed distance on the subtense bar, at the
instrument station is measured. The horizontal distance between the
subtense bar and the instrument is computed from the known distance
between the targets and the measured horizontal angle.

Principles of Stadia Method

(Figure 1) A tachometer is temporarily adjusted on the station P with horizontal line

of sight. Let a and b be the lower and the upper stadia hairs of the instrument and
their actual vertical separation be designated as i. Let f be the focal length of the
objective lens of the tachometer and c be horizontal distance between the optical
center of the objective lens and the vertical axis of the instrument. Let the objective
lens is focused to a staff held vertically at Q, say at horizontal distance D from the
instrument station.

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 Figure 1: Principle of stadia measurement

By the laws of optics, the images of readings at A and B of the staff will appear along
the stadia hairs at a and b respectively. Let the staff interval i.e., the difference
between the readings at A and B be designated by s. Similar triangle between the
object and image will form with vertex at the focus of the objective lens (F). Let the
horizontal distance of the staff from F be d. Then, from the similar Ds ABF and a' b' F,

as a' b' = ab = i. The ratio (f / i) is a constant or f a particular instrument and is

known as stadia interval factor, also instrument constant. It is denoted by K and thus

d = K.s --------------------- Equation (1)

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The horizontal distance (D) between the center of the instrument and the station
point (Q) at which the staff is held is d + f + c. If C is substituted for (f + c), then the
horizontal distance D from the center of the instrument to the staff is given by the
equation

D = Ks + C--------------------- Equation (2)

K = constant multiplication
s = the staff intercept
C = constant additive
D = distance measured

Most of the theodolite with K and C are assigned to a single value. Typically, the
value K= 100 and C=0. So stadia formula would be:

D = 100 S

Theory of Stadia Tachometry

The following is the notation used in stadia tachometry

O = Optical center of object glass.

A1, A2, C = Readings on staff cut by three hairs
a1, a2, C = Bottom Top, and Central Hair of diaphragm
a1 a2, = i = length of image
A1, A2, = S = Staff Intercept
V = Vertical axis of instrument

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 f = Focal length of an object glass
d = distance between optical center and vertical axis of instrument
u = distance between optical center and staff
v = distance between optical center and image.

For similar triangles a1, Oa2 and A 1, OA2,

i v iu
= or v= --------------------- Equation (3)
s u s

From the properties of length

1 1 1
+ = --------------------- Equation (4)
v u f

Putting the value of v in Eq. (4)

1 1 1
+ =
iu/ s u f

Or

s 1 1
+ =
iu u f

Or

1 s1 1
+ =
u i f

Or

s+1
u=
fi

Inclined Stadia Measurements

It is usual that the line of sight of the tachometer is inclined to the horizontal. Thus, it
is frequently required to reduce the inclined observations into horizontal distance and
difference in elevation.

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 Figure 2: Principle of stadia measurement

Let us consider a tachometer (having constants K and C) is temporarily adjusted on a

station, say P (Figure.2). The instrument is sighted to a staff held vertically, say at Q.
Thus, it is required to find the horizontal distance PP1 (= H) and the difference in
elevation P1Q. Let A, R and B be the staff points whose images are formed
respectively at the upper, middle and lower cross hairs of the tachometer. The line of
sight, corresponding to the middle cross hair, is inclined at an angle of elevation q
and thus, the staff with a line perpendicular to the line of sight. Therefore A'B' = AB
cos q = s cos q where s is the staff intercept AB. The distance D (= OR) is C + K. scos
q (from Equation 2). But the distance OO1 is the horizontal distance H, which equals
OR cos q. Therefore the horizontal distance H is given by the equation.

H = (Ks cos q + C) cos q

Or H = Ks cos2 q + C cos q ----------------- Equation (5)

in which K is the stadia interval factor (f / i), s is the stadia interval, C is the stadia
constant (f + c), and q is the vertical angle of the line of sight read on the vertical
circle of the transit. The distance RO1, which equals OR sin q, is the vertical distance
between the telescope axis and the middle cross-hair reading. Thus V is given by the
equation

V = (K s c os q + c) s in q

V = Ks sin q cos q + C sin q ----------------- Equation (6 )

Thus, the difference in elevation between P and Q is (h + V - r), where h is the height
of the instrument at P and r is the staff reading corresponding to the middle hair.

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Uses of Stadia

The stadia method of surveying is particularly useful for following cases:

1. In differential leveling, the back sight and foresight distances are balanced
conveniently if the level is equipped with stadia hairs.
2. In profile leveling and cross sectioning, stadia is a convenient means of finding
distances from level to points on which rod readings are taken.
3. In rough trigonometric, or indirect, leveling with the transit, the stadia method is
more rapid than any other method.
4. For traverse surveying of low relative accuracy, where only horizontal angles and
distances are required, the stadia method is a useful rapid method.
5. On surveys of low relative accuracy - particularly topographic surveys-where both
the relative location of points in a horizontal plane and the elevation of these
points are desired, stadia is useful. The horizontal angles, vertical angles, and the
stadia interval are observed, as each point is sighted; these three observations
define the location of the point sighted.

Errors in Stadia Measurement

Most of the errors associated with stadia measurement are those occur during
observations for horizontal angles and differences in elevation. Specific sources of
errors in horizontal and vertical distances computed from observed stadia intervals
are as follows:

1. Error in Stadia Interval factor

This produces a systematic error in distances proportional to the amount of
error in the stadia interval factor.

2. Error in staff graduations

If the spaces on the rod are uniformly too long or too short, a systematic error
proportional to the stadia interval is produced in each distance.

3. Incorrect stadia Interval

The stadia interval varies randomly owing to the inability of the instrument
operator to observe the stadia interval exactly. In a series of connected
observations (as a traverse) the error may be expected to vary as the square
root of the number of sights. This is the principal error affecting the precision.

MODERN INSTRUMENTS OF TACHEOMETRY

A. Total Station

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A total station, which is shown in figure (1), is a theodolite that incorporates distance
measuring using a laser or infrared beam, along with internal/external electronic data
logging These devices save the surveyor from collecting multiple measurements for
each point location whose position needs to be known, as triangles can be
constructed trigonometrically once you know one internal angle (between baseline
and unknown point) and two edge lengths (the baseline and measured distance to
unknown point).

Figure 3: Total Station

It is a combination electronic transit and electronic distance measuring device (EDM)

types of total station surveying slope Staking, topographic surveys, construction
project layout , leveling, traverse surveys and adjustments ,building face surveys ,
resections , areas , intersections, point projections, taping from baseline, road
(Highway) surveys, accuracy is highly dependent on leveling the instrument. Thus
two leveling bubbles are provided on the instrument and are referred to the circular
level and the plate level. Circular level is located on the tribrack while plate level is
on horizontal axis of instrument just below scope of the total station.

B. GPS Instrument

This device has become a standard surveying technique in most surveying practices
advantage of GPS surveys

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 • Three Dimensional
• Site Indivisibility Not Needed
• Weather Independent
• Day or Night Operation
• Common Reference System
• Rapid Data Processing with Quality Control
• High Precision
• Less Labor Intensive/Cost Effective
• Very Few Skilled Personnel Needed

GPS eliminates the need for establishing control before a survey. GPS can establish
control as and when need Most GPS survey projects consist of multiple baselines or
networks, and the baselines can be measured individually using only two receivers or
several at a time using multiple receivers d and establish points at strategic locations
to start and close conventional traverses The GPS survey technique used in a given
project depends on:

• Accuracy requirements
• Urgency of the project
• Local terrain conditions
• Available equipment

C. EDM instrument

Modern EDM equipment contains hard-wired algorithms for reducing the slope
distance to its horizontal and vertical equivalent. For most engineering surveys, Total

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stations combined with electronic data loggers are now virtually standard equipment
on site. Basic theodolites can be transformed into total stations by add-on, top-
mounted EDM modules. The development of EDM has produced fundamental
changes in surveying procedures.

An EDM measures the line of sight distance between the instrument and reflector.
This is a slope distance and not horizontal unless the EDM and reflector are at the
same elevation. When EDMs were first affordable a typical procedure a surveyor used
would be:

(1) measure a zenith angle with a theodolite,

(2) remove the theodolite from the tripod and mount the EDM (often using the same
tribrach to maintain the same setup) and measure the slope distance, and, finally
(3) manually reduce the slope distance to horizontal. Electronic Distance
Measurements (EDM) can be divided into:

1. Infrared wave instruments

2. Light wave instruments
3. Micro wave instruments

D. Infrared Wave Instruments

These instruments measure distances by using amplitude modulated infrared waves.

Prisms mounted on target are used to reflect the waves. These instruments are light

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and economical and can be mounted on theodolites for angular measurements. Also
the range of such an instrument will be 3 km and the accuracy achieved is ± 10 mm.

E. Light Wave Instruments

These are the instruments which measures distances based on propagation of

modulated light waves. The accuracy of such an instrument varies from 0.5 to 5 mm /
km distance and has a range of nearly 3 km

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F. Microwave Instruments

These instruments make use of high frequency radio waves. These instruments were
invented as early as 1950 in South Africa by Dr. T.L. Wadley. Also the range of these
instruments is up to 100 km and can be used both during day and might.

G. Digital Level is the process of measuring, by direct or indirect methods, vertical

distances in order to determine elevations. To establish heights relative to a
benchmark a device with a sighting telescope called a level. The advantages of
digital levels are that observations are taken without the need to read a staff or
record anything by hand. Introducing this automation removes two of the most
common errors when leveling, reading the staff incorrectly and writing down the
wrong value in the field book.

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H. Digital Theodolite

A surveying instrument and precision instrument for measuring angles in the

horizontal and vertical plane the se of theodolite, Mapping applications and in the
construction industry, Measurement of Horizontal and vertical angle , Measurement
of magnetic bearing of lines , Locating points on line, Prolonging survey lines ,
Determining difference in elevation, Setting out curves , Aligning tunnels, Mining
works in digital theodolite all the parameters required to be observed during
surveying can be obtained, the value of observation gets displayed in a viewing
panel, the precision of this type of instrument varies in the order of 0.1" to 10".

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Sample Problem Number 1

From the table below, calculate the actual distance for each point. K = 100, C = 0.

Answer

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Sample Problem Number 2

Based on the figure, calculate the information below. If the bearing from the station 1
to point A is 10o 30’ 40” and the bearing from the station 1 to point B is 70 o 50’ 40”,
calculate:

i. reduced level at the station 1, point A and point B

ii. the horizontal distance from A to B

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The Answer

When staff at TBM

= 1.011 – 0.542
STBM =Top stadia−below stadia

= 0.469 m

When staff at station A

= 1.742 – 13.21
S A =Top stadia−below stadia

= 0.421 m

When staff at station B

= 3.210 – 2.955
S B=Top stadia−below stadia

= 0.255 m

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 1
V TBM = K s sin 20 °
2
= 100 ( 0.469 ) sin 2 ( 3 ° 10 )
1 '
2
¿ 2.586 m

1
V A = K s sin 20 °
2
1
= 100 ( 0.421 ) sin 2 ( +2 ° 45 )
'
2
¿ 2.018 m

1
V B= K s sin 20 °
2
= 100 ( 0.255 ) sin 2 ( −4 ° 10 )
1 '
2
¿ 1.848 m

R . L.1=R LTBM −Hi−V + h

¿ 40.00−1.214−2587+ 0.777
¿ 36.976 m

R . L. A =R L1−Hi−V −h
¿ 36.977+1.214 +2.018−1.532
¿ 38.677 m

R . L. B=R+ Hi−V −h
¿ 36.977+1.214−1.848−3.103
¿ 33.240 m

Where:
R.L = reduce level
Hi= height instrument
V = vertical distance
H = middle stadia

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 Module
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 Exercise Number I.

Solve the following problems show your complete solution, font size of
your worksheet shall be 12 and font style shall be Trebuchet MS, file
name shall be your Family Name-EXNo.1-ABEB224, kindly upload your
activity in pdf format in the google classroom. Example: GAÑOLA-
[Link] of submission will be on May 7, 2021 until
5:00 pm

1.
Point Top Stadia Middle Below Stadia Distance
Stadia stadia Difference,
s
A 180.93 1.83 m 1.631 m
cm
B 3.32 m 2.81 m 289.45
cm
C 2.87 m 1.76 m 100.89
cm
D 2.50 m 1.96 m 1.80 m
E 1.33 m 1.12 m 0.99
Lesson 2

 TRAVERSING
PRINCIPLES

Introduction

A traverse consists of a series of straight lines connecting successive points. The

points defining the ends of the traverse lines are called traverse stations or traverse
points.

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Distance along the line between successive traverse points is determined either by
direct measurement using a tape or electronic distance measuring (EDM) equipment,
or by indirect measurement using tachometric methods. At each point where the
traverse changes direction, an angular measurement is taken using a theodolite.

Traverse party: it usually consists of an instrument operator, a head tape man and
rare tape man.

Equipment’s for the traverse party: The equipment’s for the traverse party are the
theodolite, tapes, hand level, leveling staff, ranging pole & plumb bobs, EDM &
reflector, stakes & hubs, tacks, marking crayon, points, walkie talkies, & hammer etc.

Purpose of traverse: It is a convenient, rapid method for establishing horizontal

control particularly when the lines of sights are short due to heavily built up areas
where triangulation and trilateration are not applicable. The purpose includes:

-Property surveys to locate or establish boundaries;

-Supplementary horizontal control for topographic mapping surveys;
-Location and construction layout surveys for high ways, railway, and other private
and public works;
- Ground control surveys for photogrammetric mapping.

Traversing by Compass and Theodolite

Type of Traverse

1. Open traverse: It starts at a point of known position and terminates at a point of

unknown position.

- It is not possible to check the consistence of angles and distance measurement.

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- To minimize errors, distances can be measured twice, angles turned by repetition,
magnetic bearings observed on all lines and astronomic observations made
periodically (not done in engineering works).

2. Closed traverse: It originates at a point of known position and close on another

point of known horizontal position.

This type of traverse is preferable to all others since computational checks are
possible which allow detection of systematic errors in both distance and direction.

Traverses also categorized on the method of observing angles.

3. Compass Traverse

When compasses are used to run traverses, forward and back bearings are observed
from each traverse station and distances are taped. If local attraction exists at any
traverse station, both the forward and back bearings are affected equally. Thus
interior angles computed from forward and back bearings are independent of local
attraction. Since these angles are independent of local attraction, the sum of these
interior angles provides a legitimate indication of the angular error in the traverse.

Assuming that all bearings are of equal precision and non-correlated, this error is
distributed equally among the number of interior angles. Since none of the traverse
lines has an absolute direction that is known to be correct, it is necessary to select a
line affected least by local attraction.

4. Interior angle traverse:

Interior angle traverse is the one that is employed for closed loop traverse.
Successive stations occupied and back sight is taken to the preceding station with
horizontal circle set zero. The instrument is then turned on its upper motion until the
next station is bisected/sighted and the interior angle is observed. The horizontal

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circle reading gives the interior angle in the clockwise direction. Horizontal distances
are determined by stadia and angles should be observed twice by double sighting.

Azimuth of a line =360-(back azimuth of preceding line + Clockwise interior angle).

In closed figure
n

∑ α i=( n−2 ) 180

i=1

n is the number of stations

The error of closure can be distributed to all angles equally assuming that all
observations are made with equal precision.

Example:

A clockwise interior angle in a closed traverse is as follows

A= 840 58’, B=1570 38’, C=240 37’
D= 1530 14’ ,
E=1030 54’, F=
1390 06’ G=
2360 49’

Compute the
error of closure and
adjust the interior
angle.

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5. Deflection angle traverses

This method of running traverses is widely employed than the other especially on
open traverses. It is mostly common in location of routes, canals, roads, highways,
pipe lines, etc.

Successive traverse stations are occupied with a theodolite with horizontal circle set
at zero and back sight taken to the preceding station with a telescope reverse. The
telescope is then plunged and the line of sight is directed to the next station, by
turning the instrument about the vertical axis on its upper motion and the deflection
angle is observed. Angles have to be observed by double sighting.

Azimuth of line =Azimuth of preceding line + R

Azimuth of line =Azimuth of preceding line - L

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In the above figure the azimuth of line AX and DY and are used to check the angular
closure for the traverse

0
A XA + α 2 +α 4−α 1−α 3−360 = A DY

n n
A1 + ∑ α Ri −∑ α Li −3600= A 2
i=1 i=1

Where: A1=Azimuth of starting station

A2=Azimuth of closing station
R= deflection to the right
L= deflection to the left.

The angular error of closure can be computed and the adjustment of the observed
angles is made assuming equal weights for all angles, the error of closure may be
distributed equally among the deflection angles.

6. Angle to the right traverse

This method can be used in open, closed, or closed loop traverses. Successive
theodolite stations are occupied and back sight is taken to the preceding station with
the horizontal circle set zero. Then foresight is taken on the next station using the
upper motion in the clockwise direction. The reading gives the angle to the right at
the station and angles should be observed by double sighting.

Azimuth a line= angle to the right - Back azimuth of preceding line.

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 Where A1 & A2 are Azimuths of the starting and closing stations.
n=no of traverse stations (exclusive of fixed stations).

Any disclosure can be distributed equally to all angles assuming equal precision.

7. Azimuth traverse

This method is used extensively on topographic and other surveys where a large
number of details are located by angular and linear measurements from the traverse
stations. Successive stations are occupied, beginning with the line of known or
assumed azimuth. At each station the theodolite is oriented by setting the horizontal
circle index to read the back azimuth (fore ward azimuth ± 1800) of the preceding
line, and then back sighting to the preceding traverse station. The instrument is then
turned on the upper motion, and a foresight on the following traverse station is
taken. The reading indicated by the horizontal circle on the clockwise circle is the
azimuth of the forward line.

Any angular error of closure of a traverse becomes evident by the difference

between initial and final observations taken along the first line.

8. Stadia traverse

In stadia traverse the horizontal distance between traverse station is determined by

stadia method. The stadia traverse is sufficiently accurate and considerably more
rapid and economical than corresponding surveys made with theodolite and tape. Its
advantage is that elevations can be determined concurrently with horizontal position.

9. Plane table and alidade

Traversing with the plane table involves the same principle as running a traverse
with a theodolite. Successive plane table and alidade stations are occupied, the table
is oriented and back sight on the preceding station is taken. A fore sight is then taken

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to the next station and its location is plotted on the plane table sheet. Distances and
difference in elevations are determine by stadia using the alidade and scaled off on
the paper. Check lines can also provide for checking the consistency.

Traverse Computations

Field operation for traverses yields angles or directions and distance for a set of lines
connecting a series of traverse stations. Angles can be checked for error of closure
and corrected so that preliminary corrected values can be computed. And observed
distances can be reduced to equivalent horizontal distanced. The preliminary
directions and reduced distances are suitable for use in traverse computations, which
are performed in a plane rectangular coordinate system.

Computation with plane coordinates by considering the figure below.

Let the reduced horizontal distance of traverse lines ij and jk be d ij and djk
respectively, and Ai and Aj be the azimuths of ij and jk. Let X ij and Yij be the departure
& latitude.

Xij= dij sin Ai = departure

Yij = dij cos Ai =latitude

If the coordinates of i are xi and yi

So, the coordinates of j are:

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Note: the signs of azimuth functions

If the coordinates for the two ends of a traverse line are given, distance between two
ends can be determined as:

d ij =[ ( xj−xi ) + ( yj− yi ) ]
2 2 1/ 2

The azimuth of line ij from north and south is

−1 xj−xi −1 xj−xi
Aij =tan A sij=tan
yj− yi yj− yi

After coordinates for all the traverse points (all the departure and latitudes) for all
lines have been computed, a check is necessary on the accuracy of the observations
and the validity of calculations. In a closed traverse, the algebraic sum of the
departures should equal the difference between the x- coordinates at the beginning
and ending stations of the traverse. Similarly, the algebraic sum of the latitudes

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should equal the difference between the y coordinates at the beginning and ending
stations.

In a closed loop traverse, the algebraic sum of the latitudes and the algebraic sum of
the departures each must equal zero.

For a traverse containing n stations starting at i=1 and ending at station i=n, the
foregoing conditions can be expressed as follows.

n−1 n−1
X n−X 1=∑ xi , i+ 1=∑ depatures
i =1 i=1

n−1 n−1
Y n−Y 1=∑ yi ,i+1=∑ latitudes
i=1 i=1

The amounts by which the above equation will fail to be satisfied are called simply
closures.

The closure correction in departure dx and dy, which are of opposite signs to errors,
are:

n−1
d x =( X n −X 1 )−∑ X 1 ,i+1
i=1

n−1
d y = ( Y n−Y 1 ) −∑ Y 1 ,i+1
i=1

And for closed loop traverse d x =−∑ departures∧¿ ¿ d y =−∑ latitudes

Sources of errors and precision of traversing

When traversing, errors may arise in the following measurements.

a. Linear measurements: Errors in linear measurement are those as systematic,

and random errors. These errors in linear measurements should by corrected
considering its type.

b. Angular measurements: There are two main sources of errors in the

measurement of the traverse angle.

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I. Observational errors:

 Due to lateral refraction, haze and wind the line of sight may not be truly
straight. It is therefore important to keep the line of sight 1m above ground
on hot sunny days. In wind and haze no need to attempt at accurate readings.

 If the signal is too large it is not possible to bisect accurately, and if the signal
is not plumbed vertically above the station mark, wrong direction will be
observed. Therefore try and always observe directly on the station mark. If
this is not possible, sight to a plumb-bob or accurately plumbed target or
signal; never sight to a hand held ranging rod.

 Errors can arise in mis reading and mis booking observations of the vernier or
micrometer, so always check that the reading booked appears on the
instrument.

ii) Instrumental errors.

 Error in the adjustment of the theodolite. Always observe on both faces of the
theodolite when measuring horizontal and vertical angles.

 The theodolite must be properly leveled before observations are made. So

that ensure the plate bubble remains in the same position in its tube when
the theodolite is rotated through 3600.

 Ensure that the theodolite is stable with the legs firmly planted in solid
ground and that the tripod adjusting screws are properly tightened.

 The theodolite must be properly centered over the station mark with an
optical plummet or plumbing rod.

 If the horizontal circle is moved between observations the reduced angles will
be in error. This can occur for any of the following reasons

i) Screwing the theodolite too loosely to the tripod head.

ii) Omitting to secure the movable head.
iii) Omitting to clamp the lower plate.
iv) Using the lower tangent screw instead of the upper tangent screw.
v) Moving the orientation screw on single-axis theodolites.

Checking and adjusting traverse.

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Traverse adjustment should be applied before the results of the traverse are usable
for determining areas or coordinates for publishing the data, or for computing lines to
be located from the traverse stations, to make the traverse mathematically
consistent. The closure in latitudes and departures must be adjusted out.

The compass rule

Consider a traverse station i,

δ xi =correction to Xi
δ yi = correction to Yi
δ Xt =total closure correction of the traverse in the X coordinate.
δ Yt = total closure correction of the traverse in the Y coordinate.
Li = distance from station i to the next station.
L = total length of traverse

dx t =( X n−X 1 ) −∑ departure
dx t =( Y n−Y 1 )−∑ latitude

Then the correction are

δ xi =( LiL ) d X ∧¿ δ =( LiL )d Y
t yi t

Alternatively, corrections may be applied to the departure and latitudes prior to

calculating coordinates

δxij= ( dijL ) d x t ( )
dij
and δyij= L d y t

δ xij and δ yij are respective corrections to the departure and latitude of line ij which
has a length of dij.

SAMPLE P R O B LE M

In a closed traverse the distance between traverse stations and the deflection angle
are as hereunder. Compute the error of closure and adjust the traverse using
compass rule.

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Solution:

Using the formula

A1 + ∑ α R−∑ α L−360 = A2
0

1700 24’ + 1640 15’- 2530 21’ -360o = 81018’ ≠ 800 38’

Error of closure 810 18’ - 800 38’ = 00 40’ 00’

Correction per angle = 0 0 40 ' 00} over {4} = {0} ^ {0} 10'00 ¿

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 Module
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 282.0 145.0
X D −X A = , Y D−Y A =
+ 0.73 −0.92

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 THIN

Final Lab Exercise Number 1

Problem: GRAPHICAL ADJUSTMENT OF A CLOSED TRAVERSE. Deadline of submission

will be on May 21, 2021 until 5:00 pm

Objective: To learn how to plot a closed traverse and adjust the error of closure by a
graphical application of the compass rule.

LAB EXERCISE OUTLINE

A. Instrument & Accessories: Protractor, Triangles, Paper, Pen, Pencil, & other
Drawing Instruments.

B. Procedure:
1. This problem is an indoor lab exercise and it will be assumed that the given data
were taken from an actual field observation.
2. In order that the student will better understand the procedure involved in
working out this lab exercise, the following illustrative problem is given.

3. Illustrative Problem:

a. Constructing the Correction Triangle.

1) Using the same scale used in plotting the given traverse, construct a
straight line AA' representing the total length of the given traverse and
mark off distances AB, BC, CD, DE, and EA equal to the respective
lengths of the different lines in the traverse (Refer to the figure).

2) At point A' of the constructed line draw a perpendicular line A's equal in
length to the error of closure, AA', as shown in the plotted traverse.

3) From paint a on the constructed perpendicular, draw a straight line

towards A, then draw lines Bb, Cc, Dd, and Ee parallel to A'a. Each of
these lines represents the correction to be applied at points B, C, D, and
E respectively, on the plotted traverse.

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 b. Adjusting the Traverse.

1) At point B on the plotted traverse, draw a line parallel to AA' (error of

closure). Draw the line from B in the same direction taken by A'A. the
correction triangle and lay out,
2) Measure Bb on starting at station B of the plotted traverse, the same
length along the line just drawn through the station. Label this line aluo
us Bb.
3) Repeat the foregoing procedure at traverse statione C. D, and E to
similarly lay out the length of Cc, Dd, and Ee accordingly.

Lab Figure
4) The [Link]
adjusted The correction triangle
is determined by successively connecting the
following points now plotted on the traverse: A, b, c, d. and back to A.
This is shown by dashed lines.
5. After understanding the above Illustrated process, consider the following
listed two sets of data for a closed traverse. It will be expected that an
error of closure exists in both data sets. You are now required to:
a) Plot both traverses separately on 8*" by 11" paper using scale of
1:100.
b) Construct the corresponding correction triangle for each traverse.
c) Adjust graphically the error of closure of each traverse.

NOTE: Label the plotted traverses and their corresponding correction

triangles accordingly. All construction lines should be shown.

6. Data for the 1st traverse: The length and bearing of each line are: AB,
69.50 m, S73°30'E; BC, 123.00 m, N79°00'E; CD, 80.00 m, NAD D0'W;
DE, 104.00 m, N86°40'W; and EA, 90.50 m, S33°00'W.

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 7. Data for the 2nd traverse: The length and Azimuth from south of each
line are: AB, 83.10 m, 162 30'; BC, 191.75 m, 265 30'; CD,

C. Computations
Since the solution is graphical, there are no mathematical computations to be
made.

D. Remarks, Hints & Precaution

1. The difference between the initial and final positions for the first traverse
station (A) represents the error of closure for the traverse. This is
represented by distance AA' (or e), where A and A' are the initial and final
locations of the first station.
2. A suitable scale should be used in plotting the traverse and in drawing the
correction triangle.
3. When drawing the correction triangle, if its length could not be contained
within the size of paper used, a different scale may be selected, however, the
length of A’a (or e) should remain to be drawn equal to the linear error of
closure.
4. This graphical adjustment of the error of closure is an application of the
compass rule. It will be noted that the distances Bb, Cc, Dd, and Ee on the
correction triangle, are in proportion to the distances from point A to the
successive points of the traverse.

Lesson 3

 Computation of Area

Introduction

Area computation is one of the primary objective of land survey. A closed traverse is
run, in which the lines of the traverse are made to coincide with property lines as

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possible. The length and bearings of all straight boundary lines are determined either
directly or by computation.

In ordinary land surveying, the area of a tract of land is taken as its projection up on
a horizontal plane, and it is not the actual area of the surface of land. For precise
determination of the area of a large tract, such as state or nation, the area is taken
as the projection of the tract up on the earth’s spheroidal surface to mean sea level.

Methods of determining area:

1. The area of the tract may be obtained by use of the planimeter from a map or
plan. It may also be calculated by dividing the tract in to triangles and rectangles,
scaling the dimensions of these figures, and computing their areas mathematically.

2. Area by triangles.

It is computation of areas individually mathematically by dividing the track in to

triangles. If length of two sides and included angle of any triangle are known,

1
area= ab sin c
2

If lengths of the three sides of any triangle are given,

area=√ s ( s−a ) ( s−b ) ( s−c )

1
s= (a+ b+c )
2

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3. Area by coordinates:

When the points defining the corners of a tract of land are coordinated with respect
to some arbitrarily chosen coordinate axes or are given in a regional system, these
coordinates are useful not only in finding the lengths and bearings of the boundaries
but also in calculating the area of the tract. The calculation involves finding the areas
of trapezoids formed by projecting the line up on a parallel at right angle to this.

Considering the figure under here

Area
12345 = area 23cb + area 34dc – area 45fd – area 15fa – area 12bc

1 1 1 1 1
Area= ( X 2 + X 3 ) ( Y 2 −Y 3 ) + ( X 3 + X 4 ) ( Y 3−Y 4 )− ( X 4 + X 5 )( Y 5−Y 4 )− ( X 1 + X 5 )( Y 1−Y 5 )− ( X 2+ X 1 ) ( Y 2−Y 1 )
2 2 2 2 2

Rearranging the above eqn.

2∗area= y 1 ( x 2−x n ) + y 2 ( x 3−x 1 ) + … y n−1 ( x n−x n−2 ) + y n ( x 1−x n−1 ) or

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2∗area=x 1 ( y 2− y n ) + x 2 ( y 3− y 1 ) +… x n−1 ( y n − y ) + x n ( y 1− y n−1 )

The area of tract can also be computed by using

y1 y2 y3 yn y1
… … ….
x 1 x 2 x3 xn x1

2∗area= y 1 x 2+ y 2 x 3+ y 3 x n + y n x 1−x 1 y 2−x 2 y 3−x 3 y n−x n y 1

4. Area by double meridian distance and latitudes:

After the adjustment of latitude and departure of traverse lines in a given traverse it
is possible to compute the area enclosed by the traverse. The method by which the
adjusted departures and latitudes are used to compute the area is called double
meridian distance method.

A reference meridian is assumed to pass through the most westerly point of the
survey; the double meridian distance of the lines are computed; and double the
areas of the trapezoids or triangles formed by orthographically projecting the several
traverse lines up on the meridian are computed. The algebraic sum of these double
areas is double the area within the traverse. The meridian distance of a point is the
total departure or perpendicular distance from the reference meridian and the
meridian distance of a straight line is the meridian distance of its mid point. The
double meridian distance of a straight line is the sum of the meridian distances of the
two extremities.

The length of the orthographic projection of a line up on the meridian is the latitude
of the line.

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The double area of the triangle or trapezoidal formed by projecting a given line up on
the meridian is:
Double area = DMD * latitude
In computing double area algebraic signs should be taken in to account.

SAMPLE PROBLEM

For a traverse 123456 the adjusted distance and azimuths are given as below.
Coordinate of 1(0.0, 0.0)

Compute the area in the traverse by using all methods.

Solution:

Computation of area

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 √
D 62= ( x 6−X 2) + ( Y 6−Y
2
)
2 2
¿¿

¿ √ ( 151.75−388.84 ) +¿ ¿
2

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 ¿ 379.93 m

√ 2
D52= ( 403.4−388.84 ) −( 196.48−(−113.92 ) )
2

¿ 310.74 m

D53=√ ( 403.4−673.97 ) −( 196.48−64.94 )

2 2

¿ 300.85 m

Using the formula

Area=√ s ( s−a ) ( s−b ) (s−c)

a+ b+c
s=
2

For triangle 1,

405.18+237.69+379.73
S= =511.4
2

area=126 √ 511.4 ( 511.4−405.18 ) ( 511.4−237.69 ) ( 511.4−379.93 )

For triangle 2,

379.93+252.21+310.74
S= =471.44
2

area=256 √ 471.44 ( 471.44−379.93 ) ( 471.44−310.74 )( 471.44−252.21 )

= 38985.71 m2

For triangle 3,

310.74 +300.85+336.59
S= =474.09
2

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 area=235 √ 479.09 ( 479.09−310.74 ) ( 474.09−300.85 ) ( 474.09−336.59 )

= 42950.22 m2

For triangle 4,

300.85+325.15+ 212.92
S= =419.48
2
area=345 √ 419.48 ( 419.48−300.85 ) ( 419.48−325.18 ) ( 419.48−212.92 )

= 31133.78 m2

Total area of traverse = a 1+ a2 +a3 + a4

= 44212.20 + 38985.71 + 42950.22 + 31133.78

= 157, 281.91 m2

2. Area by coordinate method.

Using the general formula

2 area = Y1(X2-Xn)+Y2(X3-X1)+….+Yn-1(Xn-Xn-2)+Yn(X1-Xn-1)

= 0 (388.84-151.75) +-113.92(673.97-0) +64.94(539.01-388.84)

+360.79(403.4-673.97) +196.48(151.75-539.01) +182.95(0-
403.4)

2 area =-314536.45

Area= 157268.22m2

3. Area by DMD and latitude

Assume the meridian

passes through the westerly
corner of the traverse i.e
station

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DMD of line=DMD of preceding line+ departure of preceding line + departure
of the line.

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Double area = 548954.33 -234453.45

=314500.88

Area of tract =314500.88/2

=157250.44m2

Area of tract with irregular or curved boundaries

When the boundary of a tract of land follows some irregular or curved line, such as a
stream or road, it is necessary to run a traverse in some convenient location near the
boundary and to locate the boundary by offsets from the traverse line. Offsets are
taken at changing points of an irregular boundary from the nearby traverse line, and
when the boundary is a gradual curve, offsets are taken at regular intervals.

If the offsets are taken sufficiently close together, the error involved in considering
the boundary as straight between offsets is small as compared with the inaccuracies
of the measured offsets. So, the areas between offsets are of trapezoidal shapes and
irregular areas can be calculated by the trapezoidal rule.

** Area by trapezoidal rule

h1 +h2
∗D
Area=
2
n−1 (
+
2)
h 2+ h3 D
n−1
+……( 2 )
hn−1 +hn−2 D
n−1

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If offsets are taken at equal interval

D
If =d=
n−1
interval, n = number of offsets

Area=d ( h2 + h2 +h +h + … h )
1 n
2 3 n−1

**Area by Simpson’s one-third rule.

Simpson’s one-third rule is applied directly for odd number of offsets.

Area between line AB and curved line DFC

( ) ( ) ()
h 1+ h2 h1 +h 2
¿ 2 d + h2 − 3
2d
2 2 3

d
= (h + 4 h2+ h3)
3 1

Area for the next two intervals

d
Area= ( h3 + 4 h4 + h5 )
3

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The summation of these partial areas for (n-1) intervals, n being on odd number
representing the number of offsets, is

d
3[ 1 n
area= h +h +2 ( h3+ h5 +…+h n ) + 4 ( h 2+ h4 +…+ hn
−2 −1
)]

THIN

Exercise Number II.

Accomplish the following, font size of your worksheet shall be 12

and font style shall be Trebuchet MS, file name shall be your
Family Name-EXNo.2-ABEB224, kindly upload your activity in pdf
format in the google classroom. Example: GAÑOLA-EXNO.2-
ABEB224. Deadline of submission will be on May 24, 2021 until
5:00 pm

The following offsets are taken at equal interval of 5 m, and

offsets between the traverse line and an irregular boundary is as
below. Calculate the area bounded between the traverse line and
an irregular boundary by using both methods.

**Area by coordinate rule

When offsets are taken at irregular intervals, the area of each figure between pairs of adjacent offsets
may be computed and the values are added. The coordinate rule for irregular spacing of offsets can
be applied by the relation; twice the area can be calculated if each offset is multiplied by the distance
to the preceding offset plus the distance to the following offset.

Area=h1d1+h2 (d1+d2)+h3(d2+d3)+h4(d3+d4)+h5(d4+d5)+h6(d5+d6)+h7d6

The general formula

Area=h1x d1+h2 (d1+d2)+…+hn-1(dn-2+dn-1)+hn x dn-1.

THIN
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Exercise:

Try the above exercise, upload your answers in the google classroom. Deadline of
submission will be on May 14, 2021 until 5:00 pm

Coordinates of unoccupied point

Sometimes it is not possible to set the instrument up over points like top of building
etc. So, in order to determine the coordinates of points, spur lines or ties lines must
be run from the traverse to these points. In the figure below, the boundaries if a
parcel of land are defined by an iron pipe, a nail in a tree and two fence posts. The
only corner that can be occupied is the one marked by the iron pipe. The problem is
to determine the lengths and bearings of the property lines.

It will be assumed that the coordinates of the iron pipe at point A and the bearing of
the line AB are known. The procedure is then as follows:

1. Measure the lengths of the traverse sides AB, BC, CD and DA, and also the lengths
of the three tie lines BP, CR, and DS.

2. Measure the angles in the traverse ABCD, and also the angles between traverse
lines and the tie lines to P, R, and S, a shown in the figure.

3. Adjust the angles in the traverse ABCD, and compute the bearings of lies BC, CD
and DA based on the known bearing of the one AB.

4. Balance the traverse ABCD.

5. Compute the coordinates of points B, C, and D.

6. Determine the bearings of the lines BC, CD, and DA based on the coordinates
computed in (5).

7. Compute the bearing of the tie lies from the bearings computed in (5) and the
measured angles.

8. Compute the latitudes and departures of the tie lines.

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9. Compute the coordinates of the unoccupied stations from the coordinates of
traverse stations B, C, and D and the latitudes and departures of the lines BP, CR,
and DS, respectively.

When the coordinates of P, R, and S have been computed, the bearings and lengths
of the boundary lines may be computed.

Example:

The following adjusted coordinates of stations A, B, C and D of traverse are given.

Additionally, unadjusted deflection angles and unadjusted lengths of supr lines are
recorded determine the lengths and bearings of the boundary lines AP, PR, RS and
SA.

Solution:

From the adjusted coordinate of the traverse the azimuth of line AB, BC, CD, DA can
be computed

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 1018.13−1000 0 '
For line AB tan An = → A AB=3 42 32.25 ¿
1279.68−1000

735.31−1018.13 0 '
For line BC tan A n= → A BC =253 42 32.25 ¿
1197.70−1279.68

713.45−735.310 0 '
For line CD tan A n= → A CD =186 50 22 ¿
1015.45−1197.70

1000−713.45 0 '
For line DA tan A n= → A DA =93 5 10.5 ¿
1000−1015.45

Computation of Azimuth of tie lines

Computation of coordinates of boundary corners.

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From adjusted coordinates azimuth and distance of property lines can be computed.

981.61−1000 0 0
For line AP tan A AP= =3 32 55.15+360 00 ' 00 = {356} ^ {0} 27'4.85
1296.38−1000
1

Distance AP=[ ( 981.62−1000 ) + ( 1296.38−1000 ) ]

2 2 2
=296.95

Adjusted distance & azimuth

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Lesson 4

 Mapping

What is a Map?

A map is a representation of a selection of real features on the Earth. It is designed

to record the relationships between features and to allow these relationships to be
analyzed.

A map may be very simple (e.g. a sketch showing the location of plants in your
garden) or very complex (e.g. a topographic map of the Australian Alps).

Some key characteristics of maps are:

 maps portray, as accurately as possible, the spatial relationships between

features – that is, where a feature is located relative to other features.
 maps are drawn to a scale (although this may vary across the map – especially
for ancient maps and simple sketches).
 maps emphasize and omit certain features, depending on their design goals.

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  As a general rule, a map is usually a two dimensional representation (e.g. a
‘flat piece of paper’) of a three dimensional object (e.g. the Earth). However,
occasionally the map may be a three dimensional object, such as a globe.
 maps use mathematical formulae to represent the Earth (an irregularly shaped
sphere) onto this other surface.
 maps generally have a reference system which allows the location of a feature
to be described. For example, latitude and longitude are used as a reference
system on maps of the Earth.

Up to late last century, maps were traditionally reproduced as ‘hard copies’ onto
paper, parchment, film etc. From the 1980s on, digital maps have emerged for use
on the web and in Geographic Information Systems (GIS).

The Five Key Elements for Mapping the Earth

There are five important steps to producing a map of the Earth's Surface. These are:

Firstly, a reference system which is used to describe the locations of

points on the surface of the Earth. For maps of large areas of the Earth
this would be latitude/longitude and for simpler ‘sketches’ or maps of
local areas this would be a grid. Some more complex maps may use
both latitude/longitude and a grid reference system.

Secondly, a Datum which defines the geometry/mathematics of how to

transfer this coordinate system onto the surface of the Earth. This is
necessary for all maps of large areas of the Earth, but may not be
needed for simpler ‘sketches’ or maps of local areas where features are
able to be visually located relative to each other. A feature of the
modern electronic era is that many map users are now also using Global
Positioning Systems (GPS) when they are using maps. An interesting
impact of this is that more and more maps are being forced to use the
same datum as the GPS system (even ‘sketches’ and maps of local
areas maps) so that the reference coordinates on the map agree with
the coordinates shown on the GPS receiver.

Thirdly, a measurement system which is used calculate the coordinates

of points on the surface of the Earth.

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 Fourthly, a projection which allows the coordinates, which have been
calculated using a measuring system, to be displayed on a flat piece of
paper.

Fifthly, the Map Maker’s Art.

Where Lines of Latitude and Longitude Occur on the Surface of the Earth

The Earth’s coordinate system defines the mathematics of latitudes and longitudes;
and indeed some of these are even named, such as the Equator, and the Tropics of
Capricorn and Cancer. These are all described in geometric terms – i.e. as angles. A
few examples are the Equator which is 0° and the Tropic of Capricorn which is 23.5°
south of the Equator. These definitions based on angles never change.

Here is the interesting fact — where these occur on the face of the Earth is never the
same place. This is because:

 Different datum’s create different mathematical models which mean that there
is a global shift in the locations of lines of both latitude and longitude.
 Continental Drift which results in regional shifts in the locations of continents in
relation to lines of both latitude and longitude.

History of Mapping

This is a brief outline of the sequences in the development of the science of map
making. It lists some of the significant developments and people involved. It is
essentially a European view and it needs to be emphasized that this development
was not evenly spread across the Earth. Indeed, many of the pictorial techniques
which were developed very early on are still being used today.

In the Beginning

Humans have long recognized the importance and value of

maps to their lives. Indeed, the history of mapping can be
traced to more than 5,000 years ago. Maps are essentially
tools which:

 for the map maker, record the location of places of

interest.

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  for others, are a source of learning about the geography of the mapped area.

Compared to modern maps, early maps:

 depicted small areas (a city, a trade route, a hunting ground, a military

campaign etc.)

 were pictorial in nature. While they look crude

compared to This tablet (circa 600BC),
 modern maps, they were able to show the features which is in the collection of
the British Museum, is an
that the map maker wished to record. excellent example of
 had no rules relating to how they were oriented – Babylonian clay tablet maps.
modern maps usually have north at the top. It shows Babylon in the
 the relationship between features on the map and center with the Euphrates
reality on the Earth was often not accurate. For River, mountains and a
surrounding ocean.
example, features in the centre of the map would be shown in great detail, but
features closer to the map’s edges were much more basic.
 in many cases were works of art first and reference documents second; part of
the reason for this is that the maps were made by hand, were expensive to
make and were somewhat of a status symbol to own

A few examples of mapping which occurred before 4 BC include:

 relatively simple sketches on clay tablets by the Babylonians (see example

above)
 extensive work by the Egyptians to document and record property boundaries
 delicate maps on silk from China

Ptolemy

The Greeks and Romans continued to refine

the art of map making, culminating with the
work of Claudius Ptolemaeus (in English
Ptolemy). Ptolemy was a geographer,
mathematician and astronomer who lived in
Roman Egypt. In about 150 AD he famously
published a scientific treatise titled Geographia
(in English Geography). This contained
thousands of references and maps of various
parts of the world – with longitude and latitude
lines. This system revolutionized European
geographic thinking, by imposing mathematical
rules to the composition of maps.

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Ptolemy’s work continued to be of great importance to European and Islamic scholars
A version of Ptolemy’s world map well into the Renaissance (1500s).
produced in 1482, using the information
contained in the Geographia.
Note:
- the lines of latitude and longitude
- the stylized way that features are
drawn
- the highly artistic ‘look-and-feel’ of the The Middle Ages

In
Europe during this period, there was little
progress in improving the science of
mapping and geography. As most maps
were produced within monasteries,
religious zeal tended to dominate
mapping. One interesting development was the
adoption of the principle of having
Jerusalem in the center of a ‘world’ map
and the Orient (Asia) at the top of the map.
Also, in part as a religious statement but
also for artistic reasons, maps drawn in this
time were also heavily decorated. The
decoration often included angels and
imaginary monsters.

In the Islamic world, the study of the science

of mapping and geography did progress. An excellent example of this is the work of
Al-Idrisi, an Arab scholar in the court of King Roger II of Sicily. In the period around
Al-Idrisi map of the world, produced 1154. 1154 he produced a number of outstanding
The original of this map no longer exists, ‘world’ maps and geographic books. The first
this replica was produced in 1456 of these books had the delightful title of ‘The
Amusement of him who desires to traverse
the Earth’. It is believed that the influence of Al-Idrisi’s work was far reaching with
generations of Islamic map makers using his designs as the basis of their maps.

After the Middle Ages

In Europe, the Renaissance period brought a number of significant changes which

hugely affected mapping:

 the invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg in 1440 meant that
monasteries (i.e religious orders) no longer dominated map production
 the discovery of the Americas and expanded contact with the Orient resulted in
greater interest in distant places and migration

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  the growth of major publishing houses which produced maps that were
accessible to all – not just the wealthy elite
 the growth in public learning brought a thirst for knowledge – this was aided by
the establishment of institutions such as the French Academy of Science, which
was established in 1666 to encourage scientific research – including the
improvement of mapping and navigation charting

This map of Australia is from the mid-1850s and it is typical of maps of this period.
Features to note include:

-Base map printed in a dark color (usually black or sepia)

-The addition of color by hand painting (it is interesting to note that, in haste, the
artist painted the land as well as water areas around Adelaide. Also, an incorrect
river (ie not the Murray River) has been shown as the Victoria/New South Wales
border.
- The elaborate frame which is reminiscent of the earlier hand drawn maps where
all the paper was filled by gargoyles, cherubs etc.
- If you look closely the lines of longitude are indicated as west from Washington (on
the bottom of the map) and east from Greenwich (on the top of the map).

All these led to a massive expansion in geographic knowledge and mapping. Earlier
maps in this period tended to be simple ‘black-and-white’ maps which showed
coastlines, country borders, mountains, rivers, place names etc. In many cases these
were then ‘hand painted’ to add some color to the finished product.

In the late-1700s maps which showed a theme started to emerge. These were used
to record the spread of a particular ‘event’ – for instance, the location of people who
had a contagious illness or the extent of a flood.

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Through the ages maps have become more complex and more accurate – particularly
as understanding of the Earth, mathematics and geography has expanded.

The Modern Era

Using modern satellite systems and surveying techniques, contemporary

cartographers are now able to measure and map with very high precision and
consistency. As a result, maps have become absolutely critical to most fields of
human endeavor.

The map below was published in the 2000s. In particular, it uses a known projection
which is able to be described by its title ‘Oblique Mercator Projection'. It incorporates
the features which maps through the ages have focused on – describing the
landscape – in this case the location and names of places, rivers etc and the
coastline. In addition to this, it is colourful, has no decoration and gives an indication
of the height of the land and depth of the sea – a theme.

What is Survey Control and Why is it Needed?

To be of practical use, the relationship between a map and the real world it
represents must be clear and accurate. This means that the following information
must be known:

 scale (the relationship of distance on the map to distance in the real world);
 orientation (which way is North?) and;

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  height.

To be able to do this, the mapmaker must know the position

(latitude, longitude and height) of a selection of features that can be seen clearly on
the map. These positions are known as the Survey Control.

Modern maps are usually based on overlapping photographs taken from an aircraft
(aerial photography) or digital images from a satellite (satellite imagery). In these
cases the Survey Control not only scales and orients the map, it is also used to
remove any distortions in the photograph/imagery.

Figure 1: A Stereo Pair of Aerial Photographs

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Figure 2: Satellite Imagery

How is the Survey Control Measured?

The surveying techniques used to calculate the positions of the Survey Control
depend on the purpose and accuracy required for the map or project, but in every
case they must start from a known position (Latitude, Longitude and Height). In the
past this point may have been an isolated point (such as a hill) with its position
calculated from astronomical observations. But these days, it is most likely to be part
of a network of previously surveyed points.

Astronomical Observations

The position of the sun and stars at any time

has been well documented in tables and
formulae for many centuries. By observing
vertical angles to the sun or stars and
accurately noting the time of the observations,
it is possible to calculate the observer’s
position (Latitude and Longitude). Until recent
times this method was used for navigation on
moving ships and even aircraft, generally
using a sextant to measure the angles.
Similarly, using a theodolite on solid ground to
measure the vertical angles gave starting
positions for surveys.

By measuring horizontal angles between the

sun or stars and a known reference point, it is also possible to calculate the
orientation (angle from true north) of the reference point.

Magnetic Bearing

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A Magnetic Bearing is the reading on a magnetic compass when sighting a landmark feature. It is
the horizontal, clockwise angle between Magnetic North and the landmark feature.

In times past, for the simplest types of maps, such as those a military officer might
sketch when gathering information on the battlefield, visible landmarks (hills,
buildings etc) would be fixed from his position by an estimate of the distances and
the magnetic bearings to them. This would provide enough information to allow
others to use the sketch map.

Similarly, to plot an unknown coastline, navigators such as Captain Cook, would have
used magnetic bearings from the ship at several different locations, to the same
visible landmarks on the shore (headlands, river mouths, mountain peaks, etc). The
ship’s positions would have been known from previous observations to the sun and ⁄
or stars, and subsequent magnetic bearings, estimated speed and distance (known
as dead reckoning).

To directly map small areas, a more sophisticated version of the military officer’s
sketch map could be made using a ‘plane table’. With this method, a sighting scope
is pointed at known features and the lines to them plotted directly onto a sheet of
paper (the map) which is fixed to a horizontal board (the ‘plane table’). When the
same features are plotted from several known points (the Survey Control) the
positions of the features are fixed by the intersecting lines.

In an area without a survey control point, a starting point first needs to be

established, usually by astronomical observations. Other survey control points are
then determined by measuring to them from the starting point. Because you have to
be able to see between the survey control they are usually on hilltops.

National Surveys

These days, most countries have an established network of accurate Survey Control
measured from one or more datums. A network of surveying measurements then
extends the positions to where they are needed. Traditionally, a sparse network of
accurate Survey Control points (the primary or national network) is established to
provide starting points for local surveys (the subsidiary or local networks). These in
turn are used as the basis for surveys for particular projects, such as mapping
control. The surveying methods used to produce the national and local Survey
Control for a map, or any other project, depends on the terrain, the equipment
available and the accuracy required.

Although traditionally made up of triangulation, trilateration and traversing networks,

these days Surveying with Global Positioning Systems (GPS) is used to strengthen the
traditional network and to independently provide additional survey control.

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Triangulation

In the past it was difficult to accurately measure very long distances, but it was
possible to accurately measure the angles between points many kilometres apart,
limited only by being able to see the distant beacon. This could be anywhere from a
few kilometres, to 50 kilometres or more.

Triangulation is a surveying method that measures the angles in a triangle formed by

three survey control points. Using trigonometry and the measured length of just one
side, the other distances in the triangle are calculated. The shape of the triangles is
important as there is a lot of inaccuracy in a long skinny triangle, but one with base
angles of about 45 degrees is ideal.

Each of the calculated distances is then used as one side in another triangle to
calculate the distances to another point, which in turn can start another triangle.
This is done as often as necessary to form a chain of triangles connecting the origin
point to the Survey Control in the place needed. The angles and distances are then
used with the initial known position, and complex formulae, to calculate the position
(Latitude and Longitude) of all other points in the triangulation network.

Although the calculations used are similar to the trigonometry taught in high school,
because the distance between the survey points is generally long (typically about 30
kilometers) the calculations also allow for the curvature of the Earth.

The measured distance in the first triangle is known as the ‘Baseline’ and is the only
distance measured; all the rest are calculated from it and the measured angles. Prior
to the 1950s, this initial baseline distance would have to be very carefully measured
with successive lengths of rods whose length were accurately known. This meant
that the distance would be relatively short (maybe a kilometer or so) and it would be
in a reasonably flat area, such as a valley or plain. The triangles measured from it
gradually increased in size, and up onto the hilltops where distant points could be
seen easily.

The angles in the triangles are measured using a theodolite, which is an instrument
with a telescope connected to two rotating circles (one horizontal and one vertical) to
measure the horizontal and vertical angles. A good quality theodolite used for
geodetic surveys would be graduated to 0.1 second of an arc and an angle resulting
from repeated measurements would typically have an accuracy of about 1 second of
arc, which is equivalent to about 5 cm over a distance of 10 kilometers.

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Figure 3. Triangulation Network.

In triangulation the vertical angles are not needed, but they can be used to measure
the difference in height between the points.

Surveying Heights

Heights

Heights are usually shown on maps by contour lines or spot heights and they give the
height above Mean Sea Level (MSL). MSL can vary slightly with time and from place

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to place, so in Australia a Mean Sea Level value measured in 1966-1968 at 30 tide
gauges around the country is used as the reference for height measurement. It is
known as the Australian Height Datum (AHD).

Heights from Barometric Pressure

In the past when a direct connection to Mean Sea Level was not possible, the
relationship between barometric pressure and height was used to calculate heights
above sea level. This is a complex process if the best possible result is wanted, but it
is the same principle used in an aircraft’s altimeter.

The pressure at sea level is about 1013 mill bars (mb) and it decreases by about 10
mb for every 85 meters of increased height (although this changes as you go higher).
This is not the most accurate method of obtaining heights, but it is relatively simple
and can be improved by using several barometers simultaneously on points of known
height. Allowance can then be made for changing weather patterns, but even at its
best Barometric heighting will result in a height with an uncertainty of about 10
meters.

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Figure 4. Measuring Height by Barometric Pressure

Heights from Vertical Angles

With Triangulation and Traversing, horizontal angles are measured with the
theodolite and it is not much more effort to also measure the vertical angles between
survey points. Again using trigonometry, the difference in height can be calculated
from the vertical angles and the distances. This is called Trigonometric Heighting.

When the distance between the observed points is more than about a kilometer,
corrections are also made for the curvature of the Earth and the refraction of the line
of sight as it passes through the different atmospheric layers. To cancel out much of
the uncertainty due to refraction, vertical angles may be observed simultaneously
from each end of the line.

With care and applying all the necessary corrections, a difference in height with an
uncertainty of a few decimeters may be obtained over lines up to 30 or more
kilometers (a decimeter is one tenth of a meter).

Starting from a point of known height, the simple addition of the calculated
differences in height gives the height of each point above MSL.

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Figure 5. Measuring Difference In Height by Vertical Angles

Heights from Optical Levelling

Just as a builder uses a spirit level to make sure a construction is ‘level’, a surveying
instrument known as an optical level is used to project a horizontal line in two
directions (forwards and backwards) so that differences in height can be measured.
At each end of the line being measured the value is noted where this horizontal line
intersects a vertical staff (basically just a big ruler). The difference between the
values at each end of the line gives the difference in height.

Provided the line of sight is kept relatively short (usually less than 50 meters) the
problems of refraction and Earth curvature experienced with Trigonometric Heighting
are eliminated. By repeating this process in a leap-frog manner and adding up all the
differences in height, the total difference in height between two very distant points
can be calculated. If the first point is a tide gauge where Mean Sea Level has been
measured, all the points will have known heights above Mean Sea Level.

Over long distances this is a tedious technique, but it produces accurate results. It
depends on the instrument used and the care taken, but for the typical standard of
optical levelling the accuracy is; 8mm √ (distance in kilometers) which is about
25mm over 10km, or 80mm over 100km.

Figure 6. Measuring Height by Optical Levelling

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Surveying Using GPS

GPS or GNSS

GPS or Global Positioning System was developed and is maintained by the US

Department of Defense. Since the introduction of GPS many other countries have
developed similar satellite based navigation systems, such as the Russian Glonass,
Chinese BeiDou and European Galelio. Modern surveying GPS equipment, and recent
smart phones, are now able to use multiple systems thus increasing the number of
satellites ‘visible’ at any one time. Being able to reach these extra satellites improves
reliability and accuracy. To distinguish equipment utilising multiple satellite systems
the term Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) is often used instead of GPS.

Surveying with GPS

Initially developed for military use, GPS is now part of everyday life. A few of the
many things that GPS is used in include: mobile phones, in-car navigation and search
and rescue equipment. But there is a wide variety of equipment and techniques that
can be used for surveying.

GPS was rapidly adapted for surveying, as it can give a position (Latitude, Longitude
and Height) directly, without the need to measure angles and distances between
intermediate points. Survey control could now be established almost anywhere and it
was only necessary to have a clear view of the sky so the signal from the GPS
satellites could be received clearly.

GPS is similar in some ways to the Trilateration and EDM previously discussed,
except that the known positions are now the GPS satellites (and their orbits) 20,000
km in space. The equipment and calculations are extremely complex, but for the user
the process is generally very simple.
In the commonly available receivers, the GPS receiver almost instantly works out its
position (Latitude, Longitude and Height) with an uncertainty of a few meters, from
the data broadcast by the satellites. This data includes a description of the satellites
changing position (its orbit) and the time the data was transmitted.

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 Figure 7. GPS point positioning

GPS Baseline

The GPS receivers used for surveying are generally more complex and expensive
than those used in everyday life. They use the two frequencies broadcast by the GPS
satellites. The physical characteristic of the GPS signal (the phase) and sophisticated
calculation methods to greatly improve the accuracy of the positions obtained. These
receivers usually have a separate high-quality antenna.

A GPS baseline uses two survey-quality GPS receivers, with one at each end of the
line to be measured. They collect data from the same GPS satellites at the same
time. The duration of these simultaneous observations varies with the length of the
line and the accuracy needed, but is typically an hour or more. When the data from
both points is later combined, the difference in position (Latitude, Longitude and
Height) between the two points is calculated with special software. Many of the
uncertainties of GPS positioning are minimized in these calculations because the
distortions in the observations are similar at each end of the baseline and cancel
[Link] accuracy obtained from this method depends on the duration of the
observations, but is typically about 1 part per million (1 millimeter per kilometer) so a
difference in position can be measured over 30 kilometers with an uncertainty of
about 30 mm, or about 100 mm over 100 kilometers. Because the GPS satellites are
in a very high orbit (20,000 km) the ends of the GPS baseline can be hundreds, or
even thousands of kilometers apart and still observe the same satellites.

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Although a single baseline from a known position is enough to give the position at
the other end of the baseline, additional GPS baselines to other points are often
measured to give a check on the results and an estimate of the uncertainty of the
calculated position.

Kinematic GPS

There are many variations on this type of GPS surveying. Generally it is similar to the
GPS baseline method, except that while one GPS receiver remains on a known
position (Base Station), the other moves between points and it only needs to be at
each point for a few seconds. Corrections to the GPS data (based on the known Base
Station position and its position computed from the GPS) may be immediately
transmitted from the receiver on the Base Station to the receiver at the other end of
the line (the remote station). The position of the remote station can then be
computed and stored, all within a few seconds. Radios or mobile phones can be used
to transmit the corrections. Although this method can give similar accuracy to the
baseline method previously described, to do so this method is generally limited to a
distance of about 20 kilometers.

Figur
e 8. GPS Real-time Baseline measurements

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Continuously Operating Reference Stations (CORS)

A survey-quality GPS receiver may be permanently installed in a convenient location

with a known position, to be used as the starting point for any GPS measurements in
the district. This could be for a project such as a mine site or major engineering
project, or in a town for local government use.

These Continuously Operating Reference Station (CORS) are used by:

1. Collecting GPS observations anywhere nearby and using the stored CORS
observations to correct the observations some time later back in the office.
2. Using GPS instruments with built in internet access able to access the CORS
data and correct observations in near real time giving very accurate positions
within a minute or two.

If there is more than one CORS available, the unknown position can be calculated
with respect to these multiple known positions, giving more confidence in the results.

Many countries have a CORS network which covers the entire nation, allowing
accurate GPS positioning anywhere in their country. CORS usually also contribute
data to global observations that make the GPS system more reliable and accurate.
They also provide data for scientific studies such as plate tectonics and meteorology.
To be useful for the study of tectonics, the permanent marks used for the CORS
stations must be geologically stable, and the observations should be continuous and
for many years.

Australia has state based CORS networks covering the most populated areas. These
are generally commercially run providing real-time access to subscribers.

Australia also has a highly accurate freely available national CORS network. The
Australian Regional GPS Network (ARGN) may be used with the on-line processing
system AUSPOS. This allows GPS data from a survey quality GPS receiver to be
submitted via the Internet and a calculated position to be emailed back, typically
within a few hours. The calculations used to produce these positions use more
accurate satellite orbits and within about 24 hours of observation can give a position
anywhere in Australia with an uncertainty of a few centimeters.

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Figure 9. A GPS CORS network

THIN

Exercise Number IV.

Accomplish the following, font size of your worksheet shall be 12

and font style shall be Trebuchet MS, file name shall be your
Family Name-EXNo.4-ABEB224, kindly upload your activity in pdf
format in the google classroom. Example: GAÑOLA-EXNO.4-
ABEB224. Deadline of submission will be on May 28, 2021 until
5:00 pm

1. What are the applications of mapping in ABE?

2. What are the benefits of advantage technoloy in mapping?
3. How GIS/GPS helps you in the actual practice of the profession? Module
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Lesson 5

 Volume Earthworks

5.1 Type of Cross-Section

Cross sections are necessary for measurement of earthwork volumes in roadway

construction. They are profile views of the ground, perpendicular to the centerline or
base line, and indicate ground elevations at points of change in the ground slope.

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 Figure 5-1 . Cross
Section

Sections are usually taken at pre-determined intervals, normally at 50 ft or 100 ft

along the centerline or baseline.

An elevation is taken at the centerline and at intervals right and left of the centerline,
normally 25 or 50 ft. Sometimes, elevations are taken at points other than the
normal interval, depending on the terrain (i.e. locations of changes in the slope of the
ground).

Side Slopes

Side slope (Figure 5-2) is defined as the slope of the cut or fill expressed as the ratio
of horizontal distance to vertical distance.

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Example:

A 2:1 side slope indicates that for every horizontal distance of 2 ft, the corresponding
vertical distance is 1 ft as indicated in the following diagram:

FIELD NOTES

Field notes (Figures 5-3 and 5-4) are recorded in the field books. Reference notes,
such as EP (edge of pavement), CL (centerline), TS (toe of slope), TB (top of bank),
OG (original ground), and where each shot (elevation) is taken are recorded.

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The accuracy of the readings taken are required to be 0.1 ft on the ground and 0.01
ft on the pavement.

ORIGINAL CROSS SECTIONS

Original cross sections indicate the profile of the original ground before the ground is
disturbed. These measurements may be used for primary design, estimating
volumes, etc. Borrow pit original cross sections (Figures 5-3 and 5-4) are taken after
stripping has occurred.

Before beginning a contract, the original sections is checked every 500 ft and
compared to the sections shown on the plans. If these check sections vary
consistently by more than 0.2 ft, the original sections may have to be retaken.

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 Figure 5-3. Field Notes- Original Section

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 Figure 5-4. Field Notes – Final Section

PROFILES

Profiles indicate a vertical cross section or side view of the surface of the earth. They
are necessary for the design and construction of the roads, curbs, sidewalks,
drainage systems, etc.

The plotting of profiles is generally a graph of elevations plotted on the vertical axis
as a function of horizontal distance (situations).

The vertical scale is usually exaggerated in comparison to the horizontal scale,

making the shape of the ground easily visible. This procedure is especially helpful
when plotting profile grades at intersections, railroad crossings, bridge approaches,
wedge levels, etc.

Cross sections are plotted on special grid or cross section paper (Figure 5-
which is printed in various grid sizes.

Figure 5-5. Profile

VERTICAL SECTIONS

Vertical sections (Figure 5-6) are straight up and down or 90° from horizontal. There
are two shots taken at the same distance or station when a vertical section is taken.

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 Figure 5-6. Vertical Section

ZERO SECTION

A zero section is a section at which no earthwork was done. These usually occur at
the beginning and ending of contracts.

SPLIT SECTION

A split section sometimes is necessary so that earth quantities are not

overestimated. They consist of two sets of cross sections taken at the same station.

Example: Two sections would be required at station 5+50, one labeled 5+50 back
and one labeled 5+50 ahead. Not splitting the section into back and ahead sections
would result in an erroneous quantity.

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 SECTION AT 5+50
A1 = Area to be used for 5+50 back
A2 = Area to be used for 5+50 ahead

Splitting the section in this manner would require that a break be made in the
earthwork computations.

MATCH LINES

Match lines occur when two sections from two separate baselines intersect at a point
common to both baselines. Match lines are also those lines made when there is not
enough cross section paper to accommodate the entire section.

Example:

Point "A" in the following section would be the point where the match line would
occur and the two sections intersect. There probably is a vertical section at this point,
if this point is not the original ground.

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INTERPOLATION

The estimation of an unknown section from two known adjacent sections is called
interpolating that section. Usually, an original section requires to be interpolated
since the original conditions no longer exist. The number of required interpolated
sections varies depending on the number of changes in ground elevation between
the two known sections.

To interpolate, assume that the ground is on a straight grade between the known
sections. Points that are equidistant from the baseline for the known sections are
selected. This distance is figured for the unknown section.

Example:

To figure the elevation of a point 50 ft left of a baseline at station 50+38, the

following illustration explains the procedure:

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x = the difference in elevation from station 50+00 to station 50+38.

Note that the ground elevation from station 50+00 to 51+00 is rising. This means
that the elevation at station 50+38 is greater than the elevation at station 50+00.
Therefore, 22.8 ft is added to 425.00 to obtain the elevation at station 50+38.

Elevation at Station 50+38 = 425.00 + 22.80 = 447.80 ft

EARTHWORK QUANTITIES

Earthwork quantities are usually measured in cubic yards and may be a cut or fill.
The volumes are computed as the product of an area and a distance.

The methods for determining areas include:

1. Picking or stripping

2. Plane geometry

3. Planimeter

4. Coordinates

Plane geometry, the most commonly used method by INDOT, requires dividing the
section into regular shapes such as triangles and trapezoids. Dimensions may be
determined by scaling or from field data. Areas are computed from basic geometric
formulas.

Once the areas of the sections are determined, the volume between two adjacent
sections may be computed by using the Average End Area Method (Figures 5-7).

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 Figure 5-7. Average End Area Method

A1 + A 2
3
Volume ( yd ) =
2 ( )
( L)
1
27

¿¿

Where :

A1 = End area in ft2

A2 = End area in ft2

L = distance between stations in ft

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Example:

Given the end sections as follows, determine the quantity of earthwork.

Area 1

Area1 = ½ (28.0 ft) (50.0 ft)

= 700.0 ft2
Area 2

Area2 =( 50.0 ft +2 45.0 ft )( 69.9)

= 3320.0 ft2
Area 3

Area3 = ½ (41.01 ft) ( 45.0 ft)

= 922.5 ft

Total area Area1 = 700.0 ft2 + 3220.3 ft2 + 922.5 ft2

= 4942.8 ft2

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Area 1

Area1 = ½ (37.2 ft) (31.1 ft)

= 578.5 ft2

Area 2
( 37.2 ft +53.0
Area2 =
2
ft
)( 27.0 )
= 1217.7 ft2

Area 3
( 53.0 ft +2 49.1 ft ) ( 55.0)
Area3 = =

= 2807.8 ft2
Area 4
Area4 = ½ (28.0 ft) (49.1) ft
= 687.4 ft2

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Total area Area1 = 578.5 ft2 + 1217.7 ft2 + 2807.8 ft2 + 687.4 ft2
= 5291.4 ft2

( A1 + A2 ) ( L )
Total Volume=
(2 )( 27 )

2 2
5291.4 f t + 4942.8 f t ( 75.0 ft )
¿
( 2 ) (27)

3
¿ 14,214.0 y d

5.2. SLOPES STAKES

Slope staking is a special form of leveling to determine the point at which the
proposed slope intersects the existing ground. Since these stakes define the
actual construction limits, they are set in the early stages of a contract and as
such require preservation for later use.

Information that is required to be known before the setting of slope stakes may
proceed is:

1. The profile grade for each station

2. Typical cross section for each station

3. Original cross section with elevations

Scaling the distance from plots of original and proposed cross sections is a
graphical method for establishing the slope stake location. While this method is
widely used, the procedure may not be advisable for the following reasons:

1. Incomplete or incorrect information at needed stations

2. Original survey of sections may not be accurate, especially in rough

terrain

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 3. Changes in the original ground, due to farming, erosion, etc., may have
occurred if the time from design to construction is extensive

The Trial and Error method using the centerline as the reference is the
proposed method discussed in this chapter.

DEFINITIONS

CONTROL POINT

The control point for a fill section is the shoulder break, and for a cut section
the control point is the bottom of a side ditch (Figure 6-1). The elevation of
these points and the distances from the centerline are required.

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 Figure 5-8. Control Points
GRADE ROD

A grade rod is defined as the height of instrument (HI) minus the control point
elevation.

GROUND ROD

The ground rod is the actual rod reading during a trial. The grade rod reading
minus the ground rod reading designates whether the section is a cut or fill
section.

READING SLOPE STAKES

Slope stakes are necessary to determine if the roadway is being built to the
required lines and grades. The slope stake is the tool that is used to ensure
that slopes are graded correctly and fill or cuts are made to the required
elevations. The following example explains how to read a typical slope stake.

Example:

Starting at the slope stake, the following steps are taken:

1. Cut the back slope 4 ft deep at a 2:1 slope

2. Grade a 4 ft ditch bottom

3. Go up the foreslope 4 ft at a 4:1 slope

4. Go 2 ft at a 4 % slope for the shoulder

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 5. Go 12 ft at a 2 % slope to the centerline

SETTING SLOPE STAKES

Setting slope stakes may be done in the office or with actual measurements in
the field. Both methods are trial and error procedures that determine the
control point elevations and distances from the centerline for each station.

FIELD PROCEDURE

The field procedure for determining the location of the slope stakes is as
follows:

1. Set up the level and determine the HI

2. Determine Grade Rods: Grade Rod = HI – control point elevation
3. Take a trial ground rod reading at a measured distance from the
centerline
4. Using the grade rod, ground rod, rate of slope, and standard distance,
determine the computed distance to the slope stake from the centerline

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 5. Compare the measured distance and the computed distance. If they
differ by more than ± 0.5 ft, a new trial is required.

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An example of the procedure for determining slope stakes is shown in Figure 5-9.

Example:

Left side

Control elevation = 499.0 ft

Standard Distance = (Lc) = 22 ft
HI = 497.5 ft
Grade Rod ( G.R) = 497 -499.0 – 1.5 Ft

1st trial :

Measured Distance (Lm) = 32 ft

Ground Rod ( R) = 3.0 ft

Compute:

Grade Rod – Ground Rod = -1.5 – 3.0 = -4.5 ft (fill)

4.5 x 3 (slope) = 13.5 ft
13.5 + 22 = 35.5 ft
Compare 35.5 and 32.2 (does not compare so another trial is required)

2nd trial

Measured Distance (Lm) = 35.5 ft

Ground Rod ® = 3.0 ft

Compute:

Grade Rod – Ground Rod = -1. -3.0 = -4.5 (fill)

4.5 x 3 (slope) = 13.5 ft
13.5 + 22 = 35.5 ft

The fill is 4.5 ft at 35.5 ft from the centerline using a 3:1 slope

Right Side

Control Elevation = 497.0 ft

Standard distance (Lc) = 29 ft

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 HI = 503 .5 ft
Grade Rod (G.R) = 503.5 – 487.0 = +6.5 ft

1st trial:

Measured Distance (Lm) = 38 ft

Ground Rod (R) = 1.5 ft

Compute:

Grade Rod – Ground Rod = 6.5 -1.5 = +5 ft (cut)

5.0 x 2 (slope) = 10 ft
29 + 10 = 39.0 ft
Compare 39 and 38 ( try 39 )

2nd trial :

Measured Distance (Lm) = 39 ft

Ground Rod (R) = 1.5 ft

Compute:

Grade Rod – Ground Rod = 6.5 -1.5 = +5 ft (cut)

5.0 x 2 (slope) = 10 ft
29 + 10 = 39.0 ft

The cut is 5.0 ft at 39 ft from the centerline using a 2:1 slope.

Figure 5-10 gives an example of the notes required for determining the slope
stakes. For this example, the readings were not within the allowable difference
of ± 0.5 ft and therefore another trial is required.

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Figure 5.9. Slope Stake Problem

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 Figure 5-10. Slope Stake Notes

5.3. MEASUREMENT OF VOLUME EARTHWORK

Measurement of Volume of Earth work from Cross-Sections:

The length of the project along the center line is divided into a series of solids known
as prismoids by the planes of cross-sections. The spacing of the sections should
depend upon the character of ground and the accuracy required in measurement.

Module III
They are generally run at 20m or 30m intervals, but sections should also be taken at
points of change from cutting to filling, if these are known, and at places where a
marked change of slop occurs either longitudinally or transversely.
The areas of the cross-sections which have been taken are first calculated and the
volumes of the prismoids between successive cross- sections are then obtained by
using the Trapezoidal formula or the prismoidal formula. The former is used in the
preliminary estimates and for ordinary results, while the latter is employed in the
final estimates and for precise results.

The prismoidal formula can be used directly or indirectly. In the indirect method, the
volume is firstly calculated by trapezoidal formula and the prisomoial correction is
then applied to this volume so that the corrected volume is equal to that as if it has
been calculated by applying the prisomoidal formula directly. The indirect method
being simpler is more commonly used.

When the centre line of the project is curved in plan, the effect of curvature is also
taken into account specially in final estimates of earthwork where much accuracy is
needed. It is the common practice to calculate the volumes as straight as mentioned
above and then to apply the correction for curvature to them.

Another method of finding curved volumes is to apply the correction for curvature to
the areas of cross-sections, and then to compute the required volumes from the
corrected areas from prismoidal formula.

Formula for Areas of Cross –Sections:

1. Level-Section

In this case the ground is level transversely.

h1=h2=h

Module III
 w 1=w 2

b
¿ + sh
2

1
A=
2
[ b+ ( b+ 2 sh ) ] h

( b+ sh ) h

2. Two-Level Section

In this case, the ground is sloping transversely, but the slope of the ground does not
intersect the formation level.

b rs
W 1= +
2 r−s
h+
b
2r ( )
b
W 2= −
rs
2 r −s
h−
b
2r ( )
w1
h1=h+
r

w1
h2 =h−
r

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 [ ( ) ]
2
1 b b
A= ( w 1+ w2 ) h+ −
2 2s 2s

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 [ ()
]
b 2 2
s +r bh+ r 2 s h2
2
¿
( r 2 −s 2 )

3. Side-Hill Two-Level Section

In this case the ground is sloping portion transversely, but the slope of the ground
intersects the formation level such that one portion of the sea is in cutting and the
other in filling (part cut and part fill).

b rs
W 1= +
2 r−s
h+
b
(
2r )
b
W 2 = +¿
2

w1
h1=h+
r

w1
h2 =h−
r

( )
2
1 b b
A= [ ( w 1+ w2 ) h+ − ]
2 2s 2s

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 [( ) ] [( ) ]
2 2
b b
+ rh −rh
1 2 1 2
Areai cutting , A1= Areai cutting , A2=
2 r−s 2 r−s

Note:

When filling extends beyond the center line i.e. when the area in filling is greater
than that in cutting, the equations 12.3 and 12.4 are used for finding the areas in
filling and cutting respectively.

4. Three-Level Section

In this case, the transverse slope of the ground is not uniform.

( h+ )
r1 s b
W 1=
( r −s )
1
rs

( h+ )
r2 s b
hhhh W 2 =
( r −s )
2
2s

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 ( )
h1= h+
w1
r1

( )
h2 = h+
w2
r2

A=¿

5. Multi-Level Section

In this case, the transverse slope of the ground is not uniform but-has multiple cross-
slopes as is clear from the figure.

The notes regarding the cross-section are recorded as follows:

The numerator denotes cutting (+ve) or filling (-ve) at the various points, and the
denominator their horizontal distances from the centre line of the section. The area

Module III
of the section is calculated from these notes by coordinate method. The co-ordinates
may be written in the determinant form irrespective of the signs.

Let Σ F= sum of the product of the co-ordinates joined by full lines.

Σ D= sum of the products of the co-ordinates joined by dotted lines.

Then, A= 1/2 (ΣF- ΣD)

FORMULA FOR VOLUME

To calculate die volumes of the solids between sections, it must be assumed that
they have some geometrical from. They must nearly take the form of prismoids and
therefore, in calculation work, they are considered to be prismoids.

Let A1, A2, A3…………….. An = the areas at the 1st, 2nd, 3rd……………… last cross-
section.
D = the common distance between the cross-section.

V = the volume of cutting or filling.

1. Trapezoidal Formula:

V =D { A 1+ A n
2
+ A 2+ A 3 +… A n−1 }
¿ Common distance {1 st area+last
2
area
+the ∑ of the remaining areas }

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The number of cross-sections giving the areas may be odd or even. Since the areas
at ends are averaged in this formula, therefore, it is also known as Average end Area
formula.

2. Prismoidal Formula:

D
V= { A +4 A 2+ s A 3+ 4 A 4 +2 A 5 … .+ 2 A n−2+ 4 A n−1+ A n
3 1

D
¿ {( A 1+ A n ) +2 ( A3 + A 5+ …+ A n−2 + 4 ( A1 + A 4 +…+ A n−1 ) }
3

Commondistance
¿
3
{( 1 st area+last area ) +2 (the ∑ of remaining odds area )+ 4 (the ∑ of even areas ) }
In order to apply the prismoidal formula, it is necessary to have odd number of
sections giving the areas. If there be even areas, the prismoidal formula may be
applied to odd number of areas and the volume between the last two sections may
be obtained separately by trapezoidal formula and added.

Module III
Lesson 6

 Land Grading

The subdivision of land is a usual task undertaken by surveyor-and engineers in

property surveys. When tracts of land are sold or inherited it is often necessary to
divide it into smaller parcels or into areas having certain portions to each other

There are numerous problems, which may arise in the subdivision of land. The
process of subdivision may require the application of the principles of geometry and
trigonometry or the use of special techniques in computations. Other cases are
performed by trial-and-error methods. This usually involves an initial assumption
such as the starting point or the direction to be taken by a selected line which will
separate a certain area parcel. Most of the problems encountered are so common
and frequently involved in the working out of more complicated cases.

In this lesson and the succeeding lesson, four of the most common cases
encountered in the subdivision of land t will be explained. These cases are:

1. Dividing an area into two parts by a line between two points.

2. Dividing an area by a line running through a point and in a given direction.
3. To cut off a required area by a line through a given point.
4. To cut off a required area by a line running in given direction.

For any of the above mentioned cases, a resurvey is run, the latitudes and
departures are determined, the surveyed traverse is balance, and the area of the
entire tract is computed. When computing the desired subdivision scheme only the
adjusted latitudes and departures are used.

DIVIDING AN AREA INTO TWO PARTS BY A LINE BETWEEN TWO POINTS.

Module III
In Figure 6-1, ABCDEF represents an irregular parcel of land to be divided into two
parts (Tract ABCD and Tract DEFA) by a cut off line extending from D to A.

It is assumed that the length and direction of each course has been earlier
determined, the latitudes and departures computed and adjusted and the area of the
whole tract computed.

The solution here is to determine the length and direction of the dividing line DA by
computations, and to calculate the area of which of the two tracts into which the
parcel of land is divided.

Either of the two tracts may be considered as a closed traverse with the length and
direction of side DA unknown.

Considering tract ABCD, the latitudes and departures of AB, BC, and CD are known;
hence the latitude, departure, length, and bearing of DA can be determined.

Similarly, the same quantities could also be determined considering tract DEFA, since
the latitudes and departures of DE, EF, and FA are known. The area of either tract
can then be found by any of the methods (DMD, DPD, Coordinates etc) used for
determining areas.

Fig 6- 1. Dividing an area into

two points by a line between two points

A check is obtained by actually determining the length and direction of the line DA
and comparing these with the calculated values. A further check may also be made
by noting that the sum of the areas of the two tracts, each calculated independently,
is equal to the calculated area the entire parcel of land.

Module III
DIVIDING AN AREA BY A LINE RUNNING THROUGH A POINT IN A GIVEN DIRECTION.

In Figure 6-2, ABCDEF represents an irregular parcel of land to be subdivided into two
parts by a cut off line (BP) running in a given direction (indicated by h ) which passes
through point B. Out of the desired division, tract BCP is formed on one side of the
dividing line and tract FABP on the other side.

It is assumed that the length and direction of each course are known, the latitudes
and departures computed and adjusted, and the area of the whole tract computed.
The solution will require the calculation of the lengths BP and FP and the area of each
of the two tracts.

Either of the two tracts may be considered as a closed traverse for which the lengths
of two sides are unknown. A trial line BF is first established. Since the latitude and
departure of FA and AB are known, from these the length and bearing of the trial line
BF are computed. Then, in the triangle BFP the lengths of the sides BP and FP are
easily determined by applying the sine law, and their latitudes and departures are
also computed. The area of tract FABP is calculated by any of the methods used for
determining areas.

In the field, the length and direction of the dividing line are laid off from B, and a
check on fieldwork and computations is obtained if point P thus established lies on
line EF, and if the computed distance FP agrees with the observed distance.

Module III
 Figure 6-2. Dividing an area by line running through a point in a given direction

The computations are further checked by determining if the algebraic sums of the
latitudes and of the departures of AB, BP, and FA are equal to zero.

The length of EP can be determine by subtracting the computed length of FP from

the known length of EF, also, its latitude and departures are computed.

The areas of the two tracts are calculated independently based on the given and
calculated latitudes and departures of their respective courses. As check, the sum of
the areas of the two tracts should equal the area of the entire parcel of land.

A small amount of error may result in the above computation in which, however, is
negligible. The error may appear in summation of latitudes and departures. This error
is attributed to the rounding off value sin determining the values computed from the
sine or cosine of angles.

It is obvious that the solution of this type of problem is greatly facilitated by first
plotting the traverse before working out the necessary computations.

DIVIDING A TRACT OF LAND INTO TWO PARTS BY A LINE BETWEEN TWO POINTS.

Given the following data of a tract of land, determine the area east of line
running fro F to C and calculate the length and bearing of FC.

Module III
Figure 6-3. Parcel of land to be divided by line between two points.

COURSE ADJ LAT ADJ DEP

AB 490.71 m 47.27
BC 587.12 608.69
CD -327.41 786.78
DE -1002.76 218.32
EF -122.67 -1116.62
FA 375.01 -544.64
SUMS 0.00 0.00

Solution :

a. Determining Area of Tract ABCDEF. (area of the whole traverse)

COURSE ADJ LAT ADJ DEP

AB 47.27 23,195.86
BC 703.43 412,997.82
CD 2099.10 -687,266.33
DE 3104.20 -3,112,767.59
EF 2205.90 -270,597.75
FA 544.64 204,245.45
SUM -3,430,192.54

2 x AREA = -3,430,192.54
AREA = -1,715,096.27 sq m or
= -171.5096 Hectares ( area of tract ABCDEF with negative sign
disregarded)

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 b. Considering tract CDEF ( Area east of the dividing line).

∑ Lat =∑ NL+∑ SL=La tcd + La tde + Lat ef + Lat fc =0.0

−327.41−1002.76−122.67+ Lat fc =0.0

∑ Lat fc =1452.84 m(Latitude of line FC )

∑ Dep=∑ ED +∑ WD=Depcd + Depde + Depef + Dep fc=0.0
786.78+218.32−116.62+ Depfc =0.0

Depfc =111.52 m(departure of line FC)

√ 2
Lfc = ( La t fc ) + ( De p fc )
2

Lfc =√ ( 1452.84 ) + ( 111.52 )

2 2

¿ 1457. 11m( Lenght of libe FC )

Depfc 111.52
tan ( θfc )= = =0.07676
Lat fc 1452.84

' '
Θfc =04 ° 23 (bearing of line FC is 04 ° 23 E)

TABULATION FOR TRACT CDEF

COURSE LAT DEP DMD DOUBLE AREA

CD -327.41 786.78 786.78 -257,599.64
DE -1002.76 218.32 1791.88 -1,796,825.59
EF -122.67 -1116.62 893.58 -109,615.46
FC 1452.84 111.52 -111.52 -162,028.72
SUMS 0.00 0.00 -2,326,061.72

2 X AREA = -2,326,061 .41

AREA = -1,163,030.71 sq m or
= -116.3030 hectares (area of tract CDEF with negative sign disregarded)

Solution Check:

Module III
a) Considering Tract FABC ( Area west of the dividing line).

∑ Lat =∑ NL+∑ SL=La t fa+ La t ab+ La t bc + La t cf =0.0

375.01+490.71+587. 2+ Lat fc=0.0

∑ Lat cf =−1452.84 m(Latitude of line CF)

∑ Dep=∑ ED +∑ WD=Depfd + Depab + Depbc + Depcf =0.0
−544.64+ 47.27+ 608.89+ Depfc =0.0

Depcf =−111.52 m(departure of line CF)

√ 2 2
Lcf = ( La t cf ) + ( De p cf )

Lfc =√ (−1452.84 ) + (−111.52 )

2 2

¿ 1457. 11m( Lenght of libe CF)

Depcf −111.52
tan ( θcf )= = =+ 0.07676
Lat cf −1452.84

' '
Θfc =04 ° 23 (bearing of line FC is S 04 ° 23 W )

TABULATION FOR TRACT FABC

COURSE LAT DEP DMD DOUBLE AREA

FA 375.01 -544.64 -544.64 -204,245.45
AB 490.71 47.27 -1042.01 -511,324.73
BC 587.12 608.89 -385.85 -226,540.25
CF 452.84 -111.52 111.52 -162.020.72
SUMS 0.00 0.00 -1,104,11.15

2 X AREA = -1,104,131.15
AREA = -552,065.57 sq m or

b) Comparing calculated values.

Area ABCDEF = Area CDEF + Area FABC

171.5096 Ha = 116.3030 Ha + 55.2066 Ha

Module III
 171.5096 Ha = 171.5096 Ha (checks)

Note: A small amount of error may result in the above computations which however,
is negligible. The error is attributed to the rounding off of values and in determining
the values computed from the sine or cosine of angles.

DIVIDING A TRACT OF LAND BY A LINE RUNNING IN A GIVEN DIRECTION.

Given the following data of a tract of a land, find the area of each of the two parts
into which the tract is divided by a line through A with a bearing of N 75 o 30’E

Module III
 Figure 6-4. Parcel of land to be divided by a line running in a given
direction.

COURSE ADJ LAT ADJ DEP

AB 490.71 m 47.27 m
BC 587.12 608.89
CD -327.41 786.78
DE -1002.76 218.32
EF -122.67 -116.62
FA 375.01 -544.64
SUMS 0.00 0.00

Solution:

a. Determine the Area tract of ABCDEF

COURSE ADJ LAT ADJ DEP

AB 47.27 23,195.86
BC 703.43 412,997.82
CD 2099.10 -687,266.33
DE 3104.20 -
3,112,767.5
9
EF 2205.90 -270,597.75

Module III
 FA 544.64 204,245.45

2 x AREA = -3,430,192.54
AREA = -1,715,096.27 sq m or
= -171.510 Hectares ( Area of tract ABCDEF with negative sign
disregarded)

∑ Lat =∑ NL+∑ SL=La t fa+ La t ab+ La t bc + La t cf =0.0

−122.67+375.01+ Lat ae =0.0

∑ Lat ae =−252.34 m(Latitude of line AE)

∑ Dep=∑ ED +∑ WD=Depef + Dep fa+ Depae =0.0
−1116.62−544.64 + Depae=0.0

Depae =−1661.26 m(departure of line AE)

√ 2
Lae = ( Lat ae ) + ( De p ae )
2

Lae =√ (−252.34 ) + ( 1661.26 )

2 2

¿ 1680. 32m( Lenght of libe AE)

Dep ae 1661.26
tan ( θae ) = = =6.5834192
Lat ae −252.34

' '
θ ae=81 ° 22 ( bearing of line AE is S 81 ° 22 E)

C. Analyzing Triangle APE

Depde 218.32
tan ( θ pe ) =tan ( θ de ) = =−0.217719
Lat de −1002.76

Module III
 Figure 6-5. Triangle APE

≮ A=180 °−( 75 ° 30' +81 ° 22' ) =23° 08 '

' '
≮ E=81° 22 −12° 17 =69 ° 05 '
' '
≮ P=75 ° 30 +12 ° 17 =87 ° 47 '

Check:

≮ A +≮ E+≮ P=180 °
' ' '
23 ° 08 + 69° 05 +87 ° 47 =180 °
180 °=180 °

By Sine Law:

AP PE AE
= =
sin E sin A sin P

( AE ) sin E 1680.32sin (69 °05 ' )

AP= = =1570.76 m(Lenght of dividing line AP)
sin P sin (87 ° 47' )

( AE ) sin A 1680.32 sin(23 ° 08' )

PE= = =660.65 m(Distance of point P ¿station E)
sin P sin(87 ° 47 ' )

TABULATION FOR TRACT PEFA

COURSE LAT DEP LAT DEP ADJ LAT ADJ DEP

CORR CORR
PE -645.53 140.55 0.05 0.01 -645.58 140.54
EF -122.67 -116.62 0.00 0.00 -122.67 -116.62
FA 375.01 -544.64 0.00 0.00 375.01 -544.64
AP 393.29 1520.73 0.05 0.01 393.24 1520.72
SUMS + 0.10 + 0.02 + 0.10 + 0.02 0.00 0.00

Lat ap=( AP ) cos ( 75° 30' )=1570.76 cos ( 75 ° 30' ) =393.29

Module III
D e pap =( AP ) ¿
Lat pe =( PE ) ¿
D e p pe =( PE ) sin ( 12° 17' )=660.65 sin ( 12 ° 17 ' )=140.55

COURSE DMD DOUBLE AREA

PE 140.54 -90,729.81
EF -835.544 102,495.69
FA -2496.80 -936,324.97
AP -1520.72 -598,007.93
SUMS -1,522,567.02

2 X AREA = -1,522,567.02
AREA = -761,283.51 sq m or -76.128 hectares

Note: Since the latitude and departure of lines EF and PA are known and adjusted,
only latitude and departure of lines PE and AP are adjusted. Also, considering that the
error in the latitude and departure are negligible, arbitrary adjustment is performed
to balance both latitudes and departures prior to determining DMD and Double
Areas.

e. Considering Tract ABCDP

√
Lde = ( Lat de ) + ( D E de ) = √ (−1002.76 ) + ( 218.32 )
2 2 2 2

= 1026.25 ( length of line DE)

DP=DE−PE=1026.25−660.65=365. 60 M

La t dp=( DP ) cos ( 12 ° 17' )=365.60 cos (12 ° 17' ¿ )=−357.23 m ¿

D e pdp= ( DP ) sin ¿

La t pa=− Lat ap=−( +393.29 )=−393.29 m

De p pa=−De p ap=−( +1520.73 )=−1520.73 m

TABULATION FOR TRACT ABCDP

COURSE LAT DEP LAT DEP ADJ LAT ADJ DEP

CORR CORR
AB 490.71 47.27 0.00 0.00 490.71 47.27

Module III
 BC 587.12 608.89 0.00 0.00 587.12 608.89
CD -327.41 786.78 0.00 0.00 -327.41 786.78
DP -357.23 77.78 0.05 0.00 -357.18 77.78
PA -393.29 -1520.73 0.05 0.01 -393.24 -1520.72
SUMS -0.10 -0.01 -0.10 -0.01 0.00 0.00

COURSE DMD DOUBLE AREA

AB 47.27 23,195.86
BC 703.43 412,997.82
CD 2099.10 -687,266.33
DP 2963.66 -1,058,560.08
PA 1520.72 -598,007.93
SUMS -1,907,640.66

2 x AREA = -1,907, 640.66

AREA = -953,820. 33 s m or -95.382 ha.

Note: Since the latitude and departure of lines AB, BC and CD are known and
adjusted, only the latitude an departure of lines DP and PA are adjusted. Also,
considering that the error in latitude and departure are negligible, arbitrary
adjustment is performed to balance both latitudes and departures prior to
determining DMD and double areas.

Solution Check:

AREA ABCDEF = AREA PEFA + AREA ABCDP

171.510 ha = 76.128 ha + 95.382 Ha
171.510 ha = 171.510 Ha (checks)

PARTITION OF LAND

In Figure 6-6, ABCDEF represents an irregular parcel of land with courses of known
lengths and directions, with computed and adjusted latitudes and departures, and its
total area already determined.

A dividing line is to pass through point OF cutting a required area from the tract. The
traverse may be subdivided into tracts of equal areas or into any desired proportional
parts.

Before the length and direction of the dividing line can be determined, of the
traverse which, a trial line BF is drawn to that corner from inspection of the sketch,

Module III
will - come nearest to the required line of division. In the traverse ABF the latitudes
and departures of FA and AB are known except those of BF. This is a simple case of
omitted measurements where the latitude, departure, length, and bearing of BF are
easily determined. By the DMD or DPD method, the between this found. area of ABC
is calculated and the difference area and that required for tract FABQ is found.

Figure 6-6. To cut –off a required area by a line through a given point.

In the figure it is assumed that ABF has an area lesser than the desired size, FQ being
the correct position of the dividing line. Triangle BFQ represents the difference in
these two areas. In this triangle, angle FBQ may be computed from known bearings
of the trial line and course BC. Since one side BF, one angle FBQ, and the area of BFQ
are known, the length of BQ is computed as follows:
Area BFQ=() 1
2
( BF ) ( BQ ) sin ⊲ FBQ∧BQ=
2( Area BFQ)
( BF ) sin⊲ FBQ

The triangle is then solved for the length of the dividing time PO by applying the
cosine law. Also, by applying the sine law, angle BFO is determined and the bearing
of FO 15 computed. The latitudes and departures of 1ines FO, BO, and c are also
computed.

As a check, the areas of the two tracts are calculated independently and departures
based on the given and calculated latitudes. The sum of the areas of the two tracts
should equal the area of the entire parcel.

Module III
In the field, the length FQ is laid off in the required direction, and a check on
fieldwork and computations is obtained if point Q thus established falls on line BC
and it the computed distances BQ and QC agrees with the measured distances.

Sometimes, the tract will be of such shape that a line from the given point in the
boundary to any corner required. Under cut off an area nowhere near that these
circumstances or when the traverse has a large number of sides, it is advisable to
first plot the traverse to scale and to establish a trial line of subdivision.

As a rough check the planimeter may be used to advantage for determining the area
cut off by a trial line. The line may be shifted until the area cut off agrees closely with
that required.

TO CUT OFF A REQUIRED AREA BY A LINE RUNNING IN A GIVEN DIRECTION

In Figure 6-7, ABCDEF represents an irregular parcel of and with courses of known
lengths and bearings, the latitudes and departures computed and adjusted, and the
total area of the tract calculated. The parcel of land is to be divided into two parts,
each of a required area, by a line
MN running in a given direction. The subdivision scheme may require the division of
the whole parcel into equal areas into any other desired proportional parts. Out of
the desired division, tract BCDNM is formed on one side of the dividing line and tract
EFAMN on the other side.

The solution will require the calculation of the length of the dividing line, and the
distances of points M and N from corners B and D, respectively. A required step of
the solution calls for the drawing of a trial line. QE parallel to the dividing line and
running through corner. This corner is selected since it seems likely to be nearest the
line cutting off the required area. Then in the closed traverse EFAQ the latitudes and
departures of EF and FA and the bearings of AQ and EQ are known, and the lengths
of sides AQ and QE are unknown. These unknown quantities are easily determined by
considering traverse EFAQ as one with two omitted quantities. A closing line is
established and its latitude, departure, length, and bearing calculated before the
lengths of AQ and QE are determined from triangle AEQ.

Module III
 Figure 6-7. To cut off a required area by a line running in a given
direction.

Figure 6-8. Trapezoid QMNE

Since the and departures of the traverse EFAQ are either known or can be
calculated, the area cut off by the trial line may then be determined by the
DMD or DPD methods. The difference between this area and that required to
be cut off is represented in the figure by the trapezoid MNEQ (figure 6-7 and 6-
8) in which side EQ is known. The angles θ∧φ can be computed from the
known bearings of adjacent sides.

The area of the trapezoid MNEQ is calculated by the following equation:

Area MNEQ = Area QPRE – Area ENR + Area QMP

= (QE) d – (1/2) (NR)(ER) + (1/2)(MP)(PQ)
= (QE) d – (1/2) ( d tan φ ) d + (1/2) (d tan θ ¿ d
= (QE) d – (d2/2) ( tan φ - d tan θ ¿

In the field, the points M and N are established on lines AB and DE, at the
calculated distances from the adjacent corners. The length MN is then
measured. If this measured value agrees with the computed value, a check is
provided. A further check is made on the computations by calculating the area
of tract BCDNM and comparing it with the required area.

ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS.

TO CUTT OFF A REQUIRED AREA BY A LINE THROUGH A GIVEN POINT.

A tract of land, with adjusted latitudes and departures given below to be subdivided
into two lots of equal area. Find the length and direction of the dividing line which
is to pass through the corner B.

Module III
 COURSE ADJ LAT ADJ DEP
AB 490.71 m 47.27 m
BC 587.12 608.89
CD -327.41 786.78
DE -1002.76 218.32
EF -122.67 -111.62
FA 375.01 -544.64
SUMS 0.00 0.00

Figure
6-9. Tract of land to be cut off by a line through a given point.

Solution:

a. Determining Area of Tract ABCDEF

COURSE ADJ LAT ADJ DEP

AB 490.71 m 47.27 m
BC 587.12 608.89
CD -327.41 786.78
DE -1002.76 218.32
EF -122.67 -111.62
FA 375.01 -544.64
SUMS 0.00 0.00

Module III
2 X AREA = - 3,430,192.54
AREA = -1,715,096.27 sq m or -171,510 ha ( area of tract ABCDEF with negative
sign disregarded)

b. Determining the area of each tract.

AREA BCDP + Area PEFAB = Area ABCDEF

Since: Area BCDP must be equal to Area PEFAB,

Area ABCDEF 1,715,096.27

Area PEFAB= =
2 2
= 857,548.14 sq. m or 85.75 Ha.

c. Determining length and direction of trial line.

∑ Lat =∑ NL+∑ SL=La tbc + Lacd + Latdb=0.0

587.12−327.41+ Lat db=0.0

∑ Lat db=−259.71 m(Latitude of trial line DB )

∑ Dep=∑ ED +∑ WD=Depbc + Depcd + Depdb=0.0
608.89+786.78+ Dep db=0.0

Depdb=−1,395.67 m( departure of trial line DB)

√ 2
Ldb= ( La t db) + ( De p db)
2

Lae =√ (−259.71 ) + (−1395.67 )

2 2

¿ 1419.63 m(Lenght of libe DB)

Depdb −1,395.67
tan ( θdb )= =
Lat db −259.71

' '
θ ae=79 ° 28 ( bearing of line DB is S 79 ° 28 W )

Module III
 d. Determining the area of tract BD

COURSE LAT DEP DMD DOUBLE

AREA
BC 587.12 608.89 608.89 +357,491.50
CD -327.41 786.78 2004.56 -656,312.99
DB -259.71 -1395.67 1395.67 -362,469.46
SUMS 0.00 0.00 -661,290.95

2 X AREA = - 661,290.95
AREA = -330,645.47 sq m or -33.065 ha ( area of tract ABCDEF with negative sign
disregarded)

e. Determining area and parts of tract BDP.

Area BDP = Area BCDP – Area BCD = 857,548.14 - 330,645.47

= 526902.67 sq m or 52.690 Ha.

Figure 6-10. Triangle BDP

De p de
tan ( θdp )=tan ( θde )=
La t de
218.32
¿ =−0.217719
−1002.76
' '
θ❑dp=12 ° 17 (Bearing of line DP=S 12° 17 E)

'
≮ D=79 ° 28 ;+12° 17 =91° 45 '
1
Area BDP= ( BD ) ( DP ) sin D=526,902.67
2

Module III
 1
= ( 1419.63 ) (DP )sin (91° 45 ')
2

DP=742.66 m ¿

By Cosine Law

( BP )2=( BD )2 + ( DP )2−2 ( BD ) ( DP ) cos D

( BP )2=( 1419.63 )2 + ( 742.66 )2−2 ( 1419.63 ) ( 742.66 ) cos ( 91° 45' )
BP=1622.12 mlenght of dividing line BP

By Sine Law

BP BD DP 1622.12 1419.63 742.66

= = ; = =
sin D sin P sin B sin 91° 45 '
sin P sin B

'
1419.63 sin( 91° 45 )
sin P=
1622.12

P=61° 01'
'
742.66 sin(91° 45 )
sin B=
1622.12

P=27 ° 14 '

TO CUT OFF A REQUIRED AREA BY A LINE RUNNING IN A GIVEN DIRECTION

Given the following data of tract of a tract of land which is to be divided into two
equal parts by an east-west line, compute the length of the dividing line, and
determine the distances from the line to the adjacent traverse.

COURSE ADJ LAT ADJ DEP

AB 490.71 m 47.27 m
BC 587.12 608.89

Module III
 CD -327.41 786.78
DE -1002.76 218.32
EF -122.67 -1116.62
FA 375.01 -544.64
SUMS 0.00 0.00

Figure 6-11. Tract of land to be cut off by a line running in a given

direction

Solution:

a. Determine Area of Tract ABCDEF

COURSE ADJ LAT ADJ DEP

AB 47.27 23,195.86
BC 703.43 412,997.82
CD 2099.10 -687,266.33
DE 3104.20 -3,112,767.59
EF 2205.90 -270,597.75
FA 544.64 204,245.45

Module III
 SUMS -3,430,192.54

2 x AREA = -3,430,192.54
AREA = -1,715,096 sq m or -171.510 ha

b. Determining Area of Tracts MBCDN and NEFAM

Since: Area MBCDN = Area NEFAM, 2 (Area MBCDB) = Area ABCDEF

Area ABCDEF 1,715,096.27

A rea MBCDN= =
2 2

¿ 857,548.14 sq . m∨85.75 Ha

c. Determining lengths of DP and PA.

∑ Lat =∑ NL+∑ SL=La tab + Labc + Latcd + Lat da=0.0

490.71+587.12−327.41+ Lat da=0.0

∑ Lat da=−750.421 m( Latitude of trial line DA )

∑ Dep=∑ ED +∑ WD=Depab+ Depbc + Depcb + Depda=0.0
47.27 +608.89+786.78+ Depda=0.0

Depda=−1,442.94 m( departure of trialline DA )

Depda −1 , 42.94
tan ( θda )= =
Lat da −750.42

' '
θ ae=62 ° 31 (bearing of line DB is S 62 ° 31 W )

√ 2
Lda= ( La t da) + ( De pda )
2

Lde =√ (−750.42 ) + (−1442.94 )

2 2

¿ 1626.41 m(Lenght of closing DA )

Module III
Figure 6-12. Triangle ADP

Analyzing Triangle ADP

De p de
tan ( θdp )=tan ( θde )=
La t de

218.32 '
¿ =12° 17 ¿
−1002.76

By Sine Law

DP PA DA
= =
SinA SinA SinP

( DA ) sin A 1626.41 sin 27 °29 '

DP= = =768.16 m
sin P sin77 ° 43
'

( DA ) sin D 1626.41sin 74 ° 48 '

PA= = =1606.28 m
sin P sin 77 ° 43
'

Determining Latitude and Departure of lines DP and PA:

'
La t dp=( DP ) cos ( θ dp )=768.16 cos 12° 17 =−750.57 m

Module III
 '
Depdp=( DP ) sin ( θdp )=768.16 sin12 ° 17 =+163.42 m
La t pa= ( PA ) cos ( θ pa )=1606.28 cos 90 °=0.00 m
Dep pa=( PA ) sin ( θ pa ) =1606.28 sin 90°=−1680.28 m

d. Determining Area of Tract ABCDP

COURSE LAT DEP LAT DEP ADJ LAT ADJ DEP

CORR CORR
AB 490.71 47.27 0.00 0.00 490.71 47.27
BC 587.12 608.89 0.00 0.00 587.12 608.89
CD -327.41 786.78 0.00 0.00 -327.41 786.78
DP -750.57 163.42 0.15 0.04 -750.42 163.38
PA 0.00 -1606.28 0.00 0.04 0.00 -1606.32
SUMS -0.15 + 0.08 0.15 0.08 0.00 0.00

COURSE DMD DOUBLE AREA

AB 47.27 23,195.86
BC 703.43 412,997.82
CD 2099.10 -687,266.33
DP 3049.26 -2,288,225.69
PA 1606.32 0.00
SUMS -2,539,299.66

2 x AREA = -2,539,299.66
AREA = -1,269, 649.83 sq m or -126,965 ha

Module III
 d
RM =d tan θ AM = NQ=d tan ψ NP=d cos ψ
cos θ

Area AMNP = Area ABCDP – Area MBCDN

= 1,269,649.83 – 857,548.14
= 412,101.43 sq m

Also; Area AMNP = Area ARQP – Area ARM – Area PQN

= (PA) d – ½ (RM) d – ½ (NQ) d
= (PA) d – ½ d2 Tan θ – ½ d2 Tan ψ

412,101.43 = 1606.28 d – d2/2 (Tan5 ° 30’ + Tan 12 ° 17’)

412,101.43 = 1606.28 d -0.16 d2
0.16 d2 - 1606.28 d + 412,101.43 = 0

Using the quadratic formula:

−b ± √ b2−4 ac
d=
2a
−1608.28 ± √ −1608.282−4 (0.16)(412,101.43)
d=
2(0.16)

the roots are d1= 9775.78 m and d2= 263.47 (logical answer)

Mn = AP – RM - NQ
= 1606.28 – 263.47 Tan 5030’ – 263.47 Tan 12017’
= 1523.55 m (length of dividing line)

f. Determining distances of points M and N from adjacent stations

d
√ 2
MB= AB− AM = ( La t ab ) + ( De p ab ) −
2
cos θ

263.47
¿ √ ( 490.71 ) + ( 47.27 ) −
2 2
cos 5 ° 30 '

¿ 228.29 m¿ )

d
DN =DP−NP=768.16−
cos ψ

Module III
 263.47
¿ 768.16−
cos 12° 17 '

¿ 498.52 m ¿)

Module III
Module III