Unit 0

The Foundations of
Psychology as a Science

0.1 Introduction to Psychology

as a Science
0.1 Introduction to Psychology as a Science
● Explain how psychology is a science. Vocabulary
● Describe the three key elements of the scientific
❏ Psychology
attitude and how they support scientific inquiry. ❏ Critical Thinking
● Explain how critical thinking feeds a scientific
attitude, and smarter thinking for everyday life.
● Explain how cognitive biases, such as hindsight
bias, overconfidence, and the tendency to
perceive order in random events illustrate why
science-based answers are more valid than
those based on common sense.
 In this unit you will:
● Learn why psychology is a science and how
psychologists ask and answer questions.
● Gain the foundational skills to think critically
about psychology research and data.
● Begin to develop the tools to make
psychological arguments.
 Why Unit 0?

1. This unit will cover skills that you will use

throughout the rest of the course.
2. These skills are also key to passing the AP Exam
a. AAQ - Article Analysis Question
b. EBQ - Evidence Based Question
Why Unit 0?
 What is Psychology?
Ever wonder why people do what they do? Psychology gives us
the tools to decode human behavior and mental processes
through scientific study.
 What is Psychology?
Human Behavior: observable actions or reactions of individuals or groups. It
encompasses a wide range of activities, including:
● Physical Actions: Movements and activities that can be seen and measured,
such as walking, talking, eating, and playing sports.
● Emotional Responses: Expressions of feelings like happiness, sadness, anger,
and fear.
● Social Interactions: Ways in which people interact with each other, such as
communication, cooperation, and conflict.
● Learned Behaviors: Actions that are acquired through experience or education,
such as driving a car or playing a musical instrument.
 What is Psychology?
Mental processes are the internal operations of the mind that are not directly
observable. These include:
● Cognition: Mental activities related to thinking, knowing, and remembering.
This involves perception, memory, problem-solving, decision-making, and
reasoning.
● Emotion: Internal experiences related to feelings, which can influence behavior
and thought patterns.
● Perception: The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information to
understand the environment.
● Motivation: The internal drives and needs that direct behavior towards
achieving goals or satisfying needs.
 Psychology is a Science
Explain how psychology is a science

1. What thoughts or behaviors were

being observed/studied?
2. What questions were being asked
or answered in this study?
3. What did you notice about the
study? How was it set up? How did
they gather information?
 Psychology is a Science
Four main goals
❖ Describe
➢ By simply describing thoughts and behavior, we can understand them
better
❖ Explain
➢ Conducting research helps explain why people think and behave the
way they do
❖ Predict
➢ Once we understand human behavior and thought, we can make
predictions about how they will behave in the future
❖ Change
➢ Psychology makes a difference in the world from treatment for mental
health, changing habits, to educating children - it’s everywhere!

Want more information? VeryWellMind:

https://www.verywellmind.com/what-are-the-four-major-goals-of-psychology-2795603
 Psychology is a Science
How do we describe, explain, predict, and
change human thought and behavior
scientifically?

● Empirical Evidence: Psychologists rely

on observable and measurable data.
They conduct experiments, surveys, and
case studies to gather evidence.
● Scientific Method: This involves
forming hypotheses, conducting
experiments, and analyzing results. It
ensures findings are reliable and valid.
 Psychology is a Science
Describe the three key elements of the scientific attitude and how they support
scientific inquiry
Psychology is a Science
To be a good scientist—or
psychologist—you need the
right attitude.

The scientific attitude is built

on three key elements:
curiosity, skepticism, and
humility.
 Psychology is a Science

Curiosity: This is the drive to explore and

understand the unknown.

Curious psychologists ask questions like,

"Why do people behave this way?" or "What
influences our thoughts and emotions?" This
thirst for knowledge propels scientific
discovery.
 Psychology is a Science

Skepticism: Healthy skepticism means not

accepting claims without evidence.

Psychologists question whether a conclusion

is supported by data and consider alternative
explanations. It’s the “prove it to me” attitude
that prevents gullibility.

Want more tips and tricks for news literacy?

https://newslit.org/tips-tools/?tool_type=newslittips
 Psychology is a Science

Humility: Scientists, including psychologists,

must be willing to accept that they can be
wrong.

Humility involves recognizing the limitations of

one’s knowledge and being open to new
evidence, even if it contradicts previous
beliefs.
 Critical Thinking
Explain how critical thinking feeds a scientific attitude, and smarter thinking for
everyday life.

Critical thinking is the engine that drives the scientific attitude.

● Thinking that does not automatically accept arguments and
conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, appraises the source,
discerns hidden biases, evaluated evidence, and assesses conclusions
 Critical Thinking
Questioning Assumptions: Critical thinkers don’t take things at face value. They ask,
“Is this really true?” By questioning assumptions, you avoid falling for false beliefs or
misleading information.

Analyzing Evidence: Look at the facts. Critical thinking involves assessing the
credibility of sources, the quality of the data, and the logic of the arguments presented.
This helps you make well-informed decisions.

Recognizing Biases: We all have biases that can cloud our judgment. Critical
thinking helps you identify and account for these biases, leading to more objective and
fair conclusions.
 Unit 0
The Foundations of
Psychology as a Science

0.2 Think Twice!

Recognizing Bias
 0.2 Think Twice! Recognizing Bias
Vocabulary
● Explain how cognitive biases, such as hindsight
❏ Hindsight bias
bias, overconfidence, and the tendency to ❏ Confirmation Bias
perceive order in random events illustrate why ❏ Overconfidence
science-based answers are more valid than
those based on common sense.

Bolded = In 2024 AP Psychology CED

 Think Twice! Recognizing Bias
Explain how cognitive biases, such as hindsight bias, overconfidence, and the
tendency to perceive order in random events illustrate why science-based answers
are more valid than those based on common sense.
 Think Twice! Recognizing Bias
We like to think that we make rational decisions.
● The truth is - our brains take shortcuts all the
time
● We can’t pay attention to every detail of
every decision we make

Cognitive biases are systematic errors in thinking.

These biases are like shortcuts our brains take to
make processing information easier and quicker,
but they often lead us to incorrect conclusions or
irrational decisions.
 Hindsight Bias: The “I-Knew-It-All-Along” Phenomenon

Hindsight bias happens when, after an event

has occurred, we believe we predicted it
beforehand. This bias makes outcomes seem
obvious and inevitable in retrospect, even if
we had no way of knowing what would
happen.

● Example: After a sports game, you might

think, “I knew our team would win!” even
if you had doubts before the game.
● Why It’s Misleading: It makes us
overestimate our ability to predict events
and blinds us to the reality of
uncertainty.
 Confirmation Bias: Seeing Only What We Want to See

Confirmation bias is the tendency to search for,

interpret, and remember information that confirms our
preexisting beliefs or opinions. Instead of objectively
evaluating all evidence, we give more weight to
information that supports what we already think and
discount evidence that contradicts our views.

● Example: If you strongly support a political party,

you're more likely to favor news outlets and
opinions that align with your views and ignore those
that don't, reinforcing your existing beliefs.
● Why It’s Misleading: It skews our perception of
reality, leads to poor decision-making, and can
cause polarization by creating echo chambers
where opposing viewpoints are disregarded.
 Overconfidence: Too Much Faith in Our Own Judgment

Overconfidence bias occurs when we

overestimate the accuracy of our knowledge
and judgments. It’s like wearing rose-colored
glasses that make our abilities and decisions
seem better than they actually are.

● Example: You might be certain you aced

an exam, only to find out you made
several mistakes.
● Why It’s Misleading: It leads to poor
How confident are you? -Brain Games
decision-making because we don’t seek
out additional information or consider
other viewpoints.
 Perceiving Order in Random Events: Finding Patterns That Aren’t There

Our brains love to find patterns, even when none

exist. This tendency can lead us to see
connections and order in random or unrelated
events.

● Example: In a series of coin tosses,

observers might notice clusters of heads or
tails and erroneously conclude that there is
a bias in the coin, or a “lucky streak”.
● Why It’s Misleading: It causes us to draw
false conclusions and see meaning where
there is none.
 Unit 0
The Foundations of
Psychology as a Science

0.3 Theories and

Non-Experimental Research
Methods in Psychology
0.3 Theories and Non-Experimental Research Methods in Psychology
Vocabulary
● Describe how theories advance psychological
science.
❏ Peer reviewers
● State the hypothesis of a research scenario,
❏ Theory
including whether the hypothesis is falsifiable. ❏ Hypothesis
● Identify operational definitions of variables in ❏ Falsifiable
❏ Operational Definition
research scenarios to determine how well the ❏ Replication
definitions allow for the study to be replicated. ❏ Case Study
❏ Meta-Analysis
● Explain how psychologists use ❏ Naturalistic Observation
non-experimental methodologies: case study,
correlation, meta-analysis, and naturalistic
observation.

Bolded = In 2024 AP Psychology CED

0.3 Theories and Non-Experimental Research Methods in Psychology
Vocabulary
● In a research scenario, identify the participants of a
study who make up the sample that is drawn from a
population. ❏ Social desirability bias
● Determine whether the sample used is representative ❏ Self-report bias
of the population and is selected by either random ❏ Experimenter Bias
sampling or convenience sampling. ❏ Population
❏ Sample
● Evaluate whether the sampling procedure involves
❏ Sampling Bias
sampling bias. ❏ Random Sample
● Determine to what extent the sampling method allows ❏ Convenience Sampling
for results of the study to be generalized. ❏ Representative Sample
● Determine whether the research used a survey ❏ Survey
technique and whether the wording of the survey could
lead respondents to demonstrate self-report bias or
social desirability bias.
Bolded = In 2024 AP Psychology CED
 The Role of Theories
● State the hypothesis of a research scenario, including whether the hypothesis is
falsifiable.

What is a Theory?
● Theory: A theory in psychology is like a roadmap that helps us
organize our observations and make predictions about behavior. It's a
structured explanation based on principles that guide research and
understanding.
 The Role of Theories

Guiding Research: Theories provide a

starting point for exploration.

Example: Psychologists might have a theory

that social media usage has a negative effect
on adolescents.

Why It’s Important: It provides a framework

for understanding and predicting phenomena.
Everyone Says Social Media Is Bad for Teens. Proving It Is
Another Thing. New York Times, 2023
 The Importance of Hypotheses
Hypothesis: A hypothesis is a specific,
testable prediction derived from a theory. It's
crucial because it allows psychologists to
conduct research that either supports or
challenges the theory.

Example: "Teenagers who spend more than

three hours a day on social media will report
higher levels of anxiety and depression
compared to those who spend less than one
hour a day."

Why It’s Important: It guides research by

providing a clear statement to be tested. Association between Social Media Use and Depression among
U.S. Young Adults, Lin et all - visualized by Clearvue Health
https://www.clearvuehealth.com/b/social-media-depression/
 The Importance of Hypotheses

Falsifiable: Can It Be Proven Wrong?

A falsifiable hypothesis is one that can be

disproven through evidence.

Example: "All swans are white" is falsifiable

because finding one black swan disproves it.

Why It’s Important: It ensures that

hypotheses can be tested and potentially
refuted.
 The Importance of Hypotheses
● Identify operational definitions of variables in research scenarios to determine
how well the definitions allow for the study to be replicated.

Operational Definition: Making It Measurable

An operational definition specifies how a concept

is measured or manipulated in a study.

Example: Defining "stress" as "cortisol levels in

saliva."

Why It’s Important: It allows for precise

measurement and replication.
 The Importance of Hypotheses
Replication: Testing Reliability

Replication is the process of repeating a study to

see if the same results can be obtained.

Example: Conducting the same experiment on

memory recall to verify findings.

Why It’s Important: It confirms the reliability and

validity of research findings.

Is there a reproducibility crisis in science? - Matt Anticole

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FpCrY7x5nEE
 The Importance of Hypotheses
● Explain how conclusions from experimental research evolve via scientific processes
such as peer review and replication.

Peer Reviewers: The Gatekeepers of Quality

Peer reviewers are experts who evaluate the

quality and validity of research before it gets
published. They ensure that the research
methods are sound and the conclusions are
reliable.

Example: Before a study on new therapy

techniques is published, peer reviewers critique
the methods and findings.

Why It’s Important: It maintains the integrity

and accuracy of scientific literature.
Non-Experimental Research Methods
● Explain how psychologists use non-experimental methodologies: case study,
correlation, meta-analysis, and naturalistic observation.
Non-Experimental Research Methods
● Non-Experimental research: Research that observes and describes behavior
without manipulating variables.
● Describe the four main types:
○ Case study 🔍: In-depth investigation of an individual or group.
○ Correlational study 📈: Examines the relationship between two or more
variables.
○ Meta-analysis 📚 : Statistical analysis of multiple studies on the same
topic.
○ Naturalistic observation 👀: Observing behavior in its natural setting.
● Limitations of non-experimental research: Cannot establish cause-and-effect
relationships.
 Case Study

Case Study: In-Depth Analysis

A case study involves an in-depth

investigation of a single individual or group.

Example: Studying a patient with a rare

psychological disorder.
Phineas Gage

Why It’s Important: It provides detailed

insights but may not be generalizable.

Victor of Aveyron (wild child)

 Two famous case studies
● In 1848, Phineas Gage had a workplace
accident in which an iron tamping rod
entered and exited his skull. He
survived but it is said that his
personality changed as a result,
leading to a greater understanding of
the brain regions involved in
personality, namely the frontal lobe.

● Victor of Aveyron (1788 – 1828) was a

French feral child who was found
around the age of 9. Not only is he
considered one of the most famous
feral children, but his case is also the
most documented case of a feral child.
 Case Study
Advantages:

● Provides detailed, rich qualitative data.

● Useful for studying rare or unique phenomena.
● Can generate new hypotheses for further research.

Disadvantages:

● Results may not be generalizable to the broader population.

● Can be time-consuming and resource-intensive.
● Subject to researcher bias in interpretation.
 Correlational Study

Correlational Study: Examining Relationships

A correlational study examines the relationship between two or

more variables.

Example: Investigating the relationship between hours of sleep

and academic performance.

Why It’s Important: Helps identify associations and make

predictions but does not imply causation.
 Correlational Study
Advantages:

● Can study variables that cannot be manipulated experimentally.

● Can be conducted in natural settings.
● Can provide insights into potential causal relationships.

Disadvantages:

● Cannot establish cause-and-effect relationships. (Correlation does not equal

causation)
● Subject to the third-variable problem (confounding variables).
We will cover correlational
studies more in depth in
lesson 0.4.
 Meta-Analysis
Meta-Analysis: Combining Results

Meta-analysis statistically combines the results

of multiple studies on the same topic.

Example: Analyzing numerous studies on the

effectiveness of a specific therapy.

Why It’s Important: It increases statistical

power and generalizability.
From a University
Presentation Showcase
(Graduate Poster Galley)
at Eastern Kentucky
University:
https://encompass.eku.ed
u/swps_graduategallery/4
6/
 Meta-Analysis
Advantages:

● Increases statistical power by combining data from multiple studies.

● Provides a comprehensive overview of research on a topic.
● Can identify patterns and overall trends.

Disadvantages:

● Dependent on the quality and consistency of included studies.

● May be affected by publication bias (studies with significant results are more
likely to be published).
● Complex and requires advanced statistical techniques.
 Naturalistic Observation
Naturalistic Observation: Watching Behavior

Naturalistic observation involves observing

subjects in their natural environment without
intervention.

Example: Observing children's play behavior in

a park.

Why It’s Important: It provides authentic data Jane Goodall: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rcL4jnGTL1U

on behavior in natural settings.

Naturalistic Observation:
https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-naturalistic-observation-2795391
 Naturalistic Observation
Advantages:

● Provides data on behavior in a natural setting.

● Reduces the likelihood of participants altering their behavior due to being
studied.
● Useful for generating hypotheses about behavior.

Disadvantages:

● Lack of control over variables can make it hard to establish causation.

● Observations can be influenced by observer bias.
● Can be time-consuming and difficult to conduct.
 Sampling Techniques
● In a research scenario, identify the participants of a study who make up the
sample that is drawn from a population.

● In psychology, a sample is a smaller group chosen from a larger population to

represent the whole group. Since it's usually impossible to survey every single
person in a population due to its size, psychologists use samples to make
conclusions about the population's characteristics.
 Survey
● Determine whether the research used a survey technique and whether the wording
of the survey could lead respondents to demonstrate self-report bias or social
desirability bias.

Survey: Gathering Data

Surveys use questionnaires or interviews to

collect data from a large number of people.

Example: Asking high school students about

their study habits.

Why It’s Important: It gathers a broad range of

information quickly.
 Sampling Techniques

Population: The Whole Group

The population is the entire group that a

researcher is interested in studying.

Example: All high school students in the U.S.

Why It’s Important: It defines the group to

which the research findings will be generalized.
 Sampling Techniques

Sample: A Subset of the Population

A sample is a smaller group selected from the

population to participate in the study.

Example: 200 high school students from various

schools.

Why It’s Important: It allows researchers to

draw conclusions about the population.
 Sampling Techniques
● Evaluate whether the sampling procedure involves
sampling bias.

Sampling Bias: Skewed Selection

Sampling bias occurs when the sample is not

representative of the population. The school’s athletic department wants
to know which sports are most popular
Example: Surveying only honor students about among students and gathers responses
study habits. from students currently on sports teams.

This introduces bias as these students

Why It’s Misleading: It leads to are already interested in sports,
unrepresentative and unreliable results. potentially excluding those who might
prefer non-sport activities.
 Sampling Techniques
● Determine whether the sample used is representative of the population and
is selected by either random sampling or convenience sampling.

Random Sample: Equal Chance

A random sample ensures every member of the

population has an equal chance of being
selected.

Example: Using a random number generator to

select participants from a list.

Why It’s Important: It reduces bias and

increases representativeness.
 Sampling Techniques

Ask yourself - who does

Convenience Sampling: Easy but Risky this leave out?

Convenience sampling involves selecting Who might not be

represented?
participants who are readily available.

Example: Surveying classmates because they

are easy to reach.

Why It’s Misleading: It may not represent the

broader population.
 Sampling Techniques
● Determine to what extent the sampling method allows for results of the study to
be generalized.

Representative Sample: Miniature Population

A representative sample accurately reflects the

demographics and characteristics of the
population.

Example: Ensuring the sample includes a mix of

genders, ages, and socioeconomic statuses.

Why It’s Important: It enhances the

generalizability of the study findings.
 Representative Sampling
Here are two videos that explain the best ways to get a representative sample.
 Bias in Non-Experimental Research
Social Desirability Bias: Wanting to Look Good
Social desirability bias occurs when respondents give answers they think are
socially acceptable rather than truthful.
Example: Underreporting smoking habits in a health survey.

Self-Report Bias: Flawed Memories

Self-report bias occurs when participants provide inaccurate information about
themselves.
Example: Overestimating the number of hours studied per week.

Experimenter Bias: Influencing Outcomes

Experimenter bias happens when researchers' expectations influence the outcome
of a study.
Example: A researcher unintentionally encouraging participants to respond in a
certain way.
The Power of Expectations (Experimenter Bias)

Self Report Inventories (Surveys): The Pros and Cons

Scenario 1: Online Survey on Political Views

● Description: A researcher posts a survey on social media asking

people about their political views.
● Potential Sources of Bias:
○ Social desirability bias: People might respond in a way
they think is socially acceptable rather than expressing their
true views.
○ Sampling bias: The sample may not be representative of
the entire population, as it's limited to those who use social
media and see the survey.
Scenario 2: Interview Study on Experiences of Discrimination

● Description: A researcher conducts in-depth interviews with

individuals who have experienced discrimination.

How could social desirability bias come into play in this

scenario?
Scenario 3: Study on the Effectiveness of a New Weight Loss
Drug

● Description: A pharmaceutical company conducts a study on the

effectiveness of their new weight loss drug. Participants are
randomly assigned to either the drug group or a placebo group.

How could experimenter bias come into play in this scenario?

Scenario 4: Telephone Survey on Internet Usage

● Description: A research firm conducts a telephone survey to

gather information about internet usage habits in a particular city.
They randomly select phone numbers from the local phone book
and call those numbers during the day.

How could sampling bias come into play in this scenario?

 Unit 0
The Foundations of
Psychology as a Science
0.4 Correlational and Experimental Research

65
 0.4 Correlational and Experimental Research
● Explain how psychologists use non-experimental Vocabulary
methodologies: case study, correlation, meta-analysis,
and naturalistic observation.
❏ Experimental Methodology
● Describe trends in and relationships between the
❏ Non-Experimental Methodology
variables as depicted in the data presented, such as ❏ Correlation
interpreting correlational data from a scatterplot, ❏ Correlation Coefficient
including the correlation coefficient. ❏ Variable
❏ Scatterplot
● Evaluate whether the results of a correlational study have ❏ Illusory Correlation
❏ Regression Toward the Mean
a directionality problem or third variable problem that ❏ Confounding Variable
demonstrates that correlation does not equal causation.

Bolded = In 2024 AP Psychology CED

 0.4 Correlational and Experimental Research
● Identify the experimental and control groups, including Vocabulary
the process and purpose for assigning people to groups,
whether a placebo was used with the control group, and
the effect of the placebo on the results. ❏ Experiment
● Determine whether the study used single-blind or double ❏ Experimental Group
blind procedures to control for confounding variables ❏ Control Group
like experimenter bias or the social desirability bias. ❏ Independent Variable(s)
❏ Dependent Variable(s)
● Determine whether the measurement instrument for ❏ Random Assignment
experimental research used qualitative (such as ❏ Single-Blind Procedure
structured interviews) or quantitative measures (such as ❏ Double-Blind Procedure
❏ Placebo
Likert scales).
❏ Placebo Effect
● Describe the impact of appropriate representation of
participants in conducting research and on the outcomes
of research.
● Explain how conclusions from experimental research
evolve via scientific processes such as peer review and Bolded = In 2024 AP Psychology CED
replication
 Introduction to Correlation
● Explain what it means when we say two things are correlated,
and describe positive and negative correlations.

Another technique available to researchers is to collect and examine

correlational data.
● Correlation: Correlation refers to a statistical relationship between
two variables. When two things are correlated, changes in one
variable are associated with changes in another.
 Introduction to Correlation
A correlation looks at the relationship between two things. Possible correlations:

● Teams with higher levels of cohesion and teamwork tend to win more
matches or medals.
● The longer the travel distance to the competition venue, the lower the sleep
quality reported by athletes.
 Introduction to Correlation
Positive Correlation: A positive correlation means that as one
variable increases, the other also increases. For example, as
hours of study increase, grades tend to increase.

Negative Correlation: A negative correlation means that as one

variable increases, the other decreases. For example, as the
number of hours spent watching TV increases, grades tend to
decrease.
 Quick Check!
Positive or Negative correlation?
1. As the number of class absences increases, test scores tend to decrease.
2. As the number of books read increases, the size of a person's vocabulary tends
to increase.
3. As screen time (e.g., watching TV or using a computer) increases, the amount of
physical activity tends to decrease.
4. The relationship between a person’s height and the type of music they enjoy.
5. Higher consumption of fruits and vegetables is associated with better overall
health.
6. The more time people spend on social media, the larger their number of online
friends tends to be.
7. As outdoor temperature increases, sales of hot beverages tend to decrease.
 Quick Check!
Positive or Negative correlation?
1. As the number of class absences increases, test scores tend to decrease. Negative
correlation
2. As the number of books read increases, the size of a person's vocabulary tends to
increase. Positive correlation
3. As screen time (e.g., watching TV or using a computer) increases, the amount of
physical activity tends to decrease. Negative correlation
4. The relationship between a person’s height and the type of music they enjoy. No
correlation
5. Higher consumption of fruits and vegetables is associated with better overall health.
Positive correlation
6. The more time people spend on social media, the larger their number of online
friends tends to be. Positive correlation
7. As outdoor temperature increases, sales of hot beverages tend to decrease.
Negative correlation
Understanding Correlations
 Understanding Correlations
Correlation Coefficient: This is a numerical value that represents the strength
and direction of a correlation. It ranges from -1 to +1. A value close to +1
indicates a strong positive correlation, a value close to -1 indicates a strong
negative correlation, and a value around 0 indicates no correlation.
 Understanding Correlations
Scatterplot: A graphical representation of the relationship between two variables.
Each point on the scatterplot represents an observation. The pattern of the points
reveals the type and strength of the correlation.
 Understanding Correlations

These sample data show that taller people are somewhat more likely to
be emotionally reactive than shorter people.
 Quick Check!
1. What does it mean to say that the correlation coefficient is about 0.00?
2. Which of the following pairs of variables is likely to have an r value between 0.00
and −1.00?
a. height and IQ scores
b. studying and GPA
c. standard deviation and measures of central tendency
d. smoking and life span
3. Identify a variable you think might negatively correlate with GPA. Explain your
answer.
 Illusory Correlations and Regression Toward the Mean

● Remember, the discovery of a correlation does not prove that a

cause-and-effect relationship exists. Results from correlational studies
can tell us that two variables are related, but not why they are related.
● Correlations cannot establish cause-and-effect relationships, but they
are useful for making predictions.
 Illusory Correlations and Regression Toward the Mean

● Explain illusory correlations and regression toward the mean.

Illusory Correlation: This occurs when people perceive a relationship between

two variables even when none exists. For example, believing that a full moon
causes strange behavior.
Illusory Correlations and Regression Toward the Mean
 AI explanation
As butter consumption rose, people's gas production increased, leading to greater wind power capacity in the US. This correlation may seem
hard to digest, but it churns out a gouda explanation. As the saying goes, where there's a will, there's a way... and where there's wind, there's a
whey! -Tyler’s Spurious Correlations:
https://www.tylervigen.com/spurious/correlation/2205_butter-consumption_correlates-with_wind-power-generated-in-united-states
 AI explanation
As the 'never gonna give you up' meme gained traction, it sparked a wave of involuntary toe-tapping and head-bobbing
worldwide. This, in turn, led to a surge in renewable energy as people's kinetic energy was harnessed, effectively
powering up Tesla vehicles and charging stations. It's a shocking development in the world of finance, but it seems like
Tesla's stocks are Rickrolling to the top!
 Illusory Correlations and Regression Toward the Mean

Regression Toward the Mean: This is the tendency for extreme or unusual
scores to fall back (regress) toward the average. For instance, if a student scores
exceptionally high on one test, their next score is likely to be closer to their
average performance.

Galton Board and the Regression to the Mean

 Quick Check!
1. A correlation exists when one variable increases while another variable decreases.
2. If variable A is correlated with variable B, what are the three possibilities in terms
of cause and effect?
3. Which of the following is true about the nature of correlations?
a. Positive correlations represent cause-and-effect relationships, but negative
correlations do not.
b. Negative correlations represent cause-and-effect relationships, but positive
correlations do not.
c. All correlations represent cause-and-effect relationships.
d. Correlations may represent cause-and-effect relationships, but alone they
don’t provide proof of cause and effect.
4. What are correlations useful for?
a. Making predictions
b. Eliminating bias
c. In-depth studies of individuals
d. Establishing cause and effect
 Experimental vs Non-Experimental
Research
So far all of the research methods we have covered have been
non-experimental.

Non-Experimental Methodology: A research method that involves

observing and measuring variables without manipulating them, focusing
on relationships and correlations between variables.
Advantages:
● Can study variables in natural settings.
● Easier and less expensive than experimental methods.
● Ethical way to study sensitive topics where manipulation is not possible.

Disadvantages:
● Cannot establish causality, only correlations.
● Prone to confounding variables and biases.
● Harder to control extraneous variables, reducing internal validity.
 Experimental Research
● Describe the characteristics of experimentation that make it
possible to isolate cause and effect.

The experiment is the only method that allows us to draw conclusions

about cause-and-effect relationships. Because experiments require
researchers to control the things that can change—the variables—in a
study, the chances of isolating the variable causing a particular effect
are much greater.
 Experimental Research
Experimental Methodology: A research method where the researcher
manipulates one or more variables to observe the effect on another
variable, allowing for cause-and-effect relationships to be established.
Advantages:
● Can establish cause-and-effect relationships.
● Controlled environment minimizes the influence of extraneous variables.
● Replicable and allows for verification of results.

Disadvantages:
● May not always reflect real-world conditions due to artificial settings.
● Can be time-consuming and costly.
● Ethical considerations may limit the scope of experiments.
 Experimental Research
● Experiment: An experiment is a method where researchers
manipulate one or more variables to observe the effect on another
variable, helping to establish cause-and-effect relationships.
● Independent Variable (IV): The variable that is manipulated by the
experimenter.
● Dependent Variable (DV): The variable that is measured to see
how it is affected by changes in the IV.
The Experimental Method
 Which Design is It?

How to determine the type of research design:

● Look for keywords that indicate experimental

research, such as "independent variable," "random
assignment," or "controlled experiment."
● If you don't see any keywords for experimental
research, then the study is likely non-experimental.
 Which Design is It?

Instructions: Read the following research study descriptions carefully.

For each study:

1. Identify whether the study is experimental or non-experimental.

2. If experimental:
○ Identify the independent variable (what the researcher
manipulates)
○ Identify the dependent variable (what the researcher
measures)
3. If non-experimental:
○ Identify the type of non-experimental design used (case
study, correlational study, meta-analysis, naturalistic
observation)
 Study #1

Study Title: The Impact of Music on Memory Recall

● Description: Researchers randomly assign participants to

two groups. One group studies a list of words while listening
to classical music, while the other group studies in silence.
Afterward, both groups are tested on their recall of the
words.
 Study #1

Study Title: The Impact of Music on Memory Recall

Answer

Experimental

● IV: Presence of music (music vs. silence)

● DV: Memory recall (number of words recalled)
 Study #2

Study Title: Examining the Relationship between Stress and

Job Satisfaction

● Description: A survey is distributed to employees at a

company to measure their perceived stress levels and their
overall job satisfaction. The researchers then analyze the
data to see if there is a relationship between these two
variables.
 Study #2

Study Title: Examining the Relationship between Stress and

Job Satisfaction

Answer

● Non-experimental - Correlational
 Study #3

Study Title: The Life and Legacy of Albert Einstein

● Description: A researcher conducts an extensive

investigation into the life of Albert Einstein, including his
personal letters, scientific publications, and interviews with
those who knew him.
 Study #3

Study Title: The Life and Legacy of Albert Einstein

Answer

● Non-experimental - Case Study

 Study #4

Study Title: The Effectiveness of a New Therapy for Depression

● Description: Participants with depression are randomly

assigned to either a new therapy group or a control group
receiving standard treatment. Their levels of depression are
assessed before and after the treatment period.
 Study #4

Study Title: The Effectiveness of a New Therapy for Depression

Answer

Experimental

● IV: Type of therapy (new therapy vs. standard treatment)

● DV: Levels of depression
 Study #5

Study Title: Observing Play Behavior in Preschool Children

● Description: Researchers discreetly observe and record

the play behaviors of preschool children during free play
time at a daycare center.
 Study #5

Study Title: Observing Play Behavior in Preschool Children

Answer

● Non-experimental - Naturalistic Observation

 Experimental Research
Confounding Variable: An external factor that could influence the
results of an experiment, making it difficult to establish a clear
cause-and-effect relationship.

Example: A study could find a positive correlation between children’s IQ

and reading ability. However, the socioeconomic status of the families
could be a confounding variable, as children from wealthier families
could have more access to books and educational resources.
Watch out for
confounding
variables in all
research - not just
experiments!
 Experimental Groups and Procedures
● Experimental Group: The group in an experiment that receives the
treatment or manipulation.

● Control Group: The group in an experiment that does not receive

the treatment, allowing researchers to compare results and draw
conclusions about the treatment’s effect.
 Experimental Groups and Procedures
● Random Assignment: Participants are randomly assigned to either
the experimental or control group to ensure that each group is
similar before the treatment is applied.

Importance: This minimizes preexisting differences between the

groups, ensuring that any observed effects are due to the
manipulation of the IV rather than other factors.
 Experimental Groups and Procedures
Blinding:

● Single-Blind Procedure: Participants do not know whether they

are in the experimental or control group.
● Double-Blind Procedure: Neither participants nor researchers
know who is in the experimental or control group.

Importance: Blinding reduces bias and prevents expectations from

influencing the results.
 Experimental Groups and Procedures
Placebo: A harmless, inactive substance or treatment given to the
control group to compare its effects with those of the actual treatment.

Example: A sugar pill in a drug trial.

Why It’s Important: Allows for comparison against the actual treatment
 Experimental Groups and Procedures

Placebo Effect: The phenomenon where participants experience

changes simply because they believe they are receiving a treatment.
Unit 0
The Foundations of
Psychology as a Science
0.5 Research Design and Ethics
0.5 Research Design and Ethics
● Evaluate whether a psychological research Vocabulary
scenario followed appropriate ethical
procedures.
● Explain the importance of institutional review for
research involving human and nonhuman ❏ Institutional Review
animals. ❏ Informed Consent
● Determine whether proper informed consent ❏ Informed Assent
and/or informed assent was used in a research ❏ Protect from Harm
scenario.
❏ Confidentiality
● Determine whether researchers took steps to
protect participants from harm. ❏ Research Confederates
● Determine whether researchers kept participant ❏ Debriefing
information confidential and/or anonymous.
● Determine whether deception was used in the Bolded = In 2024 AP Psychology CED
research (possibly with the help of research
confederates).
● Determine whether researchers used proper
debriefing techniques with participants at the
conclusion of the research.
Ethics in
Psychological Research
Ethics in Psychological Research
● Ethical considerations are crucial in psychological
research to protect the rights and well-being of
participants.
● Researchers must follow ethical guidelines
established by professional organizations and
institutional review boards.

● Evaluate whether a psychological research

scenario followed appropriate ethical
procedures.
Ethics in Psychological Research

Ethics in psychological research:

● the moral principles and guidelines that shape how

researchers conduct their studies.
● It prioritizes the well-being, dignity, and rights of all
participants, whether they are humans or animals
Institutional Review
Institutional Review Board (IRB): A committee that reviews and
approves research proposals to ensure they meet ethical
standards.

IRB Responsibilities:

● Assessing potential risks and benefits of the research.

● Ensuring informed consent and confidentiality.
● Reviewing procedures for protecting vulnerable populations.
Informed Consent & Assent
Informed Consent: Participants must be fully informed about the
research and its potential risks and benefits before agreeing to
participate.

Informed Assent: For minors or individuals with diminished capacity,

assent (agreement) is obtained in addition to consent from a legal
guardian.
Protection from Harm
Minimize Risk: Researchers must take steps to minimize any
physical or psychological harm to participants.

Right to Withdraw: Participants have the right to withdraw

from the study at any time without penalty.
Confidentiality & Anonymity
Confidentiality: Participant information must be kept private
and secure.

Anonymity: When possible, data should be collected without

identifying information.

Anonymity means you

don't know who the
participants are, while
confidentiality means you
know who they are but
remove identifying
information from your
research report.
Deception & Debriefing
Deception: In some studies, researchers may use deception to create a
realistic situation or avoid demand characteristics.

Debriefing: After the study, participants must be fully informed about the
research, including any deception used, and given the opportunity to ask
questions.

Research Confederates: Individuals who act as participants but are actually

part of the research team, sometimes used in deception studies.
1. How was deception used in this video?
2. How were confederates used in the research?
Ethical Considerations with Non-Human Animals
Research with non-human animals must also be conducted ethically.

Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC): Reviews and

approves research proposals involving animals.

Considerations:

● Minimize pain and distress.

● Provide appropriate housing and care.
● Justify the use of animals in the research.
Practice Time!
For each research scenario, identify the primary
ethical consideration that is being violated or
addressed.
Scenario 1
Dr. Smith is conducting a study on the effects of a new anxiety
medication. He informs participants about the potential side effects of
the medication but does not tell them that they might be assigned to the
placebo group.

Ethical Consideration: Deception

Scenario 2
A researcher is studying the impact of social isolation on mental health.
They recruit participants who have been living alone for at least six
months. The study involves a series of interviews and questionnaires
about their experiences. At the end of the study, participants are offered
access to support groups and resources.

Ethical Considerations: Protection from harm & Debriefing

Scenario 3
A study on aggression in children involves observing their behavior on
the playground. The researchers do not obtain consent from the children
or their parents, assuming it's okay since they are in a public setting.

Ethical Consideration: Informed Consent

Scenario 4
A researcher is analyzing data from a previous study on the relationship
between personality traits and academic performance. The data includes
participants' names and contact information.

Ethical Consideration: Confidentiality

 slidesmania.com

Unit 0
The Foundations
of Psychology as a
Science
0.6 Statistics in Psychology
 slidesmania.com

0.6 Statistics in Psychology

● Determine whether the measurement instrument Vocabulary
for experimental and non-experimental research
was qualitative (such as structured interviews) or
quantitative measures (such as Likert scales).
❏ Quantitative Research
❏ Qualitative Research
❏ Likert Scales

Bolded = In 2024 AP Psychology CED

 slidesmania.com

0.6 Statistics in Psychology

● Identify psychology related concepts in Vocabulary
descriptions or representations of data.
❏ Histogram
● Calculate and interpret measures of central ❏ Measure of Central Tendency
tendency, variation, and percentile rank in a ❏ Mode
given data set. ❏ Mean
❏ Median
● Explain the elements of the normal curve ❏ Percentile Rank
including percentages of distributions of scores ❏ Skewed Distribution
across the curve, how to interpret skewness in a ❏ Measures of Variation
graph, and how to interpret a bimodal ❏ Range
❏ Standard Deviation
distribution.
❏ Normal Curve
❏ Meta-analysis
● Interpret quantitative or qualitative inferential ❏ Statistical Significance
data from a given table, graph, chart, figure, or ❏ Effect Size
diagram.

Bolded = In 2024 AP Psychology CED

 slidesmania.com

Measurement in Psychological Research

● Psychologists use a variety of tools to measure and collect
data.
● Understanding different measurement approaches is
crucial for interpreting research findings.
 slidesmania.com

Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research

● Qualitative Research: Focuses on in-depth understanding
and rich descriptions of phenomena.
● Quantitative Research: Emphasizes numerical data and
statistical analysis.

● Determine whether the measurement

instrument for experimental and
non-experimental research was qualitative
(such as structured interviews) or
quantitative measures (such as Likert
scales).
 slidesmania.com

Qualitative Measurement Tools

● Structured Interviews: Predetermined questions asked in the

same order to each participant.
● Unstructured Interviews: Open-ended questions allowing for
in-depth exploration of a topic.
● Focus Groups: Group discussions on a specific topic guided by
a moderator.
● Observations: Systematic recording of behavior in natural or
controlled settings.
● Case Studies: In-depth examination of a single individual or
group.
 slidesmania.com

Strengths & Weaknesses of Qualitative Research

Strengths:

● Rich, detailed data.

● Can generate new hypotheses and theories.
● Useful for studying complex social phenomena.

Weaknesses:

● Subjective interpretation.
● Difficult to generalize findings.
● Time-consuming and resource-intensive.
 slidesmania.com

Quantitative Measurement Tools

● Likert Scales: Participants rate their agreement with

statements on a numerical scale (e.g., 1-strongly disagree
to 5-strongly agree).
● Psychological Tests: Standardized assessments
measuring specific traits or abilities.
● Physiological Measures: Recording of bodily responses
(e.g., heart rate, brain activity).
● Surveys: Collection of data from a large group of people
using questionnaires.
 slidesmania.com

Strengths & Weaknesses of Quantitative Research

Strengths:

● Objective and precise measurement.

● Can test hypotheses and establish cause-and-effect
relationships.
● Generalizable findings.

Weaknesses:

● May oversimplify complex phenomena.

● Limited to measuring what can be quantified.
● May lack depth and context.
slidesmania.com
 slidesmania.com

Choosing the Right Measurement Approach

● Research Question: If the question seeks to explore "how" or

"why" something occurs, a qualitative approach is likely more
appropriate. If the question asks "what" or "to what extent,"
quantitative research is often favored.
● Desired Outcome: Exploratory vs. confirmatory research. Explore
new insights - qualitative, Confirm existing information -
quantitative
● Resources: Time, budget, and expertise. (Examples: hundreds of
interviews, testing software and statistical knowledge)
● Ethical Considerations: Sensitivity of the topic and participant
privacy.
 slidesmania.com

Mixed Methods Research

● Combines qualitative and quantitative methods.
● Provides a more comprehensive understanding of the
research question.
● Can offset the weaknesses of each approach.
 slidesmania.com

Practice Time!
Which measurement would be appropriate?
Quantitative or qualitative.
 slidesmania.com

Scenario 1
● A researcher wants to understand the lived
experiences of individuals with chronic pain.

What are the key words here that help us determine a

method?
 slidesmania.com

Scenario 1
Appropriate Measurement Approach: Qualitative

Explanation: Qualitative methods like interviews or focus

groups would allow for in-depth exploration of the
personal experiences and challenges faced by
individuals with chronic pain.
 slidesmania.com

Scenario 2
● A study investigates the effectiveness of a new
medication in reducing blood pressure.

What are the key words here that help us determine a

method?
 slidesmania.com

Scenario 2
Appropriate Measurement Approach: Quantitative

Explanation: Blood pressure is a numerical measure,

and statistical analysis would be used to compare the
effects of the new medication to a control group or
existing treatments
 slidesmania.com

Scenario 3
● Researchers are interested in exploring how social
media use affects self-esteem in adolescents.

What are the key words here that help us determine a

method?
 slidesmania.com

Scenario 3
Appropriate Measurement Approach: Could be either Qualitative or
Quantitative, or a combination (Mixed Methods)

Explanation:

● Qualitative: Interviews or focus groups could provide insights into

adolescents' thoughts and feelings about social media and its impact
on their self-esteem.
● Quantitative: Surveys or questionnaires with Likert scales could
measure self-esteem levels and social media usage patterns,
allowing for statistical analysis of the relationship between the two.
 slidesmania.com

What is Statistics?

● Most scientific research couldn’t glean

meaning from data without the help of
statistics
 slidesmania.com

Descriptive vs Inferential Statistics

● There are two types of statistical analysis
1. Descriptive statistics
○ Summarizes and describes the quantitative
information from a population or sample
○ Explains and describes already known data
○ Uses correlation coefficients, measure of central
tendency, measures of variance.
○ Usually visualized with table, chart, or graph
 slidesmania.com

Descriptive vs Inferential Statistics

● There are two types of statistical analysis
2. Inferential statistics
○ Used to test hypotheses, predict, and generalize to the
larger population
○ Attempts to reach a conclusion about the population
○ Statistical significance, effect size
 slidesmania.com

Measures Of Central
Tendency
 slidesmania.com

Measures of Central Tendency

Where the "center" of the data lies
Mean (Average): The sum of all scores divided by the number of
scores.

● Sensitive to outliers (extreme values)

Median: The middle score when the data is arranged in order.

● Less affected by outliers

Mode: The most frequently occurring score.

● Can have multiple modes or no mode at all

slidesmania.com
slidesmania.com
slidesmania.com
slidesmania.com
 slidesmania.com

Measures of Variation
Range: The difference between the highest and lowest scores.

● Simple to calculate but sensitive to outliers.

Standard Deviation: The average distance of each score from the

mean.

● Tells us how much the scores typically deviate from the average.
● A larger standard deviation means the data is more spread out.
slidesmania.com
 slidesmania.com

What does standard deviation show us?

Standard Deviation: Explained and Visualized

 slidesmania.com

The Normal Curve (Bell Curve)

● Mean, median, and mode are all equal and located
at the center of the curve.
● The curve is symmetrical around the mean.

● The tails of the curve extend infinitely in both

directions but never touch the x-axis.
 slidesmania.com

The Normal Curve (Bell Curve)

Empirical Rule (68-95-99.7 Rule):

● 68% of the data falls within 1 standard deviation of the mean

● 95% of the data falls within 2 standard deviations of the mean
● 99.7% of the data falls within 3 standard deviations of the mean
 slidesmania.com

Percentile Rank
● Definition: The percentage of scores in a distribution that
are equal to or lower than a given score.
● Example: If you are in the 90th percentile, it means you
scored higher than 90% of the people who took the test.
 slidesmania.com

Skewed Distributions
● Skewness: A measure of the asymmetry of a distribution.
 slidesmania.com

Skewed Distributions
Positive Skew (Right-Skewed):

● Tail extends to the right.

● Mean > Median > Mode
 slidesmania.com

Skewed Distributions
Negative Skew (Left-Skewed):

● Tail extends to the left.

● Mean < Median < Mode
 slidesmania.com

Bimodal Distributions
Definition: A distribution with two distinct peaks.

Possible Reasons:

● Two separate groups or populations are combined in the

data.
● There are two underlying processes influencing the data
 slidesmania.com

Inferential Statistics
● Used to make inferences or draw conclusions
about a population based on data from a sample.
● Help determine if the results observed in a
sample are likely to be true for the larger
population.
 slidesmania.com

Statistical Significance
Definition: The probability that the results of a study are not due to
chance.

P-value: Represents the probability of obtaining results as extreme (or

more extreme) as those observed in the study, assuming the null
hypothesis is true.

Common Threshold: p < .05 (less than 5% probability that the results
are due to chance)

Interpretation: If p < .05, we reject the null hypothesis and conclude

that there is a statistically significant effect.
 slidesmania.com

Effect Size
Definition: Measures the magnitude or strength of the
relationship between variables or the difference between
groups.

Importance: Statistical significance tells us if an effect exists,

but effect size tells us how meaningful or impactful that effect is.

If we did an
experiment where
one group studied
for a test with
music, and one
group without
music - what effect
would music have
on test scores?
slidesmania.com
 slidesmania.com

Crash Course Statistics

● Measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode)
https://youtu.be/kn83BA7cRNM
● Measures of spread https://youtu.be/R4yfNi_8Kqw
● Correlation doesn’t equal causation
https://youtu.be/GtV-VYdNt_g
● Controlled experiments https://youtu.be/kkBDa-ICvyY
● The normal distribution https://youtu.be/rBjft49MAO8
● Confidence intervals https://youtu.be/yDEvXB6ApWc
● How p-values help us test hypotheses
https://youtu.be/bf3egy7TQ2Q
● Sampling methods and bias with surveys
https://youtu.be/Rf-fIpB4D50
● Data visualization part 1 https://youtu.be/hEWY6kkBdpo
● Data visualization part 2 https://youtu.be/bPFNxD3Yg6U