Report On

Professional Training (level-2)

Taken At

JINDAL STAINLESS LIMITED

Submitted By Under The Guidance of

Mohit Mr. Sushil Kumar
22001002025
Batch: 2022-2026

As Part of Bachelor of Technology (Electrical Engineering) Curriculum of

Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram University of Science and Technology

 CONTENTS

1) Introduction

2) Company profile

3)Electric arc furnace

1. Proportional-Integral-Derivative ( PID)

1.1 Chapter 1 - Introduction

-proportional control

-Integral control

-PI control

-PD control

-PID control
 ABSTRACT

PID controllers are being widely used in industry due to their well-grounded established
theory, simplicity, maintenance requirements, and ease of retuning online. In the past four
decades, there are numerous papers dealing with tuning of PID controller. Designing a PID
controller to meet gain and phase margin specification is a well-known design technique. If
the gain and phase margin are not specified carefully then the design may not be optimum in
the sense that could be large phase margin (more robust) that could give better performance.

This paper studies the relationship between ISE performance index, gain margin, phase
margin and compares two tuning technique, based on these three parameters. These tuning
techniques are particularly useful in the context of adaptive control and auto-tuning, where
the control parameters have to be calculated on-line.

In the first part, basics of various controllers, their working and importance of PID controller
in reference to a practical system (thermal control system) is discussed.

In the latter part of the work, exhaustive study has been done on two different PID controller
tuning techniques. A compromise between robustness and tracking performance of the system
in presence of time delay is tried to achieve. Results of simulation, graph, plots, indicate the
validity of the study.
 Acknowledgement

The successful completion of this project marks the beginning of ever going learning
experience of converting ideas and concepts into real life, practical system. This project was a
quite learning experience for me at each time and every step.
At the same time, it has given me confidence to work in professional setup. I feel the
experience gained during the project will lead me to gain the bright prospects in the future.
First of all, I would like to thanks to training officer Jagdish Singh Rautela , Executive-
(HR), for giving me the opportunity to work in this esteemed organization, which not only
has increased our awareness about latest fields but also taught me the importance of team
building.
With the deep sense of gratitude, I express my sincere thanks to Mr. Sushil Kumar, for his
active support and continuous guidance without which it would have been difficult for me to
complete this project. I would also like to thank other working staff members at Jindal
Stainless LTD. for taking keen interest in my project and giving valuable suggestions and
helping me directly or indirectly to complete this project.
 COMPANY PROFILE

Jindal Organization, set up in 1970 by the steel visionary Mr. O.P. Jindal, has grown from an
indigenous single-unit steel plant in Hisar, Haryana to the present multi-billion, multi-
national and multi-product steel conglomerate. The organization is still expanding,
integrating, amalgamating and growing.
The group places its commitment to sustainable development, of its people and the
communities in which it operates, at the heart of its strategy and aspires to be a benchmark
for players in the industry the world over. The Jindal Organization today is a global player.
It's relentless quest for excellence has reaped rich benefits and it is today one of the worlds
most admired and respected groups within the steel fraternity
JSL Limited is in many ways very much like the material it produces. Like stainless steel the
company is versatile in its thought process, strong and unrelenting in its operations,
environment friendly in its manufacturing process, bright, shining and beautiful in its
community support activities. The list of the properties of stainless steel is endless, just as our
values are all encompassing.

JSL Limited has always been committed to innovation and progression, research and
development. Our innovations are admired beyond the geographical boundaries of our
country. No wonder we are the strategic partners of global leaders by choice. Our
achievements narrate a story of our determination to succeed and our passion to win. We will
continue to leverage our opportunities in creating excellence that the world cannot even think
about. Today we are the largest integrated stainless steel producer in India, tomorrow we will
rule the world.

JSL Limited, a $780 million plus ISO: 9002 & ISO: 14001 company is the flagship company
of the Jindal Organization. The company today has come a long way from a single factory
establishment, started in 1970. As the numero uno it has taken on the task of making stainless
steel a part of everybody's life by taking a 360 degrees approach from production of raw
materials to supply of architecture and lifestyle related products.
 Hisar Plant, India

 At Hisar, JSL Limited has India's only composite stainless steel plant for the manufacture
of Stainless Steel Slabs, Blooms, Hot rolled and Cold Rolled Coils, 40% of which are
exported worldwide.
 Precision Strips the company produces stainless steel precision strips in various grades.
These strips are produced in narrow 20-Hi mills in the precision cold rolling unit.
 Blade Steel The Company is the exclusive producer of stainless steel strips for making
razor and surgical blades in India.
 Coin Blanks Besides supplying CR Strips to the Government of India, the plant at Hisar
houses a coin blanking line for supply of coin blanks to the Indian Mint and Mints in the
global markets

The JSL plant at Hisar can be broadly classified into the following two categories:

1.) HOT ROLLING DIVISION (HRD)

2.) COLD ROLLING DIVISION (CRD)

In the hot rolling division, the starting materials are the raw materials for producing stainless
steel, which includes the stainless steel scraps, mild steel scraps, various ferroalloys, pure
materials like copper, Nickel etc which are melted in furnace and cast in the caster to produce
slabs and blooms of steel. These are then send to the Steckel Mill in the HRD itself to be
rolled into strips of desired thickness and are then converted into coils for cold rolling. In the
cold rolling division the coils undergo processes like annealing and pickling which restores
the shine characteristic of stainless steel to the coils that were initially black when received
from HRD. The coils may also be further processed to obtain very thin plates of steel. Proper
care is given to the categories of steel used to manufacture blade steel and surgical blades
right from the selection of raw materials to their final processing. They may also undergo
special processes or processes like vacuum oxygen decarburization.
 Fig. Flow chart for a basic idea of the plant working

Production Planning & control department plays a very important role in the smooth working
of JSL. Main function of PPC is preparing schedule for different-2 department on daily basis,
according to demand. It mainly takes orders of
 CRD
 Plates
 Slit Coils
 Orders from Indonesia & other countries
 Flat
 ELECTRIC ARC FURNACE

The electric arc furnace operates as a batch melting process producing batches of molten steel
known "heats". In the furnace, the electrons liberated from electrode move towards scrap.
These electrons are accelerated throughout their movement towards the scrap due to the
existence of an applied potential difference. When they strike the scrap at their existing high
velocities, large amount of heat is generated.

The electric arc furnace operating cycle is called the tap-to-tap cycle and is made up of the
following operations:
 Furnace charging
 Melting
 Refining
 De-slagging
 Tapping
 Furnace turn-around
The first step in any tap-to-tap cycle is "charging" into the scrap. The roof and electrodes are
raised and are swung to the side of the furnace to allow the scrap-charging crane to move a
full bucket of scrap into place over the furnace. The bucket bottom is usually a clam shell
design - i.e. the bucket opens up by retracting two segments on the bottom of the bucket. The
scrap falls into the furnace and the scrap crane removes the scrap bucket. The roof and
electrodes swing back into place over the furnace. The roof is lowered and then the electrodes
are lowered to strike an arc on the scrap. This commences the melting portion of the cycle.
The number of charge buckets of scrap required to produce a heat of steel is dependent
primarily on the volume of the furnace and the scrap density.
After the charge has been taken in, it is heated by two mechanisms:

 The electrical mechanism

 The chemical mechanism
Melting & heating in the furnace :
The melting period is the heart of EAF operations. The EAF has evolved into a highly
efficient melting apparatus and modern designs are focused on maximizing the melting
capacity of the EAF. Melting is accomplished by supplying energy to the furnace interior.
This energy can be electrical or chemical. Electrical energy is supplied via the graphite
electrodes and is usually the largest contributor in melting operations. Initially, an
intermediate voltage tap is selected until the electrodes bore into the scrap. Usually, light
scrap is placed on top of the charge to accelerate bore-in. Approximately 15 % of the scrap is
melted during the initial bore-in period. After a few minutes, the electrodes will have
penetrated the scrap sufficiently so that a long arc (high voltage) tap can be used without fear
of radiation damage to the roof. The long arc maximizes the transfer of power to the scrap
and a liquid pool of metal will form in the furnace hearth At the start of melting the arc is
erratic and unstable. Wide swings in current are observed accompanied by rapid movement of
the electrodes. As the furnace atmosphere heats up the arc stabilizes and once the molten pool
is formed, the arc becomes quite stable and the average power input increases.
Another energy used in the heating process in the furnace is the chemical energy.
There are two burner sites in the furnace located at two cold spots in the furnace. There are
two ports at each site. The lower one is used for the coke injection in the furnace and the
upper one is used for implementing the Co Jet System. The nozzle for the Co jet (nozzle
diameter 85mm) system has a total of 17 holes perforated in it.
There is one central hole, which is the largest in dimension (20 mm diameter) and is used for
the supply of the oxygen/nitrogen. Then 8 holes are present for supplying shroud oxygen
having diameter of 3mm and further 8 holes are present for supplying propane. These are the
smallest holes in the nozzle having a diameter of 1.5 mm. The CO jet is nothing but an
injector nozzle that delivers a laser like jet of oxygen at supersonic velocity into the molten
bath. It is a specialized injector nozzle which allows the jet of O2 to retain its original
diameter and velocity up to 2.1 metres. The propane that is injected burns to produce carbon
monoxide and liberates heat.
Also Manual Lancing is done to ensure supply of enough oxygen in the EAF during its
operation and thereby increasing productivity. In this process workers at the EAF take up the
lance and insert it in the furnace manually after connecting it to suitable oxygen supplying
valves.

The Electrodes that are used up in the furnace are graphite electrodes having following
composition:
Graphite: - 99.7% and Ash : - 0.3%
These electrodes are water cooled by a water spray system located at the top where the
electrodes are clamped. This prevents the excessive heating of the electrodes at the upper
unused portion of the electrodes. These electrodes are having a diameter of 450mm and a
length of 2100mm.
De-Slagging :
De-slagging operations are carried out to remove impurities from the furnace. During melting
and refining operations, some of the undesirable materials within the bath are oxidized and
enter the slag phase. It is advantageous to remove as much phosphorus into the slag as early
in the heat as possible (i.e. while the bath temperature is still low). The furnace is tilted
backwards and slag is poured out of the furnace through the slag door. Removal of the slag
eliminates the possibility of phosphorus reversion.
During slag foaming operations, carbon may be injected into the slag where it will reduce
FeO to metallic iron and in the process produce carbon monoxide, which helps foam the slag.
If the high phosphorus slag has not been removed prior to this operation, phosphorus
reversion will occur. During slag foaming, slag may overflow the sill level in the EAF and
flow out of the slag door.

The following table shows the typical constituents of an EAF slag :

Components Source Composition Range

Cao Charged 40 - 60 %
SiO2 Oxidation Product 5 - 15 %
 FeO Oxidation Product 10 - 30 %
MgO Charged as dolomite 3-8%
CaF2 Charged – Slag Fludizier
MnO Oxidation product 2 - 5%
S Absorbed from steel
P Oxidation product

At the end of every Heat or cycle Al- Mix ( contains around 18-20% Aluminium) is added
to the molten material for the recovery of chromium from the slag.
Proper maintenance of the furnace is done from time to time. A very frequently done process
is Gunning in which a spray mass of the refractory powder is sprayed over the areas where
the lining has reduced due to furnace conditions. Due to the presence of the high temperature
in the furnace this powder sinters and attaches to the refractory lining.
 Construction of Electric Arc Furnace

The furnace body is in the form of a cylinder with a spherical shaped bottom. The roof is
circular, bent at the circumference to form a cap to the furnace body. There are two regions
each in the furnace body and in the roof. The main furnace shell is made of Mild Steel, but
the upper part consists of a Water-cooled copper panels joined in a water cooled copper
cage to form part of the furnace body. The water cooled copper panels are innovative and
modern in design and construction and it is thus one of the striking features of the furnace
being used. The roof when made up completely for use, consists of two concentric regions.
One is the part at the centre, which consists of three holes to allow the passage of electrodes
through them. This is called the DELTA and is actually made up of castables (high alumina).
The other part consists of again the water cooled copper panels with a lining of castables on
the inside.
Hydraulic system :
The hydraulic system provides motive power for almost all EAF movements including roof
lower/raise, roof swing, electrode arms up/down/regulation/swing, furnace tilt
forward/backward, slag door raise/lower and movement of any auxiliary systems such as the
burner lance. The hydraulic system consists of a central reservoir, filters, an accumulator,
hydraulic valves and hydraulic piping. As hydraulic fluid passes through valves in one of two
directions within a given circuit, hydraulic cylinders are extended or contracted to provide
movement of various mechanical components. Without sufficient fluid flow and pressure
within a circuit, movement is impossible.
A total of 15 hydraulic cylinders are used in the entire furnace mechanism including 3 for
electrode lifting and 3 for their clamping, 1 for roof movement in the vertical direction and 1
for the roof and electrode swing. Also 2 other cylinders are involved in the roof tilting
process.

Cooling Water System :

The panels are made from copper because copper is a very good conductor of heat, and
therefore it transmits all the heat it takes to the water flowing in the panels. Again it is
essential to maintain a velocity of water above some critical value so that no steam is
generated inside the panel. Any steam that would be generated will prove harmful as steam
will not conduct the heat as appropriately as water would have.
The panels are supported on a water cooled cage thus allowing for individual replacement of
panels with minimum downtime. The thermal expansion of cage is thus avoided by making it
too a water cooled system which further prevents warping & gap generation between panels.
Thus the furnace is now allowed to work under higher temperatures and further extreme
conditions.
Important influencing factors are water quality & quantity, flow rate & velocity, inlet water
pressure and pressure drop across panel, pipe/panel construction material and pipe diameter.
During the time of charging scrap can strike panels causing dent or splitting, thus the panels
must have a good ability to withstand the mechanical loads. For improving this one can
increase the thickness of the copper panels, but a greater thickness will result in decreased
thermal conductivity across the panels. Thus a compromise is met and an optimum thickness
is selected. In the case of the furnace used at JSL, the panel thickness
is selected around 8mm.
It is always attempted to build a slag coating on the panel surface exposed to interior of
furnace to reduce the thermal cycling of the metal and that the metal’s yield stress is not
exceeded. Slag is an excellent insulator with a thermal conductivity of 0.12 –0.13W/mk
Vertical configuration of panels is preferred to minimize pressure drop across panel.
Generally water temperature rise is 8-17 degree Celsius to a max of 30. The water in the
closed loop circuit passes through a heat exchanger to remove heat. The circuit on the open
loop side of the heat exchanger typically flows to a cooling tower for energy dissipation.
 AOD
AOD

AOD
Conical

Fig: AOD Converto

A sample of the heat is taken from the transfer ladle and is then send to the SMS Laboratory
for analysis. The use of spectroscopy, Leco Analyzers or other such Gas (Oxygen and
Nitrogen) Analyzers and Carbon/Sulphur Analyzers or still advanced equipments like the
XRF are used to know the composition of the heat put in the AOD.
CONTROL OF AMOUNT OF METALS -: After a very quick analysis of the sample the
composition is reported to the AOD control room where the operator makes appropriate
calculations of the materials to be added to achieve the aim chemistry. After this calculation
he feeds in the information in the IRS for addition of the required alloys.
This Feeding System at the AOD consists of 4 Hoppers or Silos in which required materials
are stored. The materials, which are added here, are generally the pure versions. When a
command is input by the AOD operator, weighed amounts of these materials are now
transferred from the hoppers on to a conveyor, which takes it up to the AOD through a pipe
near the mouth of the AOD Vessel.

CONTROL OF AMOUNT OF CARBON AND TEMP -: First the controller just feed the
value of carbon and temp in the IRS software, which has different recipe for different inputs
which were prepared by past experience. This software actually controls the value of carbon
and temp by controlling the flow rates of nitrogen, argon and oxygen. This software recipe is
divided in four steps 1st blow, 2nd blow, 3rd blow and reduction step.
1st Blow-: In this blow the ratio of oxygen and nitrogen is kept around 22:1 and most of
nitrogen is used for cooling purpose.
2nd Blow-: In this blow the ratio of oxygen and nitrogen is kept around 5:1 to 1:1 and now
nitrogen is used for both cooling and to reduce the partial pressure of CO.
3rd Blow-: In this blow the ratio of oxygen and nitrogen is kept around 1:5 as partial pressure
of CO become very large, so the amt of N2 will be increased to reduce the partial pressure of
CO so that the reaction will move in forward direction.
Reduction Step-: After a desired carbon and temperature level have been reached the
process moves to reduction. Reduction recovers the oxidized elements such as Cr from the
slag. To achieve this, alloy additions are made with elements that have a higher affinity for
oxygen than Cr, using either a Silicon alloy or Aluminum (silicon is mostly used because it is
cheaper). The reduction mix also includes lime (CaO) and fluorspar (CaF2). The addition of
lime and fluorspar help with driving the reduction of Cr2O3 and managing the slag, keeping
the slag fluid and volume small.
In AOD basicity is also maintained greater than 1.5 by the formula (CaO +MgO)/SiO2 >1.5.
Samples at appropriate time are taken from the AOD to know the effect of addition of the
various materials and the various chemical reactions taking place in the Vessel and also to
know the proximity of the heat chemistry to the desired or the aim chemistry of the heat.
Once a near aim chemistry is achieved the tapping from the AOD is done. The excess slag is
initially tapped off in a slag pot on the same turret on which the TEEMING LADLE is placed.
The molten steel from the AOD is tapped in the teeming ladle. This teeming ladle is then
taken to the Ladle Refining Furnace.
 PROPORTIONAL - INTEGRAL- DERIVATIVE CONTROLLER (PID)

In the recent years, control system has assumed an increasingly important role in the
development and advancement of modern civilization and technology. Practically every
aspect of our day-to-day activities is affected by some type of control systems. Automatic
control system are found in abundance in all sectors of industry, such as quality control of
manufactured products, automatic assembly line, machine-tool control, space technology and
weapon system, computer control, transportation systems, power systems, robotics and many
others. It is essential in such industrial operations as controlling pressure, temperature,
humidity, and flow in the process industries.

Recent application of modern control theory includes such non-engineering systems as

biological, biomedical, control of inventory, economic and socioeconomic systems.

The basic ingredients of a control system can be described by:

1. Objectives of control.
2. Control system components.
3. Results or output.

Automatic Controllers:-
An automatic controller is used to compare the actual value of plant result with reference
command, determines the difference, and produces a control signal that will reduce this
difference to a negligible value. The manner in which the automatic controller produces such
a control signal is called the control action.

An industrial control system comprises of an automatic controller, an actuator, a plant, and a

sensor (measuring element). The controller detects the actuating error command, which is
usually at a very low power level, and amplifies it to a very high level. The output of the
automatic controller is fed to an actuator, such as a hydraulic motor, an electric motor or a
pneumatic motor or valve (or any other sources of energy). The actuator is a power device
that produces input to the plant according to the control signal so that the output signal will
point to the reference input signal.

The sensor or the measuring element is a device that converts the output variable into another
optimum variable, such as a displacement, pressure or voltage, that can be used to compare
the output to the reference input command. This element is in a feedback path of the closed
loop system. The set point controller must be converted to reference input with the same unit
as the feedback signal from the sensor element. Classification of Industrial controllers:-
Industrial controllers may be classified according to their control action as:

Classification of Industrial controllers:-

Industrial controllers may be classified according to their control action as:

1. Two-position or on-off controllers
2. Proportional controllers
3. Integral controllers
4. Proportional-plus-integral controllers
5. Proportional-plus-derivative controllers
6. Proportional-plus-integral-plus-derivative controllers

Type of controller to use must be decided depending upon the nature of the plant and the
operating condition, including such consideration as safety, cost, availability reliability,
accuracy, weight and size.

Two-position or on-off controllers:-

In a two-position control system, the actuating part has only two fixed positions, which are, in
many simple cases, simply on and off. Due to its simplicity and inexpensiveness, it is being
very widely used in both industrial and domestic control system.

Let the output signal from the controller be u(t) and the actuating error signal be e(t). Then
mathematically,
u(t) = U1, for e(t) > 0
= U2, for e(t) < 0
Where,
U1 and U2 are constants and the minimum value of U2 is usually either zero or - U1
1.1 Proportional Control :-
A proportional control system is a type of linear feedback control system. Proportional
control is how most drivers control the speed of a car. If the car is at target speed and the
speed increases slightly, the power is reduced slightly, or in proportion to the error (the actual
versus target speed), so that the car reduces speed gradually and reaches the target point with
very little, if any, "overshoot", so the result is much smoother control than on-off control [5].

In the proportional control algorithm, the controller output is proportional to the error signal,
which is the difference between the set point and the process variable. In other words, the
output of a proportional controller is the multiplication product of the error signal and the
proportional gain. This can be mathematically expressed as
Pout = Kp e(t)
Where
Pout: Output of the proportional controller
Kp: Proportional gain
e(t): Instantaneous process error at time 't'. e(t) = SP − PV
SP: Set point
PV: Process variable

With increase in Kp :
Response speed of the system increases.
Overshoot of the closed-loop system increases.
Steady-state error decreases.

But with high Kp value, closed-loop system becomes unstable.

1.2 Integral Control:-

In a proportional control of a plant whose transfer function doesn‟t possess an integrator 1/s,
there is a steady-state error, or offset, in the response to a step input. Such an offset can be
eliminated if integral controller is included in the system.

In the integral control of a plant, the control signal, the output signal from the controller, at
any instant is the area under the actuating error signal curve up to that instant. But while
removing the steady-state error, it may lead to oscillatory response of slowly decreasing
amplitude or even increasing amplitude, both of which is usually undesirable [5].

1.3 Proportional-plus-integral controllers:-

In control engineering, a PI Controller (proportional-integral controller) is a feedback
controller which drives the plant to be controlled by a weighted sum of the error (difference
between the output and desired set-point) and the integral of that value. It is a special case of
the PID controller in which the derivative (D) part of the error is not used.

Integral control action added to the proportional controller converts the original system into
high order. Hence the control system may become unstable for a large value of Kp since roots
of the characteristic eqn. may have positive real part. In this control, proportional control
action tends to stabilize the system, while the integral control action tends to eliminate or
reduce steady-state error in response to various inputs. As the value of Ti is increased,
1.Overshoot tends to be smaller
2.Speed of the response tends to be slower.
1.4 Proportional-plus-derivative controllers:-
Proportional-Derivative or PD control combines proportional control and derivative control
in parallel. Derivative action acts on the derivative or rate of change of the control error. This
provides a fast response, as opposed to the integral action, but cannot accommodate constant
errors (i.e. the derivative of a constant, nonzero error is 0). Derivatives have a phase of +90
degrees leading to an anticipatory or predictive response. However, derivative control will
produce large control signals in response to high frequency control errors such as set point
changes (step command) and measurement noise [5].

In order to use derivative control the transfer functions must be proper. This often requires a
pole to be added to the controller.
Gpd(s) = Kp + Kds or
= Kp(1+Tds)
With the increase of Td
1.Overshoot tends to be smaller
2.Slower rise time but similar settling time

PID CONTROLLER AND ON-OFF CONTROLLER WORKING

Controller:

A PID controller continuously adjusts the control variable (such as heater power or gas flow)
to
minimize the error between the setpoint and the measured process variable (such as
temperature
or gas concentration). It uses three components to achieve this: Characteristics

Continuous Control: Adjusts the output continuously to maintain the setpoint.

Precision: Provides fine control, minimizing overshoot and steady- state error.

Complexity: More complex to design and tune due to the need to set appropriate gains for P, I,
and D terms.
Stability: Offers smooth and stable control suitable for processes requiring high precision.

ON-OFF CONTROLLER:

An on-off controller, also known as a bang-bang controller, operates in a binary manner. It

switches the control variable fully on or fully off based on

whether the process variable is above or below the setpoint.

Operation:

On State: Activated when the process variable is below the setpoint.

Off State: Deactivated when the process variable is above the setpoint.
Hysteresis: Often includes a small hysteresis band around the setpoint to prevent rapid
switching (chattering).

Characteristics

Binary Control: Only two states – on or off. No intermediate levels. Simplicity: Simple to
design, implement, and maintain.

Inaccuracy: Can lead to oscillations around the setpoint, as the system is either fully on or
fully off.

Instability: Not suitable for processes requiring smooth and precise control, as it can cause
temperature or process variable fluctuations.

Control Method:

PID Controller: Continuous and dynamic adjustment. On-OffController:

Discrete, binary switching.

Precision:

PID Controller: High precision, minimal overshoot and steady-state error.

On-Off Controller: Lower precision, potential for oscillation around the setpoint. Complexity

PID Controller: More complex, requires tuning of three parameters. On-Off Controller:
Simple design and implementation.

Stability:
PID Controller: Smooth and stable control.

On-Off Controller: Potential for instability and chattering without hysteresis.

Applications:

PID Controller: Complex and precise processes (e.g., industrial furnaces, complex
machinery).
On-Off Controller: Simple, less critical applications (e.g., household appliances, basic
industrial systems).

COMPONENTS OF CONTROLLER

1) PID Controller

Fig 1.6 PID controller

A PID controller (Proportional-Integral-Derivative controller) is a type of feedback control

system widely used in industrial control systems, including car
manufacturing plants, to maintain a desired setpoint by minimizing the difference between a
measured process variable and the setpoint.

Proportional Control (P):

Adjusts the heating elements' power output based on the current temperature deviation from
the setpoint.

Integral Control (I):

Corrects for any accumulated offset that may have caused a sustained deviation from the
setpoint, ensuring long-term accuracy.

Derivative Control (D):

Responds to the rate of temperature change, helping to minimize overshoot and
oscillations Coordination:
Synchronized Control:

The PID controllers for gas mixing and temperature control often work in coordination to
maintain the optimal environment for carburizing.

Centralized System: Both controllers can be integrated into a central PLC or DCS
(Distributed
Control System), allowing for seamless operation and monitoring.

Feedback Loops:
Continuous Adjustment: Both controllers continuously receive feedback from sensors and
adjust their outputs to maintain the setpoints.

Interdependent Parameters: Changes in gas composition can affect the furnace temperature
and vice versa. Integrated control ensures that adjustments in one parameter do not adversely
affect the other.

HMI (Human-Machine Interface):

Operators can monitor and adjust setpoints through an HMI, which displays real-time data
and
trends for both gas composition and temperature.

PID controllers are crucial in the precise regulation of gas mixing and temperature control in
carburizing furnaces. They ensure the consistent quality of heat-treated components by
maintaining the correct

atmosphere and temperature within the furnace. This precise control enhances the efficiency,

stability, and overall performance of the carburizing process, which is essential in the car
manufacturing industry for producing high-quality, durable components.
2) Thermocouple sensor

A thermocouple sensor is a type of temperature sensor that measures temperature using the
thermoelectric effect. It is widely used in various industrial applications, including car
manufacturing plants, due to its wide temperature range, durability, and relatively low cost.

3) O2 sensor

An oxygen sensor (O2 sensor) is a crucial component in modern automotive engines, used to
measure the oxygen levels in the exhaust gases. This

information helps the engine control unit (ECU) adjust the air-fuel mixture for optimal
combustion,
improving
fuel efficiency, reducing emissions, and

ensuring smooth engine performance.

4) HeaterSCR controller

A Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) controller is an electronic device used to control the
voltage supplied to an electrical load, such as a furnace, by adjusting the power delivered to
the heating elements. SCR controllers are particularly useful in applications requiring precise
temperature control, such as in industrial furnaces used in car manufacturing plants for
processes like carburizing.

5) Gas Flow controller

In a furnace used for various industrial processes, including car manufacturing, a flow
controller for
gas control

is a critical component that regulates the flow rate of gas into

the combustion chamber. This control ensures efficient combustion, proper temperature
control, and
overallsafety.

6) Graphical Recorder

A graphical recorder in a PLC (Programmable Logic Controller) system is a

device or software component that records and displays data from the PLC in a

graphical format. This tool is essential for monitoring, analyzing, and troubleshooting
industrial processes in real time.
7)PLC

Fig 1.8 PLC

A Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) is commonly used in carburizing furnaces to

automate and control various aspects of the heat

treatment process. Here's how PLCs are utilized in carburizing furnaces:

1. Temperature Control:

PLCs are used to regulate the temperature inside the furnace by controlling the heating
elements.

2. Process Sequencing and Timing:

PLCs manage the sequence of operations during the carburizing process, including heating,
soaking, and cooling stages.
3. Gas Control:

PLCs regulate the flow of gas into the furnace chamber, maintaining the required
atmosphere for carburizing. They control gas valves and flow meters to ensure accurate gas
flow rates

4. Safety Monitoring and Alarming

PLCs monitor various safety parameters within the furnace, such as temperature, pressure,
and gas levels.

5. Data Logging and Reporting:

PLCs collect data from sensors and process inputs, logging information such as temperature
profiles, cycletimes, and alarm events.

6. Remote Monitoring and Control:

PLCs equipped with communication modules enable remote monitoring and control of the
furnace operation.

FEATURES OF PID CONTROLLER

High accuracy achieved by multi- range input

Multi-range input allows you to choose between the following input types: thermocouple,
resistance
temperature detector (RTD), dc voltage and dc current. Accuracy of ±0.1%FS±1 digit and a
sampling cycle of 0.1s ensures consistently high-precision control.
Wide range of control output types

A wide range of models supporting various control output types are available: relay time
proportional output, position-proportional output, current output, voltage time-proportional
output,
and heat/ cool output.

On models other than heat-cool control output, you can also choose neural net-based

auto-tuning and smart-tuning for inhibiting over- shoot, in addition 2 degrees of freedom PID.

Enhanced compatibility with PLC

12 external switch inputs (eight optional), three event outputs and five-time event outputs
(optional) ensure compatibility with auto- mating systems designed around a PLC core.

Easy operation

Up to eight frequently changed parameter setups can be registered to the PARA key,
facilitating
recall of item setups.
If the Smart Loader Package (sold separately) is used together with the DCP31, programs and
parameters can be set up on a personal computer.
ADVANTAGES OF CLOSE LOOP PID CONTROLLER

1) Enhanced Process Stability

2) Energy Efficiency

3) Consistent Product Quality

4) Enhanced Safety

5) Adaptability to Changing Conditions

6) Data Analysis

1.5 Application:-

In the early history of automatic process control the PID controller was implemented as a
mechanical device. These mechanical controllers used a lever, spring and a mass and were
often energized by compressed air. These pneumatic controllers were once the industry
standard [5].

Electronic analog controllers can be made from a solid-state or tube amplifier, a capacitor and
a resistance. Electronic analog PID control loops were often found within more complex
electronic systems, for example, the head positioning of a disk drive, the power conditioning
of a power supply, or even the movement-detection circuit of a modern seismometer.
Nowadays, electronic controllers have largely been replaced by digital controllers
implemented with microcontrollers or FPGAs.

Most modern PID controllers in industry are implemented in programmable logic controllers
(PLCs) or as a panel-mounted digital controller. Software implementations have the
advantages that they are relatively cheap and are flexible with respect to the implementation
of the PID algorithm .
Chapter 2 STUDY OF PROCESS CONTROL SIMULATOR (PCS 327)

Basic Introduction:-

A process control simulator contains electronic circuits for modifying set-point control
signals by summing, integrating, differentiating and introducing step functions on continuous,
single or periodic bases to determine off-line the behaviour of a process control system [6].
Provisions are made for several interacting control loops, for dead-time delays and for faster
than actual response times to speed up simulation. The dead-time delays are provided by
scanning a set of storage capacitors with a variable speed scanning motor through a scanning
control cycle of operation. A three control loop controller section provides for setting the gain
of the controller system and controlling integration and difference modes responsive to step
disturbances introduced into an integration process after a selectable dead-time adjustment.
The output signal is reproduced in the form of a process response waveform.

It is a special-purpose analogue simulator employing integrated circuit operational amplifiers

laid out in such a manner to allow the principles of process control methods to be taught at
both technician and technological levels. Numerous variable interconnections together with a
rage of non-linear functions make the simulator sufficiently versatile to permit a detailed
study of the dynamic responses of a wide – variety of linear and non-linear processes and the
application of proportional, integral, derivative, two-step, three-step(with and without overlap)
and many other modes of control to the improvement of their performance. At the same time
provision is made for the process characteristics and controller configuration to be preset by
the instructor and the full mimic diagrams concealed by simplified overlays; this helps to
present the ideas of process control in the simplest possible terms to technicians whose
acquaintance with process control methods will be of a more empirical nature.

Basically the motive here is to first, carry the physical investigation of the Process Control
Simulator (PCS 327) and establish the ideal working condition of the device. For this purpose,
first, all the individual Capacitances and Resistances were measured and compared to their
specified values. Secondly, the Proportional, Integral, Page | 17 Derivative units and the Non-
linear units (Limits, Dead-band, Neutral zone) were individually studied and inferences were
drawn. Then, after the ideal working apparatus is established, tuning of the controller is
carried out and matched with the theoretical data from MATLAB to confirm its perfect
working condition. All this is discussed in detail.
Chapter 3 TUNING OF PID CONTROLLER

3.1 Basic Introduction:-

“Tuning” is the engineering work to adjust the parameters of the controller so that the control
system exhibits desired property. Currently, more than half of the controllers used in industry
are PID controllers [5]. In the past, many of these controllers were analog; however, many of
today's controllers use digital signals and computers. When a mathematical model of a
system is available, the parameters of the controller can be explicitly determined. However,
when a mathematical model is unavailable, the parameters must be determined
experimentally. Controller tuning is the process of determining the controller parameters
which produce the desired output. Controller tuning allows for optimization of a process and
minimizes the error between the variable of the process and its set point [5].

Types of controller tuning methods include the trial and error method, and process reaction
curve methods. The most common classical controller tuning methods are the Ziegler-
Nichols and Cohen-Coon methods. These methods are often used when the mathematical
model of the system is not available. The Ziegler-Nichols method can be used for both
closed and open loop systems, while Cohen-Coon is typically used for open loop systems. A
closed-loop control system is a system which uses feedback control. In an open-loop system,
the output is not compared to the input [5].

The equation below shows the PID controller:-.

u(t) = K [ e(t) + + T ( ) ] + b 1 de(t) e(t') dt' T dt

Where,
u is the control signal.
e is the difference between the current value and the set point.
Kc is the gain for a proportional controller.
Ti is the parameter that scales the integral controller.
Td is the parameter that scales the derivative controller.
t is the time taken for error measurement.
b is the set point value of the signal, also known as bias or offset.

Ziegler-Nichols Rules for tuning PID Controller:-

It has been observed that step responses of many processes to which PID controllers are
applied have monotonically increasing characteristics as shown in Figures a and b, so most
traditional design methods for PID controllers have been developed implicitly assuming this
property. However, there exist some processes that exhibit oscillatory responses to step inputs.

Two tuning methods were proposed by Ziegler and Nichols in 1942 and have been widely
utilized either in the original form or in modified forms. One of them, referred to as Ziegler–
Nichols‟ ultimate sensitivity method, is to determine the parameters as given in Table 1 using
the data Kcr and Tcr obtained from the ultimate sensitivity test. The other, referred to as
Ziegler–Nichols‟ step response method, is to assume the model FOPDT and to determine the
parameters of the PID controller as given in Table 2 using the parameters R and L of FOPDT
which are determined from the step response test.
Frequency-domain stability analysis tells that the above way of applying the Ziegler–
Nichols‟ step response method to processes with self-regulation tends to set the parameters
on the safe side, in the sense that the actual gain and phase margins become larger than the
values expected in the case of integrating processes.
These methods to determine PID parameter using empirical formula, as well as several other
tuning methods developed on the same principle, are often referred to as “classical” tuning
methods. Some of the other classical tuning methods are, Chien– Hrones–Reswick formula,
Cohen–Coon formula, refined Ziegler–Nichols tuning, Wang–Juang–Chan formula.

Disadvantage :-

The classical tuning methods explained above have the following features:
• The process is assumed, implicitly (in the case of Ziegler–Nichols‟ ultimate sensitivity
method) or explicitly (in the case of Ziegler–Nichols‟ step response method), to be modelled
by the simple transfer function.
• The optimal values of the PID parameters are given by formulae of the process parameters
that are determined directly and uniquely from experimental data.
The first feature is a weakness of these classical methods, in the sense that the applicable
processes are limited, or in other words that the claimed “optimal” values are not necessarily,
and are sometimes fairly far from, the true optimal in practical situations where the transfer
function is nothing but an approximation of the real process characteristics. Specifically, the
problem is serious when the pure delay L of the process is very short or very long, where
“very short” and “very long” roughly means outside the range 0.05≤L/T≤1.0 [17]. It can be
interpreted as a weakness in the sense that there is no room to improve the results by making
use of more detailed information about the process which is obtainable from theoretical study
and accurate measurement.
Many attempts have been made to make up for these weaknesses of the classical methods.
Many theoretical considerations have been used to develop sophisticated methods that use, as
the basis of tuning, the shape of the frequency response of the return ratio, poles (and zeros)
of the closed-loop transfer function, time-domain performance indices
such as ISE, or frequency-domain performance indices.

3.3 Recent Trends :-

3.3.1 Optimum PID Controller Design:-
Optimum setting algorithms for a PID controller were proposed by Zhuang and Atherton for
various criteria. Consider the general form of the optimum criterion n 2 n 0 J ( ) = [t e( ,t)] dt

Where e(,t) is the error signal which enters the PID controller, with θ the PID controller
parameters. For the system structure shown in Fig. 2, two setting strategies are proposed: one
for the set-point input and the other for the disturbance signal d(t). In particular, three values
of n are discussed, i.e., for n = 0, 1, 2. These three cases correspond, respectively, to three
different optimum criteria: the integral squared error (ISE) criterion, integral squared time
weighted error (ISTE) criterion, and the integral squared time-squared weighted error (IST2E)
criterion.
3.3.2 Automatic tuning of PID Controller:-
In 1984, Astrom and Hagglund proposed an automatic tuning method based on a simple relay
feedback test, using the describing function analysis, the critical gain and the critical
frequency of the system. This method is popularly known as Gain-phase margin (G-P)
method.
This topic was further studied and discussed by Ho, Hang, and Cao in the year 1995.

All this studies on the approach of optimal design of PID controller based on Gain margin,
phase margin have resulted in the following recommended range:
Gain Margin – 2 – 5;
Phase Margin – 30o – 70o
And two important factors that have been considered are:
ROBUSTNESS: larger the phase margin greater is the robustness of the system.

PERFORMANCE: lower the value of ISE better is the performance.

In this study on optimal design of PID Controller, we will be analysing the two technique, on
how they perform to the given specification or range discussed above. The two methods are:
Method - 1 : Based on Gain and Phase margin i.e. numerical solution
Method – 2 : Based on Gain-Phase margin tester method.
Both the method is based on First Order Plus Delay Time (FOPDT) process. It is given by:

3.4 First order delay time process :- A first-order system is one whose output y(t) is
modelled by a first-order differential equation.1 In the Laplace Domain, general first-order
transfer functions are described by Equation: Equation : First-Order Process Dead time (θ) is
the time delay between the process and the sensor. The transfer function for dead time is:
Cause of dead time is:
Transportation lag
Sensor lag
Effect of Dead Time on the system is:
Time delay occurs in the control system when there is a delay between command response
and the start of output response. The delay cause a decrease phase margin which implies a
lower damping ratio and a more oscillatory response for the closeloop system. Further it
decreases the gain margin thus moving the system to instability
Pade‟ approximation is used for approximation of dead time function in FOPDT transfer
function.
FOPDT models are the combination of a first-order process model with dead time.
Where,
K : process gain
T : process time constant
L : dead time constant Frequency response of the dead time:

Example:

Thermal control system is a best example of FOPDT process. A heater takes time
delay to attain the temperature desired or the set-point.

How PID works for this process?

Only very control of temperature can be achieved by causing heater power to be

simply switched on and off according to an under or over temperature condition
respectively. Ultimately, the heater power will be regulated to achieve a desired
system temperature but refinement can be employed to enhance the control accuracy.
Such refinement is available in the form of proportional (P), integral (I), and
derivative (D) functions applied to the control loop. These functions, referred to as
-sL
p K G (s) = e
control “terms” can be used in combination according to system requirements. The
desired temperature is usually referred to as the set-point (SP).
Proportional (P) – A form of anticipatory action which slows the temperature rise
when approaching set-point. Variations are more smoothly corrected but an offset will
occur (between set and achieved temperatures) as conditions very.
Average heater power over a period of time is regulated and applied power is
proportional to the error between sensor temperature and set-point (usually by time
proportioning relay switching). The region over which power is thus varied is called
the Proportional Band (PB) it is usually defined as a percentage of full scale.

Proportional + Integral + Derivative (PID) :-

Adding an integral term and derivative term to P control can provide automatic and
continuous elimination of any offset. Integral action operates in the steady state
condition by shifting the Proportional Band upscale or downscale until the system
temperature and set-point coincide.

It is clear from the above example that to achieve optimum temperature control use of
such PID technique is indispensible.

Thus next we will be studying two technique of optimal design of such PID controller
applied to similar First order plus delay time (FOPDT) process as mentioned above
and we will be analysing the performance of both the method. The controller so
designed would compensate for the instability induced by the delay time and endows
the system with robust safety margin in terms of gain and phase, as well greater
performance by reducing ISE.