Assignment 1: Phase 1
#Seismic Analysis of a Circular Water Storage Tank Using Numerical
Methods
Name: Lindokuhle Mbuyazi
Student Number: 216071402
Course: Honor Civil Engineering
Civil Engineering 4/29/25 Numerical Methods (NMC580S)
Table of Contents
1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 2
2 Derivation of the Acoustic Wave Equation ......................................................... 2
2.1 Wave equation (Helmholtz equation): ........................................................ 2
2.2 Assumptions ............................................................................................. 3
2.3 Limitations................................................................................................. 3
2.4 Applications in Seismic Analysis ................................................................ 4
2.5 Formulation of the Acoustic wave equation for hydrodynamic pressure: ..... 4
3 Analytical solutions (Code-Based Methods) ...................................................... 5
3.1 Impulsive and Convective Pressure Components ...................................... 5
3.1.1 Seismic loading components considered: ........................................... 5
3.1.2 Hydrodynamic Pressure and Base Shear Calculation: ......................... 5
3.2 Methods of analysis: .................................................................................. 5
3.2.1 Eurocode 8 allows for, ........................................................................ 5
3.2.2 Performance Based Design & Risk Classification: ............................... 5
3.3 Simplified Mass-Spring Model ................................................................... 6
3.4 Analysis .................................................................................................... 6
3.5 Mathematical Formulations for Hydrodynamic Pressures ........................... 7
3.5.1 Impulsive Pressure (Pi)....................................................................... 7
3.5.2 Convective (sloshing) Pressure (Pc) ................................................... 8
4 Structural Forces in the Tank Shell ................................................................... 9
4.1 Equations of structural responses (Eurocode) ............................................ 9
4.2 Equations of structural response (New Zealan guideline): .......................... 9
4.3 Hoop Stress Distribution (tank heights) ...................................................... 9
4.4 Shear Forces and Bending Stresses (due to seismic effect) ....................... 9
4.4.1 Shear forces. ...................................................................................... 9
4.4.2 Bending stresses (Moments) ............................................................ 10
5 Conclusion ..................................................................................................... 10
1
1 Introduction
Seismic activity poses a significant threat to water storage infrastructure, particularly circular
above ground tanks commonly used in municipal and industrial systems. During an
earthquake, the dynamic interaction between the fluid and the tank structure induces complex
hydrodynamic pressures, which can cause considerable stress and potential failure if not
accurately assessed and addressed. Understanding these fluid structure interactions’ is critical
for designing resilient and safe water storage systems.
This phase of the project aims to establish the theoretical foundation necessary for analysing
the seismic response of circular water tanks. Specifically, it focuses on the derivation and
application of the acoustic wave equation for fluid motion, as well as the decomposition of
hydrodynamic pressures into impulsive and convective components, in accordance with
international design codes such as Eurocode and the New Zealand guidelines.
By exploring the analytical approaches and structural implications of seismic loading, this
phase sets the groundwork for the numerical modelling and finite element analysis that will
follow. It also ensures a comprehensive understanding of how hydrodynamic forces develop
and act on tank shells during earthquakes, which is essential for accurate simulation and safe
design.
2 Derivation of the Acoustic Wave Equation
2.1 Wave equation (Helmholtz equation):
𝜕𝜌
𝜕𝑡
+ ∇(𝜌𝑉) = 0……………………………... (1) Conservation of Mass
𝜕𝑉
𝜌 + 𝜌(∇𝑉 𝑇 )𝑇 = −∇𝑃…………………… (2) Conservation of momentum
𝜕𝑡
𝑃
𝜌𝛾
= 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 …………………………………... (3) Adiabatic thermodynamical relation
Steady State + Linearization
❖ Steady State denoted by a subscript “Corresponds to the fluid being at rest (𝑉0 = 0)
𝑉(𝑥, 𝑡) 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑉0 + 𝑉(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑉(𝑥, 𝑡)…Substitute into Equation (1)
𝜕𝜌
∴ + 𝜌0 = 0
𝜕𝑡
𝑃(𝑥, 𝑡) 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑃0 + 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑡)…………Substitute into Equation (2)
𝜕𝑉
∴ 𝜌0 = −∇𝑃
𝜕𝑡
ρ(x, t) 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝜌0 + 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑡)
𝑃 𝜌0
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. 𝑃0 + 𝑃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡(𝜌0 + 𝜌)𝛾 = (𝜌 + 𝜌)𝛾
𝜌𝛾 𝜌0 𝛾 0
2
𝑃
𝑃 = 𝜌 0𝛾 (𝜌0 𝛾 + 𝛾𝜌0 𝛾−1 𝜌 + 𝑂(𝜌2 ))………...By tailor expansion
0
𝑃0 𝑃0 𝜕𝑃 𝑃0
P= (𝛾𝜌0
𝛾−1
𝜌) = (𝛾 ) 𝜌 = 𝐶0 2 𝜌 𝐶0 2 = =𝛾
𝜌0 𝛾 𝜌0 𝜕𝜌 𝜌0
Reducing the two equations to make one:
∂ρ 𝜕2 𝜌 𝜕
𝜕t
+ 𝜌0 ∇𝑉 = 0 … … … … … . 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠, 𝜕𝑡 2
+ 𝜌0 𝜕𝑡 ∇. 𝑉 = 0 ………Derived with respect to time.
∂y ∂𝑣
𝜌0 = −∇𝑃 … … … … … . . 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠, 𝜌0 ∇ = −∇. ∇𝑃……………Derived with respect to space.
∂x ∂𝑡
𝜕2𝑃
∴ = 𝐶0 2 ∆𝑃
𝜕𝑡 2
𝝏𝟐 𝑷 𝝏𝟐 𝑷 𝝏𝟐 𝑷
So, ∆𝑷 = 𝛁. 𝛁𝑷 = 𝟐
+ 𝟐
+ ……………………………...Helmholtz equation
𝝏𝑿 𝝏𝒀 𝝏𝒁𝟐
2.2 Assumptions
❖ Assumes wave induced pressure and displacement changes are small relative to
equilibrium values. Nonlinear effects (e.g. large strains near fault zones) are
neglected.
❖ The medium properties (density, sound and speed) are the same in all directions and
constant throughout the domain.
❖ No viscosity or shear stresses considered. Only compressional (P-waves) propagate,
no shear (S-waves)
❖ Assumes continuous and differentiable wavefields, which breaks down at sharp
material boundaries or at seismic sources.
2.3 Limitations
❖ Neglect of shear (S wave) components such the acoustic wave equation models only
P-waves, missing critical ground motion behaviour carried by S-waves and surface
waves in solids.
❖ Fails in soft, near surface soils or near fault zones where large deformations,
liquefaction, or plasticity occur.
❖ Assume simple domains; complex topography, irregular basins, and free surface
effects need advanced formulations.
❖ Ignores material damping which significantly affects seismic attenuation over
distance.
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2.4 Applications in Seismic Analysis
Despite limitations, the acoustic wave equation finds useful application in:
❖ Estimating travel times and P-wave velocities in water saturated soils or underground
cavities.
❖ Modelling wave propagation through underground water bodies, or in marine seismic
surveys.
❖ Estimating natural frequencies of water reservoirs or fluid filled basins under seismic
excitation.
❖ Analysing interaction of compressional waves with structures (like pipelines in water
saturated soils)
❖ Predicting P-wave driven liquefaction phenomena in submerged sands and silts.
2.5 Formulation of the Acoustic wave equation for hydrodynamic pressure:
Acoustic wave equation is a partial differential equation for the sound pressure function P in
terms of space X and time t.
𝜕2 1 𝜕2
𝑃(𝑥, 𝑡) = 2 2 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑡)
𝜕𝑥 𝐶 𝜕𝑡
Where,
𝛾𝑃0
𝐶=√ … 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑
𝜌0
𝛾 = 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝑃0 = 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝜌0 = 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
The acoustic wave equation can be obtained by combining the three equations.
Combining equation (1) and (2):
𝜕2 𝜕 2 𝜌 − 𝜌0
𝑃 = 𝜌0 2 ( )
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑡 𝜌0
Combining equation (2) and (3):
𝜕2 𝜌0 𝛾 2 𝑃 − 𝑃0
𝑃 = × ( )
𝜕𝑥 2 𝛾 𝜕𝑡 2 𝑃0
𝑃 = 𝑃 − 𝑃0
4
𝜕2 1 𝜕2 𝛾𝜌0
𝑃 = × 𝑃, 𝐶=√
𝜕𝑥 2 𝛾𝑃 2
( 𝜌 0 ) 𝜕𝑡 𝜌0
0
𝜕2 1 𝜕2
∴ 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑡) = 2 2 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑡) … … … … … … … … … … acoustic wave equation
𝜕𝑥 𝐶 𝜕𝑡
Where , P = (x,y,z,t)……………………………hydrodynamic pressure fluctuation
3 Analytical solutions (Code-Based Methods)
3.1 Impulsive and Convective Pressure Components
3.1.1 Seismic loading components considered:
Eurocode 8 New Zealand
Separate seismic actions into impulse and Same approach distinct modelling for
convective (sloshing) components. impulsive (tank wall movement) and
convective (fluid sloshing) modes.
Include both horizontal and vertical Primary horizontal, with vertical effects
components of ground motion considered as 0.7 x horizontal components.
3.1.2 Hydrodynamic Pressure and Base Shear Calculation:
Eurocode 8 New Zealand
Uses spring-mass idealizations to represent Same mechanical analogy spring-mass
the impulsive and convective components system for impulsive and convective
masses attached to tank walls or free
surfaces
Specifies formulas for hydrodynamic Similar details hydrodynamic pressure
pressure distribution on tank walls and base distributions and base shear using
shears established empirical formulas
3.2 Methods of analysis:
3.2.1 Eurocode 8 allows for,
❖ Lateral force method (static)
❖ Modal response spectrum analysis
❖ Non-linear time-history analysis (for complex or critical tasks):
• Primarily uses lateral force method or response spectrum analysis, tailored to
tank type and seismic zone.
• Requires soil structure interaction effects, particularly for buried or embedded
tanks.
3.2.2 Performance Based Design & Risk Classification:
Eurocode 8 New Zealand
Introduces importance classes (I-IV) based Defines importance levels (1-4) with
on potential consequences of failure. corresponding return period factors (Ru)
Adjusts design factors and return periods and design loads. Tailored to New
accordingly. Zealand’s seismic risk profile.
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3.3 Simplified Mass-Spring Model
When an earthquake occurs, the ground motion causes the fluid inside a tank to move in
complex ways. Directly modelling this interaction using full fluid-structure interaction (FSI)
analysis is computationally intense, so engineers simplify the problem by replacing the tank
and fluid system with an equivalent system of lumped masses and springs that approximate
the dynamic behaviour. The total fluid mass is spitted into two components:
• Impulsive Mass (Mi) which is the portion of fluid that moves rigidly with the tank wall,
Stiffness (Ki) of the tank walls and fluid inertia, and Damping ratio ζi.
• Convective (or Sloshing) Mass (Mc) that is portion of fluid that oscillates relative to
the tank walls, creating surface waves. Stiffness (Kc) which depends on fluid depth
and tank dimensions, and very low damping ratio.
The method can be used estimate the Hydrodynamic Pressure once the masses and
stiffness are determined:
1. Calculate the natural periods of each mode using:
𝑀
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝐾
2. Use design response spectra from Eurocode to find the corresponding spectral
accelerations for those periods.
3. Multiply the masses by the spectral accelerations to obtain the dynamic forces
(base shears).
4. Compute the hydrodynamic pressure distributions on tank walls based on these
forces, typically assuming or sinusoidal pressure distributions.
The advantages of this method
❖ Simple and practical
❖ Avoids complex numerical fluid structure interaction models.
❖ Compatible with standard seismic design codes (Eurocode and New Zealand
guideline)
3.4 Analysis
Impulsive pressure represents the portion of hydrodynamic pressure generated by the part
of the liquid that moves rigidly with the tank wall during seismic ground motion. It acts
directly in phase with the ground motion and the tank wall displacement. It generally
increases linearly from zero at the free surface to a maximum at the base:
𝑃𝑖 (𝑧) = 𝐶𝑖 . 𝜌. ℎ. 𝑎𝑔
Where:
❖ 𝑃𝑖 (𝑧) = impulsive pressure at depth 𝑧
❖ 𝐶𝑖 = shape-dependent pressure coefficient.
❖ 𝜌 = fluid density
❖ ℎ = fluid height
❖ 𝑎𝑔 = peak ground acceleration (PGA)
6
The convective pressure results from the oscillatory or sloshing motion of the free surface of
the liquid during an earthquake. It behaves as a long-period harmonic motion and is typically
out of phase with the ground motion. It varies with both time and depth, peaking near the
free surface:
𝑃𝑐 (𝑧) = 𝐶𝑐 . 𝜌 . ℎ . 𝑎𝑔
Where:
❖ 𝑃𝑐 (𝑧) = convective pressure at depth 𝑧
❖ 𝐶𝑐 = shape-dependent coefficient for sloshing mode.
❖ 𝑎𝑐 = peak convective acceleration (from sloshing response spectrum)
The total pressure on the tank wall at any depth 𝑧 is the sum of impulsive and convective
pressures:
𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 (𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝑃𝑖 (𝑧, 𝑡) + 𝑃𝑐 (𝑧, 𝑡)…………Hydrodynamic Pressure.
Aspect Impulsive Pressure (𝑷𝒊 ) Convective Pressure (𝑷𝒄 )
Source Fluid moving with the tank Fluid sloshing relative to tank
Damping 2-5% 0.5%
Pressure Distribution Max at base, zero at surface Max at free surface, decays
downward
Period Short, matches wall motion Lond, depend on fluid depth
Characteristics Associated with the rigid Associated with the sloshing
motion of fluid near the tank of liquid relative to the tank
wall And Exerts pressure from wall And Pressure is highest
the base up to a certain height at the free surface and
within the fluid. reduces toward the base
3.5 Mathematical Formulations for Hydrodynamic Pressures
3.5.1 Impulsive Pressure (Pi)
𝑃𝑖 (𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝜌 . 𝐶𝑖 (𝑧). 𝑎𝑔 (𝑡)………………formulation for vertical tank wall.
Where:
𝑃𝑖 (𝑧, 𝑡) =impulsive pressure at depth 𝑧 and time 𝑡
𝜌 = fluid density
𝐶𝑖 (𝑧) = depth dependent pressure coefficient
𝑎𝑔 (𝑡) = ground acceleration at time 𝑡
Critical Remarks:
Strengths
-Simple, code-supported, and conservative for small to medium tanks
7
-Suitable for preliminary seismic design
Limitations
-Assumes rigid movement of fluid with tank walls.
-Neglects fluid compressibility and wall flexibility unless explicitly modelled.
-Best suited for full or near-full tanks less accurate for partially filled tanks.
3.5.2 Convective (sloshing) Pressure (Pc)
𝑃𝑐 (𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝜌. 𝐶𝑐 (𝑧). 𝑎𝑐 (𝑡)……. Formulation for vertical tank walls
Where:
❖ 𝑃𝑐 (𝑧, 𝑡) = convective pressure at depth 𝑧 and time 𝑡
❖ 𝐶𝑐 (𝑧) = depth-dependent sloshing pressure coefficient
❖ 𝑎𝑐 (𝑡) = sloshing (convective) acceleration from the response spectrum at the
sloshing natural period
Critical Remarks:
❖ Strength
-Captures long-period fluid sloshing effects critical for large, shallow tanks.
-Important for estimating uplift and wave crest amplitudes
❖ Limitations
-Assumes small amplitude free surface oscillations
-Neglects fluid viscosity, wall deformation effects on sloshing frequency
-Damping ratio is typically underestimated
𝑀
𝑇𝑖 = 2𝜋√ 𝐾 𝑖…………..Impulsive Mode Period (Ti)
𝑖
2𝜋𝐻
𝑇𝑖 = ………..Convective Mode Period (Tc)
√𝑔.tanh (𝑘𝐻)
𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 (𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝑃𝑖 (𝑧, 𝑡) + 𝑃𝑖 (𝑧, 𝑡)…………Total Hydrodynamic Pressure
Where:
H = fluid depth
g = gravitational acceleration
𝜋
𝑘 = wave number, 𝑘 = 𝐷
for first sloshing mode in a cylindrical tank of diameter D
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4 Structural Forces in the Tank Shell
4.1 Equations of structural responses (Eurocode)
∞
1. 𝑃𝑖 (𝑟, 𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝜌𝐻 ∑ 𝜓𝑛 (𝑟, 𝑧)cos (𝜃)𝐴𝑔𝑛 (𝑡)……Rigid Impulsive Pressure (Eqn. A.1)
𝑛=0
2. 𝑃𝑐1 (𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝑞𝑐1 (𝑧)𝜌𝐿𝐴1 (𝑡)…………………Convection(sloshing) Pressure (Eqn. A.45)
∞
3. 𝑃𝑓 (𝜍, 𝜃, 𝑡) = 𝜌𝐻𝜓𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ∑ 𝑑𝑛 cos (𝑉𝑛 𝜍)𝐴𝑓𝑛 (𝑡)………Flexible wall Pressure (Eqn. A19)
𝑛=0
4.2 Equations of structural response (New Zealan guideline):
1. 𝑃(𝑧, 𝜃, 𝑡) = 𝑃𝑖 (𝑧, 𝜃, 𝑡) + 𝑃𝑐 (𝑧, 𝜃, 𝑡)……...rigid vertical circular cylindrical tank
2. 𝑃𝑖 (𝑧, 𝜃) = 𝑞0 (𝑧). 𝐶𝑑 (Ť0 )𝛾𝑙 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃………. Impulse Pressure (Rigid Tank)
3. 𝑃𝑖 (𝑧, 𝜃) = 𝑞0 (𝑧) 𝐶𝑑 (Ť𝑓 ) 𝛾𝑙 𝑅𝑚 cos 𝜃……. Impulsive pressure (flexible Tank)
∞
4. 𝑃𝑐 (𝑧, 𝜃, 𝑡) = ∑ [𝑞𝑗 (𝑧)𝑎𝑗 (𝑡)]𝛾𝑙𝑅 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 …...Convective pressure
𝑗=1
4.3 Hoop Stress Distribution (tank heights)
❖ Base of a tank shell:
• Maximum hoop tensile stress typically occurs at the base, where
hydrodynamic pressures and overturing moments are greatest.
• Risk of elephant’s foot buckling due to biaxial stress state (vertical
compression + hoop tension).
❖ Mid-height to Top:
• Hoop stress generally reduces upward due to lower dynamic pressure.
• For tanks with variable wall thickness, verification must be performed at all
segments with constant thickness.
4.4 Shear Forces and Bending Stresses (due to seismic effect)
4.4.1 Shear forces.
Eurocode:
𝑄𝑖 (𝑡) = 𝑚𝑖 . 𝐴𝑔𝑖 (𝑡)…………...Impulsive base shear (Eqn. A.3)
∞
𝑄𝑐 (𝑡) = ∑𝑛=0 𝑚𝑐𝑛 𝐴𝑐𝑛 (𝑡)……Convection base shear (Eqn. A.11)
New Zealand:
𝑉 = 𝐶𝑑 (Ť0 ). 𝑚𝑡 . 𝑔…………………...Base shear (for rigid tank)
𝑉 = 𝛽1 . 𝐶𝑑 (Ť𝑓 ). 𝑚𝑡 . 𝑔………………. Base shear (for flexible tank)
9
These equations decompose seismic loading into modal components that represent how
fluid masses such as (impulsive and convective) and flexible tank wall segments respond to
seismic motion. They used for:
• Estimating total horizontal loads at the base of the tank
• Designing foundations, anchor bolts, and base plates.
• Applying lateral seismic loads to shell models in dynamic or equivalent static analysis
4.4.2 Bending stresses (Moments)
𝑀𝑖 (𝑡) = 𝑚𝑖 . 𝐴𝑔𝑖 (𝑡). ℎ𝑖 ………Moment above base plate (impulsive)
∞
𝑀𝑐 (𝑡) = ∑𝑛=1 𝑄𝑐𝑛 (t)ℎ𝑐𝑛 …...Moment above base plate (convective)
𝑀𝑇
𝑓𝑧𝑝 = 𝑍𝑇
…………..vertical bending stress
𝑓𝑧𝑒 = √𝑓𝑧𝑖 2 + 𝑓𝑧𝑙 2 + 𝑓𝑧𝑣 2………Combined vertical seismic Stress.
They used for:
• Checking flexural yielding of the shell
• Verifying against elastic-plastic buckling
• Sizing wall thickness to resist moment demand.
5 Conclusion
This report reviews the key theoretical concepts governing the seismic analysis of water tanks,
including the derivation of the acoustic wave equation, the formulation of impulsive and
convective hydrodynamic pressure components, and the structural response equations for
hoop stresses, shear forces, and bending moments in tank shells. These principles form the
foundation for reliably predicting the dynamic interaction between fluid and structure under
seismic loading.
These theoretical foundations directly support the development of numerical models in tools
like MATLAB and Abaqus. Understanding the wave equation and pressure formulations
ensures accurate finite element modelling of fluid domains, while the force and stress
equations guid the validation of numerical results and post-processing interpretation in later
simulation phases.
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